Starlark Language Specification

Starlark is a dialect of Python intended for use as a configuration language. A Starlark interpreter is typically embedded within a larger application, and this application may define additional domain-specific functions and data types beyond those provided by the core language. For example, Starlark is embedded within (and was originally developed for) the Bazel build tool.

This document was derived from the description of the Go implementation of Starlark. It was influenced by the Python specification, Copyright 1990–2017, Python Software Foundation, and the Go specification, Copyright 2009–2017, The Go Authors. It is now maintained by the Bazel team.

Overview

Starlark is an untyped dynamic language with high-level data types, first-class functions with lexical scope, and automatic memory management or garbage collection.

Starlark is strongly influenced by Python, Starlark syntax is a strict subset of Python and Starlark semantics is almost a subset of that language. In particular, its data types and syntax for statements and expressions will be very familiar to any Python programmer. However, Starlark is intended not for writing applications but for expressing configuration: its programs are short-lived and have no external side effects and their main result is structured data or side effects on the host application.

Starlark is intended to be simple. There are no user-defined types, no inheritance, no reflection, no exceptions, no explicit memory management. Execution is finite. The language does not allow recursion or unbounded loops.

Starlark is suitable for use in highly parallel applications. An application may invoke the Starlark interpreter concurrently from many threads, without the possibility of a data race, because shared data structures become immutable due to freezing.

The language is deterministic and hermetic. Executing the same file with the same interpreter leads to the same result. By default, user code cannot interact with the environment.

Overview
Contents
Lexical elements
Data types
- None
- Booleans
- Integers
- Floating-point numbers
- Strings
- Bytes
- Lists
- Tuples
- Dictionaries
- Sets
- Functions
- Built-in functions
Name binding and variables
Value concepts
Expressions
Statements
Module execution
Built-in constants and functions
- None
- True and False
- abs
- any
- all
- bool
- bytes
- dict
- dir
- enumerate
- fail
- float
- getattr
- hasattr
- hash
- int
- len
- list
- max
- min
- print
- range
- repr
- reversed
- set
- sorted
- str
- tuple
- type
- zip
Built-in methods
Grammar reference

Lexical elements

Starlark syntax (but not semantics) is a strict subset of Python syntax. Practically it means, tools working with Python AST can be used to work with Starlark files.

A Starlark program consists of one or more modules. Each module is defined by a single UTF-8-encoded text file.

Starlark grammar is introduced gradually throughout this document as shown below, and a complete Starlark grammar reference is provided at the end.

Grammar notation:

- lowercase and 'quoted' items are lexical tokens.
- Capitalized names denote grammar productions.
- (...) implies grouping.
- x | y means either x or y.
- [x] means x is optional.
- {x} means x is repeated zero or more times.
- The end of each declaration is marked with a period.

The contents of a Starlark file are broken into a sequence of tokens of five kinds: white space, punctuation, keywords, identifiers, and literals. Each token is formed from the longest sequence of characters that would form a valid token of each kind.

File = {Statement | newline} eof .

White space consists of spaces (U+0020), tabs (U+0009), carriage returns (U+000D), and newlines (U+000A). Within a line, white space has no effect other than to delimit the previous token, but newlines, and spaces at the start of a line, are significant tokens.

Comments: A hash character (#) appearing outside of a string or bytes literal marks the start of a comment; the comment extends to the end of the line, not including the newline character. Comments are treated like other white space.

Punctuation: The following punctuation characters or sequences of characters are tokens:

+    -    *    /    //   %    **
~    &    |    ^    <<   >>
.    ,    =    ;    :
(    )    [    ]    {    }
<    >    >=   <=   ==   !=
+=   -=   *=   /=   //=  %=
&=   |=   ^=   <<=  >>=

Keywords: The following tokens are keywords and may not be used as identifiers:

and            else           load
break          for            not
continue       if             or
def            in             pass
elif           lambda         return

The tokens below also may not be used as identifiers although they do not appear in the grammar; they are reserved as possible future keywords:

as             global
assert         import
async          is
await          nonlocal
class          raise
del            try
except         while
finally        with
from           yield

Identifiers: an identifier is a sequence of Unicode letters, decimal digits, and underscores (_), not starting with a digit. Identifiers are used as names for values.

Examples:

None    True    len
x       index   starts_with     arg0

Literals: literals are tokens that denote specific values. Starlark has integer, floating-point, string, and bytes literals.

0                               # int
123                             # decimal int
0x7f                            # hexadecimal int
0o755                           # octal int

0.0     0.       .0             # float
1e10    1e+10    1e-10
1.1e10  1.1e+10  1.1e-10

"hello"      'hello'            # string
'''hello'''  """hello"""        # triple-quoted string
r'hello'     r"hello"           # raw string literal

b"hello"     b'hello'           # bytes
b'''hello''' b"""hello"""       # triple-quoted bytes
rb'hello'    br"hello"          # raw bytes literal

Integer and floating-point literal tokens are defined by the following grammar:

int         = decimal_lit | octal_lit | hex_lit | 0 .
decimal_lit = ('1' … '9') {decimal_digit} .
octal_lit   = '0' ('o' | 'O') octal_digit {octal_digit} .
hex_lit     = '0' ('x' | 'X') hex_digit {hex_digit} .

float     = decimals '.' [decimals] [exponent]
          | decimals exponent
          | '.' decimals [exponent]
          .
decimals  = decimal_digit {decimal_digit} .
exponent  = ('e'|'E') ['+'|'-'] decimals .

decimal_digit = '0' … '9' .
octal_digit   = '0' … '7' .
hex_digit     = '0' … '9' | 'A' … 'F' | 'a' … 'f' .

It is a static error if a floating-point literal denotes a value whose magnitude is too large to be represented as a finite float value.

String literals

A Starlark string literal denotes a string value. In its simplest form, it consists of the desired text surrounded by matching single- or double-quotation marks:

"abc"
'abc'

Literal occurrences of the chosen quotation mark character must be escaped by a preceding backslash. So, if a string contains several of one kind of quotation mark, it may be convenient to quote the string using the other kind, as in these examples:

'Have you read "To Kill a Mockingbird?"'
"Yes, it's a classic."
"Have you read \"To Kill a Mockingbird?\""
'Yes, it\'s a classic.'

String escapes

Within a string literal, the backslash character \ indicates the start of an escape sequence, a notation for expressing things that are impossible or awkward to write directly.

The following traditional escape sequences represent the ASCII control codes 7-13:

\a   \x07 alert or bell
\b   \x08 backspace
\f   \x0C form feed
\n   \x0A line feed
\r   \x0D carriage return
\t   \x09 horizontal tab
\v   \x0B vertical tab

A literal backslash is written using the escape \\.

An escaped newline---that is, a backslash at the end of a line---is ignored, allowing a long string to be split across multiple lines of the source file.

"abc\
def"			# "abcdef"

An octal escape encodes a single string element using its octal value. It consists of a backslash followed by one, two, or three octal digits [0-7]. Simiarly, a hexadecimal escape encodes a single string element using its hexadecimal value. It consists of \x followed by two hexadecimal digits [0-9a-fA-F]. It is an error if the value of an octal or hexadecimal escape is greater than decimal 127.

'\0'			# "\x00"  a string containing a single NUL element
'\12'			# "\n"    octal 12 = decimal 10
'\101-\132'		# "A-Z"
'\119'			# "\t9"   = "\11" + "9"

'\x00'			# "\x00"  a string containing a single NUL element
'\x0A'			# "\n"    hexadecimal A = decimal 10
"\x41-\x5A"             # "A-Z"

A Unicode escape denotes the UTF-K encoding of a single, valid Unicode code point, where K is the implementation-defined number of bits in each string element (see strings). The \uXXXX form, with exactly four hexadecimal digits, denotes a 16-bit code point, and the \UXXXXXXXX, with exactly eight digits, denotes a 32-bit code point. It is an error if the value lies in the surrogate range (U+D800 to U+DFFF) or is greater than U+10FFFF.

'\u0041'		# "A", an ASCII letter (U+0041)
'\u0414' 		# "Д", a Cyrillic capital letter (U+0414)
'\u754c                 # "界", a Chinese character (U+754C)
'\U0001F600'            # "😀", an Emoji (U+1F600)

The length of the encoding of a single Unicode code point may vary based on the implementation's value of K:

len("A") 		# 1
len("Д") 		# 2 (UTF-8) or 1 (UTF-16)
len("界")               # 3 (UTF-8) or 1 (UTF-16)
len("😀")               # 4 (UTF-8) or 2 (UTF-16)

Although string values may be capable of representing any sequence of elements, string literals can denote only sequences of UTF-K code units that are valid encodings of text. (Any literal syntax capable of representing arbitrary element sequences would inherently be non-portable across implementations.) Consequently, when the repr function is applied to a string containing an invalid encoding, its result is not a valid string literal.

An ordinary string literal may not contain an unescaped newline, but a multiline string literal may spread over multiple source lines. It is denoted using three quotation marks at start and end. Within it, unescaped newlines and quotation marks (or even pairs of quotation marks) have their literal meaning, but three quotation marks end the literal. This makes it easy to quote large blocks of text with few escapes.

haiku = '''
Yesterday it worked.
Today it is not working.
That's computers. Sigh.
'''

Regardless of the platform's convention for text line endings---for example, a linefeed (\n) on UNIX, or a carriage return followed by a linefeed (\r\n) on Microsoft Windows---an unescaped line ending in a multiline string literal always denotes a line feed (\n).

Starlark also supports raw string literals, which look like an ordinary single- or double-quotation preceded by r. Within a raw string literal, there is no special processing of backslash escapes, other than an escaped quotation mark (which denotes a literal quotation mark), or an escaped newline (which denotes a backslash followed by a newline). This form of quotation is typically used when writing strings that contain many quotation marks or backslashes (such as regular expressions or shell commands) to reduce the burden of escaping:

"a\nb"		# "a\nb"  = 'a' + '\n' + 'b'
r"a\nb"		# "a\\nb" = 'a' + '\\' + 'n' + 'b'
"a\
b"		# "ab"
r"a\
b"		# "a\\\nb"

It is an error for a backslash to appear within a string literal other than as part of one of the escapes described above.

Bytes literals

A Starlark bytes literal denotes a bytes value, and looks like a string literal, in any of its various forms (single-quoted, double-quoted, triple-quoted, raw) preceded by the letter b.

b"abc"       b'abc'
b"""abc"""   b'''abc'''
br"abc"      br'abc'
rb"abc"      rb'abc'

A raw bytes literal may be indicated by either a br or rb prefix.

Non-escaped text within a bytes literal denotes the UTF-8 encoding of that text. Bytes literals support the same escape sequences as text strings, with the following differences:

Octal and hexadecimal escapes may specify any byte value from zero (\000 or \x00) to 255 (\377 or \xFF).
A Unicode escape \uXXXX or \UXXXXXXXX denotes the byte sequence of the UTF-8 encoding of the specified 16- or 32-bit code point. (As with text strings, the code point value must not lie in the surrogate range.)

Any valid string literal that, with a b prefix, is also a valid bytes literal is equivalent in the sense that the bytes value is the UTF-8 encoding of the string value.

Special tokens

Starlark is space-sensitive language, and indentation is used to denote a block of statements.

Unlike Python, indentation can only be composed of space characters (U+0020), not tabs.

TODO: define indent, outdent, semicolon, newline, eof

Data types

These are the main data types built in to the interpreter:

NoneType                     # the type of None
bool                         # True or False
int                          # a signed integer of arbitrary magnitude
float                        # an IEEE 754 double-precision floating-point number
string                       # a text string, with Unicode encoded as UTF-8 or UTF-16
bytes                        # a byte string
list                         # a sequence of values, usually homogeneous in nature
tuple                        # an unmodifiable sequence of values
dict                         # an associative mapping from keys to values
set                          # a collection of unique values
function                     # a function

Some functions, such as the range function, return instances of special-purpose types that don't appear in this list. Additional data types may be defined by the host application into which the interpreter is embedded, and those data types may participate in basic operations of the language such as arithmetic, comparison, indexing, and function calls.

Some operations, like bool(x) or str(x), can be applied to any Starlark value, while others, like integer indexing a[i], apply only to certain types. The value concepts section explains the groupings of types by the operators they support.

None

None is a distinguished value used to indicate the absence of any other value. For example, the result of a call to a function that contains no return statement is None.

None is equal only to itself. Its type is "NoneType". The truth value of None is False.

Booleans

There are two Boolean values, True and False, representing the truth or falsehood of a predicate. The type of a Boolean is "bool".

Boolean values are typically used as conditions in if statements, although any Starlark value may be used in this way. Aside from False itself, the following core language values are considered false in a condition:

None
numerical 0 (0, 0.0 and -0.0)
the empty string ("") and empty bytes (b"")
the empty collections [], (), {}, and set()

All other core language values are considered true. Application-defined types determine their own truth value.

Any value may be explicitly converted to a Boolean using the built-in bool function.

True and False may be converted to the values 1 and 0 using the int function, but Booleans are not numbers. Testing a non-Boolean value for equality to a Boolean using == returns False, regardless of whether they have the same truth value.

"A" if 1 + 1 else "B"                   # "A"
"A" if 0.0 else "B"                     # "B"

if not mylist:
    empty = True

1 == True                               # False
bool(1) == True                         # True

Integers

The Starlark integer type represents integers. Its type is "int".

Integers may be positive or negative, and arbitrarily large. Integer arithmetic is exact. Integers are totally ordered; comparisons follow mathematical tradition.

The + and - operators perform addition and subtraction, respectively. The * operator performs multiplication.

The // and % operations on integers compute floored division and remainder of floored division, respectively. If the signs of the operands differ, the sign of the remainder x % y matches that of the divisor, y. For all finite x and y (y ≠ 0), (x // y) * y + (x % y) == x. The / operator implements floating-point division, and yields a float result even when its operands are both of type int.

Integers, including negative values, may be interpreted as bit vectors. Negative values use two's complement representation. The |, &, and ^ operators implement bitwise OR, AND, and XOR, respectively. The unary ~ operator yields the bitwise inversion of its integer argument. The << and >> operators shift the first argument to the left or right by the number of bits given by the second argument.

Any bool, number, or string may be interpreted as an integer by using the int built-in function.

An integer used in a Boolean context is considered true if it is non-zero.

100 // 5 * 9 + 32               # 212
3 // 2                          # 1
111111111 * 111111111           # 12345678987654321
int("0xffff", 16)               # 65535

Floating-point numbers

The Starlark floating-point data type represents an IEEE 754 double-precision floating-point number. Its type is "float".

Arithmetic on floats using the +, -, *, /, //, and % operators follows the IEEE 754 standard. However, computing the division or remainder of division by zero is a dynamic error.

An arithmetic operation applied to a mixture of float and int operands works as if the int operand were first converted to a float. For example, 3.141 + 1 is equivalent to 3.141 + float(1). The implicit conversion fails if the int value is too large to be represented as a float.

There are two floating-point division operators: x / y yields the floating-point quotient of x and y, whereas x // y yields floor(x / y), that is, the largest representable integer value not greater than x / y. Although the resulting number is integral, it is represented as a float if either operand is a float.

The % operation computes the remainder of floored division. As with the corresponding operation on integers, if the signs of the operands differ, the sign of the remainder x % y matches that of the divisor, y.

All float values are ordered, so they may be compared using operators such as == and <, and sorted using sorted.

IEEE 754 defines two zero values, +0.0 and -0.0. They compare equal to each other.

IEEE 754 defines two infinite float values +Inf and -Inf, which represent numbers greater/less than all finite float values.

IEEE 754 defines many "not a number" (NaN) values. They are non-finite, and represent the results of dubious operations such as Inf / Inf. All NaN values compare equal to each other, but greater than any non-NaN float value. (Starlark does not follow the IEEE 754 standard for NaN comparisons, which requires that all comparisons with NaN are false, except NaN != NaN.)

A comparison operation may be applied to a mixture of int and float values. The result of such comparisons is mathematically exact, even if neither operand can be exactly represented by the type of the other.

(type(1.0), type(1))            # ("float", "int")
1.0 == 1			# True

big = (1<<53)+1			# first int not exactly representable as float
(big + 0.0) == big		# False (addition caused rounding down)
(big + 0.0) - big		# 0.0   (both operands subject to rounding down)

Any bool, number, or string may be interpreted as a floating-point number by using the float built-in function.

A float used in a Boolean context is considered true if it is non-zero (not equal to 0.0 or -0.0). A NaN value is thus considered true.

1.23e45 * 1.23e45                               # 1.5129e+90
1.111111111111111 * 1.111111111111111           # 1.23457
3.0 / 2                                         # 1.5
3 / 2.0                                         # 1.5
float(3) / 2                                    # 1.5
3.0 // 2.0                                      # 1.0

Strings

A string is an immutable array of elements that encode Unicode text. The type of a string is "string".

For reasons of efficiency and interoperability with the host language, the number of bits in each string element, which we call K, is specified to be either 8 or 16, depending on the implementation. For example, in the Go and Rust implementations, each string element is an 8-bit value (a byte) and Unicode text is encoded as UTF-8, whereas in the Java implementation, string elements are 16-bit values (Java chars) and Unicode text is encoded as UTF-16.

An implementation may permit strings to hold arbitrary values of the element type, including sequences that do not encode valid Unicode text; or, it may disallow invalid sequences, and operations that would form them.

The built-in len function returns the number of elements in a string.

Strings may be concatenated with the + operator.

Strings support indexing and slicing. The result of both operations is another string (with length 1, in the case of indexing).

Strings are hashable, and thus may be used as keys in a dictionary.

Strings are totally ordered lexicographically, so strings may be compared using operators such as == and <. (Beware that the UTF-16 string encoding is not order-preserving with respect to code point values.)

Strings are not iterable, so they cannot be used as the operand of a for loop or of methods that expect iterables (such as the list() constructor). One must instead explicitly call a method of a string value to obtain an iterable view of its elements. Because strings are not iterable, they are not considered to be subtypes of Collection or Sequence. (Starlark deviates from Python here to avoid a common pitfall in which a single string is mistakenly used where a list of strings was intended, resulting in exploding the string into its individual characters.)

Any value may formatted as a string using the str or repr built-in functions, the str % tuple operator, or the str.format method.

A string used in a Boolean context is considered true if it is non-empty.

Strings have several built-in methods:

capitalize
count
elems
endswith
find
format
index
isalnum
isalpha
isdigit
islower
isspace
istitle
isupper
join
lower
lstrip
partition
removeprefix
removesuffix
replace
rfind
rindex
rpartition
rsplit
rstrip
split
splitlines
startswith
strip
title
upper

Bytes

A bytes is an immutable array of integers in the range 0-255. The type of a bytes is "bytes".

Unlike a string, which is intended for text, a bytes may represent binary data, such as the contents of an arbitrary file, without loss.

The built-in len function returns the number of elements (bytes) in a bytes.

Two bytes values may be concatenated with the + operator.

Bytes may be indexed and sliced. The result of indexing is the value of the byte at the given position, as an integer. The result of slicing is another bytes object.

The comparison x in b, where b is a bytes value and x is an integer in the range [0, 255], tests whether x's value is an element of b. If x is instead another bytes value, the comparison tests whether x is contained as a consecutive subsequence of b (analogous to substrings of a string). It is an error if x is an out-of-range integer, or any other type of value.

Like strings, bytes values are hashable, totally ordered, and considered True if they are non-empty. They are not iterable, and not a subtype of Collection nor Sequence.

A bytes value has these methods:

elems

TODO(https://github.com/bazelbuild/starlark/issues/112)
- more methods: likely the same as string (minus those concerned with text):
    join
    {start,end}with
    {r,}{find,index,partition,split,strip}
    replace
TODO: encode, decode methods?
TODO: ord, chr.
TODO: string.elems(), string.elem_ords(), string.codepoint_ords()

Lists

A list is a mutable sequence of values. The type of a list is "list".

Lists are a subtype of Sequence. The number of elements may be retrieved with the built-in len() function. Lists can be indexed to retrieve a single element, and sliced to produce a new list. Lists can be iterated over by for loops.

List may be constructed using bracketed list notation:

[]              # an empty list
[1]             # a 1-element list
[1, 2]          # a 2-element list

Lists can also be constructed from any iterable by using the built-in list function.

List elements may be added using the append or extend methods, removed using the remove method, or reordered by assignments such as list[i] = list[j].

The concatenation operation x + y yields a new list containing all the elements of the two lists x and y.

For most types, x += y is equivalent to x = x + y, except that it evaluates x only once, that is, it allocates a new list to hold the concatenation of x and y. However, if x refers to a list, the statement does not allocate a new list but instead mutates the original list in place, similar to x.extend(y).

Lists are not hashable, so may not be used in the keys of a dictionary.

A list used in a Boolean context is considered true if it is non-empty.

A list comprehension creates a new list whose elements are the result of some expression applied to each element of another sequence.

[x*x for x in [1, 2, 3, 4]]      # [1, 4, 9, 16]

A list value has these methods:

append
clear
extend
index
insert
pop
remove

Tuples

A tuple is an immutable sequence of values. The type of a tuple is "tuple".

Like lists, tuple is a subtype of Sequence, and supports the same len(), indexing, slicing, and iteration operations. A slice of a tuple returns another tuple.

Tuples are constructed using parenthesized list notation:

()                      # the empty tuple
(1,)                    # a 1-tuple
(1, 2)                  # a 2-tuple ("pair")
(1, 2, 3)               # a 3-tuple

Observe that for the 1-tuple, the trailing comma is necessary to distinguish it from the parenthesized expression (1). 1-tuples are seldom used.

Starlark, unlike Python, does not permit a trailing comma to appear in an unparenthesized tuple expression:

for k, v, in dict.items(): pass                 # syntax error at 'in'
_ = [(v, k) for k, v, in dict.items()]          # syntax error at 'in'

sorted(3, 1, 4, 1,)                             # ok
[1, 2, 3, ]                                     # ok
{1: 2, 3:4, }                                   # ok

Tuples can be constructed from any iterable by using the built-in tuple function.

Unlike lists, tuples cannot be modified. However, the mutable elements of a tuple may be modified.

Tuples are hashable if their elements are hashable, in which case they may be used as keys of a dictionary.

Tuples may be concatenated using the + operator. Note that it is not legal to directly concatenate a tuple with a list.

A tuple used in a Boolean context is considered true if it is non-empty.

Dictionaries

A dictionary is a mutable mapping from keys to values. The type of a dictionary is "dict".

Dictionaries provide constant-time operations to insert an element, to look up the value for a key, or to remove an element. Dictionaries are implemented using hash tables, so keys must be hashable. Hashable values include None, Booleans, numbers, strings, and bytes, and tuples composed from hashable values. Most mutable values, such as lists, dictionaries, and sets, are not hashable, unless they are frozen.

Attempting to use a non-hashable value as a key in a dictionary results in a dynamic error.

A dictionary expression specifies a dictionary as a set of key/value pairs enclosed in braces:

coins = {
  "penny": 1,
  "nickel": 5,
  "dime": 10,
  "quarter": 25,
}

The expression d[k], where d is a dictionary and k is a key, retrieves the value associated with the key. If the dictionary contains no such item, the operation fails:

coins["penny"]          # 1
coins["dime"]           # 10
coins["silver dollar"]  # error: key not found

A key/value item may be added to a dictionary, or updated if the key is already present, by using d[k] on the left side of an assignment:

len(coins)				# 4
coins["shilling"] = 20
len(coins)				# 5, item was inserted
coins["shilling"] = 5
len(coins)				# 5, existing item was updated

A dictionary can also be constructed using a dictionary comprehension, which evaluates a pair of expressions, the key and the value, for every element of another iterable such as a list. This example builds a mapping from each word to its length:

words = ["able", "baker", "charlie"]
{x: len(x) for x in words}	# {"charlie": 7, "baker": 5, "able": 4}

Dictionaries are a subtype of Mapping. len() returns the number of entries. Iteration yields the keys in the order that they were inserted; updating the value associated with an existing key does not affect the iteration order.

x = dict([("a", 1), ("b", 2)])          # {"a": 1, "b": 2}
x.update([("a", 3), ("c", 4)])          # {"a": 3, "b": 2, "c": 4}

for name in coins:
  print(name, coins[name])	# prints "quarter 25", "dime 10", ...

Like all mutable values in Starlark, a dictionary can be frozen, and once frozen, all subsequent operations that attempt to update it will fail.

A dictionary used in a Boolean context is considered true if it is non-empty.

The binary | operation may be applied to two dictionaries. It yields a new dictionary whose set of keys is the union of the sets of keys of the two operands. The corresponding values are taken from the operands, where the value taken from the right operand takes precedence if both contain a given key. Iterating over the keys in the resulting dictionary first yields all keys in the left operand in insertion order, then all keys in the right operand that were not present in the left operand, again in insertion order.

There is also an augmented assignment version of the | operation. For two dictionaries d1 and d2, the expression d1 |= d2 behaves similar to d1 = d1 | d2, but mutates d1 in-place rather than assigning a new dictionary to it.

Dictionaries may be compared for equality using == and !=. Two dictionaries compare equal if they contain the same number of items and each key/value item (k, v) found in one dictionary is also present in the other. Dictionaries are not ordered; it is an error to compare two dictionaries with <.

A dictionary value has these methods:

clear
get
items
keys
pop
popitem
setdefault
update
values

Sets

A set is a mutable collection of unique values - the set's elements. The type of a set is "set".

Sets provide constant-time operations to insert, remove, or check for the presence of a value. Sets are implemented using a hash table, and therefore, just like keys of a dictionary, elements of a set must be hashable. A value may be used as an element of a set if and only if it may be used as a key of a dictionary.

Sets may be constructed using the set() built-in function, which returns a set containing all the elements of its optional argument, which must be an iterable. Calling set() without an argument constructs an empty set. Sets have no literal syntax.

The in and not in operations check whether a value is (or is not) in a set:

s = set(["a", "b", "c"])
"a" in s  # True
"z" in s  # False

A set is a subtype of Collection. Its size can be retrieved using the len() built-in function, and the order of iteration is the order in which elements were inserted. (Attempting to add an element that is already present is a no-op, and does not change the iteration order.)

s = set(["z", "y", "z", "y"])
len(s)       # prints 2
s.add("x")
s.add("z")
len(s)       # prints 3
for e in s:
    print e  # prints "z", "y", "x"

A set used in Boolean context is true if and only if it is non-empty.

s = set()
"non-empty" if s else "empty"  # "empty"
t = set(["x", "y"])
"non-empty" if t else "empty"  # "non-empty"

Sets may be compared for equality or inequality using == and !=. A set s is equal to t if and only if t is a set containing the same elements; iteration order is not significant. In particular, a set is not equal to the list of its elements. Sets are not ordered with respect to other sets, and an attempt to compare two sets using <, <=, >, >=, or to sort a sequence of sets, will fail.

set() == set()              # True
set() != []                 # True
set([1, 2]) == set([2, 1])  # True
set([1, 2]) != [1, 2]       # True

The | operation on two sets returns the union of the two sets: a set containing the elements found in either one or both of the original sets.

set([1, 2]) | set([3, 2])  # set([1, 2, 3])

The & operation on two sets returns the intersection of the two sets: a set containing only the elements found in both of the original sets.

set([1, 2]) & set([2, 3])  # set([2])
set([1, 2]) & set([3, 4])  # set()

The - operation on two sets returns the difference of the two sets: a set containing the elements found in the left-hand side set but not the right-hand side set.

set([1, 2]) - set([2, 3])  # set([1])
set([1, 2]) - set([3, 4])  # set([1, 2])

The ^ operation on two sets returns the symmetric difference of the two sets: a set containing the elements found in exactly one of the two original sets, but not in both.

set([1, 2]) ^ set([2, 3])  # set([1, 3])
set([1, 2]) ^ set([3, 4])  # set([1, 2, 3, 4])

In each of the above operations, the elements of the resulting set retain their order from the two operand sets, with all elements that were drawn from the left-hand side ordered before any element that was only present in the right-hand side.

The corresponding augmented assignments, |=, &=, -=, and ^=, modify the left-hand set in place.

s = set([1, 2])
s |= set([2, 3, 4])     # s now equals set([1, 2, 3, 4])
s &= set([0, 1, 2, 3])  # s now equals set([1, 2, 3])
s -= set([0, 1])        # s now equals set([2, 3])
s ^= set([3, 4])        # s now equals set([2, 4])

Like all mutable values in Starlark, a set can be frozen, and once frozen, all subsequent operations that attempt to update it will fail.

A set has the following methods:

add
clear
difference
difference_update
discard
intersection
intersection_update
isdisjoint
issubset
issuperset
pop
remove
symmetric_difference
symmetric_difference_update
union
update

Functions

A function value represents a function defined in Starlark. Its type is "function". A function value used in a Boolean context is always considered true.

Functions defined by a def statement are named; functions defined by a lambda expression are anonymous.

Function definitions may be nested, and an inner function may refer to a local variable of an outer function. Starlark has no equivalent of Python's nonlocal keyword, and thus no way for an inner function cannot assign to a local variable of an outer function. However, the inner function may mutate the value of such variables until they become frozen.

A function definition defines zero or more named parameters. Starlark has a rich mechanism for passing arguments to functions.

The example below shows a definition and call of a function of two required parameters, x and y.

def idiv(x, y):
  return x // y

idiv(6, 3)		# 2

A call may provide arguments to function parameters either by position, as in the example above, or by name, as in first two calls below, or by a mixture of the two forms, as in the third call below. All the positional arguments must precede all the named arguments. Named arguments may improve clarity, especially in functions of several parameters.

idiv(x=6, y=3)		# 2
idiv(y=3, x=6)		# 2

idiv(6, y=3)		# 2

Optional parameters: A parameter declaration may specify a default value using name=value syntax; such a parameter is optional. The default value expression is evaluated during execution of the def statement, and the default value forms part of the function value. All optional parameters must follow all non-optional parameters. A function call may omit arguments for any suffix of the optional parameters; the effective values of those arguments are supplied by the function's parameter defaults.

def f(x, y=3):
  return x, y

f(1, 2)	# (1, 2)
f(1)	# (1, 3)

If a function parameter's default value is a mutable expression, modifications to the value during one call may be observed by subsequent calls. Beware of this when using lists or dicts as default values. If the function becomes frozen, its parameters' default values become frozen too.

# module a.sky
def f(x, list=[]):
  list.append(x)
  return list

f(4, [1,2,3])           # [1, 2, 3, 4]
f(1)                    # [1]
f(2)                    # [1, 2], not [2]!

# module b.sky
load("a.sky", "f")
f(3)                    # error: cannot append to frozen list

Variadic functions: Some functions allow callers to provide an arbitrary number of arguments. After all required and optional parameters, a function definition may specify a variadic arguments list or varargs parameter, indicated by a star preceding the parameter name: *args. Any surplus positional arguments provided by the caller are formed into a tuple and assigned to the args parameter.

def f(x, y, *args):
  return x, y, args

f(1, 2)                 # (1, 2, ())
f(1, 2, 3, 4)           # (1, 2, (3, 4))

Keyword-variadic functions: Some functions allow callers to provide an arbitrary sequence of name=value keyword arguments. A function definition may include a final keyword arguments dictionary or kwargs parameter, indicated by a double-star preceding the parameter name: **kwargs. Any surplus named arguments that do not correspond to named parameters are collected in a new dictionary and assigned to the kwargs parameter:

def f(x, y, **kwargs):
  return x, y, kwargs

f(1, 2)                 # (1, 2, {})
f(x=2, y=1)             # (2, 1, {})
f(x=2, y=1, z=3)        # (2, 1, {"z": 3})

It is a static error if any two parameters of a function have the same name.

Just as a function definition may accept an arbitrary number of positional or named arguments, a function call may provide an arbitrary number of positional or named arguments supplied by a list or dictionary:

def f(a, b, c=5):
  return a * b + c

f(*[2, 3])              # 11
f(*[2, 3, 7])           # 13
f(*[2])                 # error: f takes at least 2 arguments (1 given)

f(**dict(b=3, a=2))             # 11
f(**dict(c=7, a=2, b=3))        # 13
f(**dict(a=2))                  # error: f takes at least 2 arguments (1 given)
f(**dict(d=4))                  # error: f got unexpected keyword argument "d"

Once the parameters have been successfully bound to the arguments supplied by the call, the sequence of statements that comprise the function body is executed.

It is a static error if a function call has two named arguments of the same name, such as f(x=1, x=2). A call that provides a **kwargs argument may yet have two values for the same name, such as f(x=1, **dict(x=2)). This results in a dynamic error.

Function arguments are evaluated in the order they appear in the call.

Unlike Python, Starlark does not allow more than one *args argument in a call, and if a *args argument is present it must appear after all positional and named arguments. In particular, even though keyword-only arguments (see below) are declared after *args in a function's definition, they nevertheless must appear before *args in a call to the function.

A function call completes normally after the execution of either a return statement, or of the last statement in the function body. The result of the function call is the value of the return statement's operand, or None if the return statement had no operand or if the function completeted without executing a return statement.

def f(x):
  if x == 0:
    return
  if x < 0:
    return -x
  print(x)

f(1)            # returns None after printing "1"
f(0)            # returns None without printing
f(-1)           # returns 1 without printing

It is a dynamic error for a function to call itself or another function value with the same declaration.

def fib(x):
  if x < 2:
    return x
  return fib(x-2) + fib(x-1)	# dynamic error: function fib called recursively

fib(5)

This rule, combined with the invariant that all loops are iterations over finite sequences, implies that Starlark programs are not Turing-complete. However, an implementation may allow clients to disable this check, allowing unbounded recursion.

Built-in functions

A built-in function is a function or method implemented by the interpreter or the application into which the interpreter is embedded. Its type is "builtin_function_or_method".

A built-in function value used in a Boolean context is always considered true.

Many built-in functions are predeclared in the environment; see Name Resolution. Some built-in functions such as len are universal, that is, available to all Starlark programs. The host application may predeclare additional built-in functions in the environment of a specific module.

Except where noted, built-in functions accept only positional arguments.

Name binding and variables

After a Starlark file is parsed, but before its execution begins, the Starlark interpreter checks statically that the program is well formed. For example, break and continue statements may appear only within a for statement; if, for, and return statements may appear only within a function; and load statements may appear only outside any function.

Name resolution is the static checking process that resolves names to variable bindings. During execution, names refer to variables. Statically, names denote places in the code where variables are created; these places are called bindings. A name may denote different bindings at different places in the program. The region of text in which a particular name refers to the same binding is called that binding's scope.

Four Starlark constructs bind names, as illustrated in the example below: load statements (a and b), def statements (c), function parameters (d), and assignments (e, h, including the augmented assignment e += h). Variables may be assigned or re-assigned explicitly (e, h), or implicitly, as in a for statement (f) or comprehension for clause (g, i).

load("lib.star", "a", b="B")

def c(d):
  e = 0
  for f in d:
     print([True for g in f])
     e += 1

h = [2*i for i in a]

The environment of a Starlark program is structured as a tree of lexical blocks, each of which may contain name bindings. The tree of blocks is parallel to the syntax tree. Blocks are of five kinds.

At the root of the tree is the predeclared block, which binds several names implicitly. The set of predeclared names includes the universal constant values None, True, and False, and various built-in functions such as len and list; these functions are immutable and stateless. An application may pre-declare additional names to provide domain-specific functions to that file, for example. These additional functions may have side effects on the application. Starlark programs cannot change the set of predeclared bindings or assign new values to them (but they can be redefined in a smaller block).

Nested beneath the predeclared block is the module block, which contains the bindings of the current module. Bindings in the module block (such as a, b, c, and h in the example) are called global and may be visible to other modules. The module block is empty at the start of the file and is populated by top-level binding statements, but an application may pre-bind one or more global names, to provide domain-specific functions to that file, for example.

Nested beneath the module block is the file block, which contains bindings local to the current file. Names in this block (such as a and b in the example) are bound only by load statements. The sets of names bound in the file block and in the module block do not overlap: it is an error for a load statement to bind the name of a global, or for a top-level statement to bind a name bound by a load statement.

A file block contains a function block for each top-level function, and a comprehension block for each top-level comprehension. Bindings in either of these kinds of block, and in the file block itself, are called local. (In the example, the bindings for e, f, g, and i are all local.) Additional functions and comprehensions, and their blocks, may be nested in any order, to any depth.

If name is bound anywhere within a block, all uses of the name within the block are treated as references to that binding, even if the use appears before the binding. This is true even at the top level, unlike Python. The binding of y on the last line of the example below makes y local to the function hello, so the use of y in the print statement also refers to the local y, even though it appears earlier.

y = "goodbye"

def hello():
  for x in (1, 2):
    if x == 2:
      print(y) # prints "hello"
    if x == 1:
      y = "hello"

It is a dynamic error to evaluate a reference to a local variable before it has been bound:

def f():
  print(x)              # dynamic error: local variable x referenced before assignment
  x = "hello"

The same is true for global variables:

print(x)                # dynamic error: global variable x referenced before assignment
x = "hello"

The same is also true for nested loops in comprehensions. In the (unnatural) examples below, the scope of the variables x, y, and z is the entire compehension block, except the operand of the first loop ([] or [1]), which is resolved in the enclosing environment. The second loop may thus refer to variables defined by the third (z), even though such references would fail if actually executed.

[1//0 for x in [] for y in z for z in ()]   # []   (no error)
[1//0 for x in [1] for y in z for z in ()]  # dynamic error: local variable z referenced before assignment

It is a static error to refer to a name that has no binding at all.

def f():
  if False:
    g()                   # static error: undefined: g

(This behavior differs from Python, which treats such references as global, and thus does not report an error until the expression is evaluated.)

It is a static error to bind a global variable already explicitly bound in the file:

x = 1
x = 2                   # static error: cannot reassign global x declared on line 1

If a name was pre-bound by the application, the Starlark program may explicitly bind it, but only once.

An augmented assignment statement such as x += 1 is considered a binding of x. It is therefore a static error to use it on a global variable.

A name appearing after a dot, such as split in get_filename().split('/'), is not resolved statically. The dot expression .split is a dynamic operation on the value returned by get_filename().

Value concepts

Starlark has over a dozen core data types. An application that embeds the Starlark intepreter may define additional types that behave like Starlark values. All values, whether core or application-defined, implement a few basic behaviors:

str(x)		-- return a string representation of x
type(x)		-- return a string describing the type of x
bool(x)		-- convert x to a Boolean truth value
hash(x)		-- return a hash code for x

Identity and mutation

Starlark is an imperative language: programs consist of sequences of statements executed for their side effects. For example, an assignment statement updates the value held by a variable, and calls to some built-in functions such as print change the state of the application that embeds the interpreter.

Values of some data types, such as NoneType, bool, int, float, string, and bytes, are immutable; they can never change. Immutable values have no notion of identity: it is impossible for a Starlark program to tell whether two integers, for instance, are represented by the same object; it can tell only whether they are equal.

Values of other data types, such as list and dict, are mutable: they may be modified by a statement such as a[i] = 0 or items.clear(). Although tuple and function values are not directly mutable, they may refer to mutable values indirectly, so for this reason we consider them mutable too. Starlark values of these types are actually references to variables.

Copying a reference to a variable, using an assignment statement for instance, creates an alias for the variable, and the effects of operations applied to the variable through one alias are visible through all others.

x = []                          # x refers to a new empty list variable
y = x                           # y becomes an alias for x
x.append(1)                     # changes the variable referred to by x
print(y)                        # "[1]"; y observes the mutation

Starlark uses call-by-value parameter passing: in a function call, argument values are assigned to function parameters as if by assignment statements. If the values are references, the caller and callee may refer to the same variables, so if the called function changes the variable referred to by a parameter, the effect may also be observed by the caller:

def f(y):
    y.append(1)                 # changes the variable referred to by x

x = []                          # x refers to a new empty list variable
f(x)                            # f's parameter y becomes an alias for x
print(x)                        # "[1]"; x observes the mutation

As in all imperative languages, understanding aliasing, the relationship between reference values and the variables to which they refer, is crucial to writing correct programs.

Freezing a value

Starlark has a feature unusual among imperative programming languages: a mutable value may be frozen so that all subsequent attempts to mutate it fail with a dynamic error; the value, and all other values reachable from it, become immutable.

Immediately after execution of a Starlark module, all values in its top-level environment are frozen. Because all the global variables of an initialized Starlark module are immutable, the module may be published to and used by other threads in a parallel program without the need for locks. For example, the Bazel build system loads and executes BUILD and .bzl files in parallel, and two modules being executed concurrently may freely access variables or call functions from a third without the possibility of a race condition.

Hashing

The dict data type is implemented using hash tables, so only hashable values are suitable as keys of a dict. Attempting to use a non-hashable value as the key in a dictionary results in a dynamic error.

The hash of a value is an unspecified integer chosen so that two equal values have the same hash, in other words, x == y => hash(x) == hash(y). A hashable value has the same hash throughout its lifetime.

Values of the types NoneType, bool, int, float, string, and bytes, which are all immutable, are hashable.

Values of mutable types such as list and dict are not hashable, unless they have become immutable due to freezing.

A tuple value is hashable only if all its elements are hashable. Thus ("localhost", 80) is hashable but ([127, 0, 0, 1], 80) is not.

Values of the types function and builtin_function_or_method are also hashable. Although functions are not necessarily immutable, as they may be closures that refer to mutable variables, instances of these types are compared by reference identity (see Comparisons), so their hash values are derived from their identity.

Collection types

Starlark defines several abstract data types. Although these are not directly referenced by name in Starlark programs, they are useful concepts for understanding what operations a type supports and for documenting what types a function expects.

Collection: A type that is:
- iterable (can appear on the right-hand side of a for loop, whether that be a for statement or comprehension for clause),
- can have its length taken via the len() function, and
- supports testing for membership via the in operator.
Examples include list, tuple, set, and dict (its elements are its keys), but not string or bytes since they are not iterable.
Sequence: A Collection that additionally supports subscript and slicing expressions, following the semantics of indexing. list and tuple are Sequences, but not set or dict.
Mapping: A Collection of keys associated with values, where a value can be retrieved by subscripting with the key. dict is the only example of a Mapping in the core language.

Applications may define additional data structures that may or may not have a particular abstract data type. If it does have the type, it must support all of its required operations, but the converse is not necessarily true.

Iteration

It is a dynamic error to mutate a collection such as a list, set, or dictionary while iterating over it. This helps avoid a common source of errors and implementation pitfalls. For example, the following code snippet is syntactically valid in both Python and Starlark:

a = [5, 11, 12, 13, 8]
for x in a:
    if x > 10:
        a.remove(x)

In Python, the result is [5, 12, 8] -- the 12 is missed due to the implicit iterator's internal integer indexing. But in Starlark, an error is raised at the attempt to mutate a inside the loop. The same code would succeed with the correct result in both languages if the loop were rewritten as for x in list(a).

Unlike Python 3, the result of certain methods like enumerate() or zip() is a new list rather than an iterator object. Loops over such lists will not prevent modifying the original list.

Indexing

Many Starlark operators and functions require an index operand i, such as a[i] or list.insert(i, x). Others require two indices i and j that indicate the start and end of a subsequence, such as a[i:j], list.index(x, i, j), or string.find(x, i, j). All such operations follow similar conventions, described here.

Indexing in Starlark is zero-based. The first element of a string or list has index 0, the next 1, and so on. The last element of a sequence of length n has index n-1.

"hello"[0]			# "h"
"hello"[4]			# "o"
"hello"[5]			# error: index out of range

For subsequence operations that require two indices, the first is inclusive and the second exclusive. Thus a[i:j] indicates the sequence starting with element i up to but not including element j. The length of this subsequence is j-i. This convention is known as half-open indexing.

"hello"[1:4]			# "ell"

Either or both of the index operands may be omitted. If omitted, the first is treated equivalent to 0 and the second is equivalent to the length of the sequence:

"hello"[1:]                     # "ello"
"hello"[:4]                     # "hell"

It is permissible to supply a negative integer to an indexing operation. The effective index is computed from the supplied value by the following two-step procedure. First, if the value is negative, the length of the sequence is added to it. This provides a convenient way to address the final elements of the sequence:

"hello"[-1]                     # "o",  like "hello"[4]
"hello"[-3:-1]                  # "ll", like "hello"[2:4]

Second, for subsequence operations, if the value is still negative, it is replaced by zero, or if it is greater than the length n of the sequence, it is replaced by n. In effect, the index is "truncated" to the nearest value in the range [0:n].

"hello"[-1000:1000]		# "hello"

This truncation step does not apply to indices of individual elements:

"hello"[-6]		# error: index out of range
"hello"[-5]		# "h"
"hello"[4]		# "o"
"hello"[5]		# error: index out of range

Expressions

An expression specifies the computation of a value.

The Starlark grammar defines several categories of expression. An operand is an expression consisting of a single token (such as an identifier or a literal), or a bracketed expression. Operands are self-delimiting. An operand may be followed by any number of dot, call, or slice suffixes, to form a primary expression. In some places in the Starlark grammar where an expression is expected, it is legal to provide a comma-separated list of expressions denoting a tuple. The grammar uses Expressions where a multiple-component expression is allowed, and Expression where it accepts an expression of only a single component.

Expressions = Expression {',' Expression} .

Expression = IfExpr | PrimaryExpr | UnaryExpr | BinaryExpr | LambdaExpr .

PrimaryExpr = Operand
            | PrimaryExpr DotSuffix
            | PrimaryExpr CallSuffix
            | PrimaryExpr SubscriptSuffix
            .

Operand = identifier
        | int | float | string | bytes
        | ListExpr | ListComp
        | DictExpr | DictComp
        | '(' [Expressions] [,] ')'
        .

DotSuffix       = '.' identifier .
CallSuffix      = '(' [Arguments [',']] ')' .
SubscriptSuffix = '[' [Expressions] [':' Expression [':' Expression]] ']'
                | '[' Expressions ']'
                .

Identifiers

Operand = identifier

An identifier is a name that identifies a value.

Lookup of locals and globals may fail if not yet defined.

Literals

Starlark supports literals of four different kinds:

Operand = int | float | string | bytes

Evaluation of an int, float, string, or bytes literal yields the value of that literal. See [Literals](#lexical elements) for details.

Parenthesized expressions

Operand = '(' [Expressions] ')'

A single expression enclosed in parentheses yields the result of that expression. Explicit parentheses may be used for clarity, or to override the default association of subexpressions.

1 + 2 * 3 + 4                   # 11
(1 + 2) * (3 + 4)               # 21

If the parentheses are empty, or contain a single expression followed by a comma, or contain two or more expressions, the expression yields a tuple.

()                              # (), the empty tuple
(1,)                            # (1,), a tuple of length 1
(1, 2)                          # (1, 2), a 2-tuple or pair
(1, 2, 3)                       # (1, 2, 3), a 3-tuple or triple

In some contexts, such as a return or assignment statement or the operand of a for statement, a tuple may be expressed without parentheses.

x, y = 1, 2

return 1, 2

for x in 1, 2:
   print(x)

Starlark (like Python 3) does not accept an unparenthesized tuple or lambda expression as the operand of a for clause in a comprehension:

[2*x for x in 1, 2, 3]	       	# parse error: unexpected ','
[2*x for x in lambda: 0]       	# parse error: unexpected 'lambda'

Dictionary expressions

A dictionary expression is a comma-separated list of colon-separated key/value expression pairs, enclosed in curly brackets, and it yields a new dictionary object. An optional comma may follow the final pair.

DictExpr = '{' [Entries [',']] '}' .
Entries  = Entry {',' Entry} .
Entry    = Expression ':' Expression .

Examples:

{}
{"one": 1}
{"one": 1, "two": 2,}

The key and value expressions are evaluated in left-to-right order. Evaluation fails if the same key is used multiple times.

Only hashable values may be used as the keys of a dictionary.

List expressions

A list expression is a comma-separated list of element expressions, enclosed in square brackets, and it yields a new list object. An optional comma may follow the last element expression.

ListExpr = '[' [Expressions [',']] ']' .

Element expressions are evaluated in left-to-right order.

Examples:

[]                      # [], empty list
[1]                     # [1], a 1-element list
[1, 2, 3,]              # [1, 2, 3], a 3-element list

Unary operators

There are four unary operators, all appearing before their operand: +, -, ~, and not.

UnaryExpr = '+' Expression
          | '-' Expression
          | '~' Expression
          | 'not' Expression
          .

+ number        unary positive          (int, float)
- number        unary negation          (int, float)
~ number        unary bitwise inversion (int)
not x           logical negation        (any type)

The + and - operators may be applied to any number: + yields the operand unchanged, and - yields its negation. The + operator is never necessary in a correct program but may serve as an assertion that its operand is a number, or as documentation.

if x > 0:
	return +1
elif x < 0:
	return -1
else:
	return 0

The not operator returns the negation of the truth value of its operand.

not True                        # False
not False                       # True
not [1, 2, 3]                   # False
not ""                          # True
not 0                           # True

The ~ operator yields the bitwise inversion of its integer argument. The bitwise inversion of x is defined as -(x+1).

~1                              # -2
~-1                             # 0
~0                              # -1

Binary operators

Starlark has the following binary operators, arranged in order of increasing precedence:

or
and
==   !=   <   >   <=   >=   in   not in
|
^
&
<< >>
-   +
*   /   //   %

Comparison operators, in, and not in are non-associative, so the parser will not accept 0 <= i < n. All other binary operators of equal precedence associate to the left.

BinaryExpr = Expression {Binop Expression} .

Binop = 'or'
      | 'and'
      | '==' | '!=' | '<' | '>' | '<=' | '>=' | 'in' | 'not' 'in'
      | '|'
      | '^'
      | '&'
      | '<<' | '>>'
      | '-' | '+'
      | '*' | '%' | '/' | '//'
      .

`or` and `and`

The or and and operators yield, respectively, the logical disjunction and conjunction of their arguments, which need not be Booleans. The expression x or y yields the value of x if its truth value is True, or the value of y otherwise.

False or False		# False
False or True		# True
True  or False		# True
True  or True		# True

0 or "hello"		# "hello"
1 or "hello"		# 1

Similarly, x and y yields the value of x if its truth value is False, or the value of y otherwise.

False and False		# False
False and True		# False
True  and False		# False
True  and True		# True

0 and "hello"		# 0
1 and "hello"		# "hello"

These operators use "short circuit" evaluation, so the second expression is not evaluated if the value of the first expression has already determined the result, allowing constructions like these:

len(x) > 0 and x[0] == 1		# x[0] is not evaluated if x is empty
x and x[0] == 1
len(x) == 0 or x[0] == ""
not x or not x[0]

Comparisons

The == operator reports whether its operands are equal; the != operator is its negation.

The operators <, >, <=, and >= perform an ordered comparison of their operands. It is an error to apply these operators to operands of unequal type, unless one of the operands is an int and the other is a float. Of the built-in types, only the following support ordered comparison, using the ordering relation shown:

bool            # False < True
int             # mathematical
float           # as defined by IEEE 754, except NaN > +Inf
string          # lexicographical
bytes           # lexicographical
tuple           # lexicographical
list            # lexicographical

Comparison of floating-point values follows the IEEE 754 standard for finite values (including -0.0) and for positive and negative infinity, but not for NaN values, for which the standard behavior would break several mathematical identities. Thus:

-Inf < -1e50 < -1.0 < -1e-50 < 0.0 < 1e-50 < 1.0 < 1e50 < +Inf < NaN
+0.0 == -0.0
NaN == NaN

Applications may define additional types that support ordered comparison. The application-defined comparison relation must be a strict weak ordering.

The remaining built-in types support only equality comparisons. Values of type dict compare equal if their elements compare equal, and values of type function are equal only to themselves.

dict                            # equal contents
function                        # identity

Arithmetic operations

The following table summarizes the binary arithmetic operations available for built-in types:

Arithmetic (int or float; result has type float unless both operands have type int)
   number + number              # addition
   number - number              # subtraction
   number * number              # multiplication
   number / number              # floating-point division (result is always a float)
   number // number             # floored division
   number % number              # remainder of floored division

Bitwise operations:
   int ^ int                    # bitwise XOR
   int & int                    # bitwise AND
   int | int                    # bitwise OR
   int << int                   # bitwise left shift
   int >> int                   # bitwise right shift (arithmetic)

Set operations:
   set & set                    # set intersection
   set - set                    # set difference
   set ^ set                    # set symmetric difference

Concatenation
   string + string
    bytes + bytes
     list + list
    tuple + tuple

Repetition (string/bytes/list/tuple)
      int * sequence
 sequence * int

String interpolation
   string % any                 # see String Interpolation

Set or dictionary union
     dict | dict                # see Dictionaries, Sets

The operands of the arithmetic operators +, -, *, //, and %, must both be numbers (int or float) but need not have the same type. The type of the result has type int only if both operands have that type. The result of floating-point division / always has type float.

The & operator requires two operands of type int, and yields the bitwise intersection (AND) of its operands. The | operator likewise computes bitwise union, and the ^ operator bitwise XOR (exclusive OR).

The << and >> operators require two operands of type int. They shift the first operand to the left or right by the number of bits given by the second operand. Right shifts are arithmetic, not logical: they fill the vacated bits with copies of the sign bit. It is a dynamic error if the second operand is negative.

0x12345678 & 0xFF               # 0x00000078
0x12345678 | 0xFF               # 0x123456FF
0b01011101 ^ 0b110101101        # 0b111110000
0b01011101 >> 2                 # 0b010111
0b01011101 << 2                 # 0b0101110100
-1 >> 100                       # -1

The + operator may be applied to non-numeric operands of the same type, such as two lists, two tuples, two strings, or two bytes, in which case it computes the concatenation of the two operands and yields a new value of the same type.

"Hello, " + "world"		# "Hello, world"
(1, 2) + (3, 4)			# (1, 2, 3, 4)
[1, 2] + [3, 4]			# [1, 2, 3, 4]

The * operator may be applied to an integer n and a value of type string, bytes, list, or tuple, in which case it yields a new value of the same sequence type consisting of n repetitions of the original sequence. The order of the operands is immaterial. Negative values of n behave like zero.

'mur' * 2               # 'murmur'
3 * (True, "a")         # (True, "a", True, "a", True, "a")

Applications may define additional types that support any subset of these operators.

Membership tests

      any in     sequence		(list, tuple, dict, set, string, bytes, range)
      any not in sequence

The in operator reports whether its first operand is a member of its second operand, which must be a list, tuple, dict, set, string, or bytes. The not in operator is its negation. Both return a Boolean.

The meaning of membership varies by the type of the second operand: the members of a list or tuple are its elements; the members of a dict are its keys; the members of a string or bytes are all its substrings. Additionally, the members of a bytes include the int values of its (byte) elements.

1 in [1, 2, 3]                  # True
4 not in (1, 2, 3)              # True

d = {"one": 1, "two": 2}
"one" in d                      # True
"three" in d                    # False
1 in d                          # False

"nasty" in "dynasty"            # True
"a" in "banana"                 # True
"f" not in "way"                # True

b"nasty" in b"dynasty"          # True
97 in b"abc"                    # True (97 = 'a')

String interpolation

The expression format % args performs string interpolation, a simple form of template expansion. The format string is interpreted as a sequence of literal portions and conversions. Each conversion, which starts with a % character, is replaced by its corresponding value from args. The characters following % in each conversion determine which argument it uses and how to convert it to a string.

Each % character marks the start of a conversion specifier, unless it is immediately followed by another %, in which cases both characters together denote a single literal percent sign.

The conversion's operand is the next element of args, which must be a tuple with exactly one component per conversion, unless the format string contains only a single conversion, in which case args itself is its operand.

Starlark does not support the flag, width, and padding specifiers supported by Python's % and other variants of C's printf.

After the % comes a single letter indicating what operand types are valid and how to convert the operand x to a string:

%       none            literal percent sign
s       any             as if by str(x)
r       any             as if by repr(x)
d       number          signed integer decimal
o       number          signed octal, no 0o prefix
x       number          signed hexadecimal, lowercase, no 0x prefix
X       number          signed hexadecimal, uppercase, no 0x prefix
e       number          float exponential format, lowercase (1.230000e+12)
E       number          float exponential format, uppercase (1.230000E+12)
f       number          float decimal format                (1230000000000.000000)
F       number          same as %f
g       number          compact format, lowercase           (0.0, 1.1, 1200, 1e+45, 1.2e+12)
G       number          compact format, uppercase           (0.0, 1.1, 1200, 1e+45, 1.2E+12)

The compact form %g is also used by str(float). Its result uses the least precision required to accurately represent the value, omits unnecessary trailing zeros in the significand (along with the decimal point itself if the significand has no fraction), and always contains a decimal point or an exponent and thus unambiguously denotes a float, not an int.

It is an error if the argument does not have the type required by the conversion specifier, except that ints may converted to floats and floats may truncated to ints. A Boolean argument is not considered a number.

Examples:

"Hello %s" % "Bob"                              # "Hello Bob"

"Hello %s, your score is %d" % ("Bob", 75)      # "Hello Bob, your score is 75"
)

One subtlety: to use a tuple as the operand of a conversion in format string containing only a single conversion, you must wrap the tuple in a singleton tuple:

"coordinates=%s" % (40, -74)	# error: too many arguments for format string
"coordinates=%s" % ((40, -74),)	# "coordinates=(40, -74)"

Conditional expressions

A conditional expression has the form a if cond else b. It first evaluates the condition cond. If it's true, it evaluates a and yields its value; otherwise it yields the value of b.

IfExpr = Expression 'if' Expression 'else' Expression .

Example:

"yes" if enabled else "no"

During parsing, the if operator, considered as a postfix operator on the "true" expression, has higher precedence than else (a prefix operator on the "false" expression), which in turn has higher precedence than the lambda prefix operator.

a if b else (c if d else e)          # parens are redundant
(a if b else c) if d else e          # parens are required

lambda: (a if b else c)              # parens are redunant
(lambda: a) if b else c              # parens are required

a if b else lambda: (c if d else e)  # parens are redundant
a if b else (lambda: c if d else e)  # parens are required
(a if b else lambda: c) if d else e  # parens are required

Comprehensions

A comprehension constructs new list or dictionary value by looping over one or more iterables and evaluating a body expression that produces successive elements of the result.

A list comprehension consists of a single expression followed by one or more clauses, the first of which must be a for clause. Each for clause resembles a for statement, and specifies an iterable operand and a set of variables to be assigned by successive values of the iterable. An if cause resembles an if statement, and specifies a condition that must be met for the body expression to be evaluated. A sequence of for and if clauses acts like a nested sequence of for and if statements.

ListComp = '[' Expression {CompClause} ']'.
DictComp = '{' Entry {CompClause} '}' .

CompClause = 'for' LoopVariables 'in' Expression
           | 'if' Expression .

LoopVariables = PrimaryExpr {',' PrimaryExpr} .

Examples:

[x*x for x in range(5)]                 # [0, 1, 4, 9, 16]
[x*x for x in range(5) if x%2 == 0]     # [0, 4, 16]
[(x, y) for x in range(5)
        if x%2 == 0
        for y in range(5)
        if y > x]                       # [(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (0, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4)]

A dict comprehension resembles a list comprehension, but its body is a pair of expressions, key: value, separated by a colon, and its result is a dictionary containing the key/value pairs for which the body expression was evaluated. Evaluation fails if the value of any key is unhashable.

As with a for statement, the loop variables may exploit compound assignment:

[x*y+z for (x, y), z in [((2, 3), 5), (("o", 2), "!")]]         # [11, 'oo!']

Starlark, following Python 3, does not accept an unparenthesized tuple as the operand of a for clause:

[x*x for x in 1, 2, 3]		# parse error: unexpected comma

Comprehensions in Starlark, again following Python 3, define a new lexical block, so assignments to loop variables have no effect on variables of the same name in an enclosing block:

x = 1
_ = [x for x in [2]]            # new variable x is local to the comprehension
print(x)                        # 1

Function and method calls

CallSuffix = '(' [Arguments [',']] ')' .

Arguments = Argument {',' Argument} .
Argument  = Expression | identifier '=' Expression | '*' Expression | '**' Expression .

A value f of type function may be called using the expression f(...). Applications may define additional types whose values may be called in the same way.

A method call such as filename.endswith(".sky") is the composition of two operations, m = filename.endswith and m(".sky"). The first, a dot operation, yields a bound method, a function value that pairs a receiver value (the filename string) with a choice of method (string·endswith).

Only built-in or application-defined types may have methods.

See Functions for an explanation of function parameter passing.

Dot expressions

A dot expression x.f selects the attribute f (a field or method) of the value x.

Fields are possessed by none of the main Starlark data types, but some application-defined types have them. Methods belong to the built-in types string, list, dict, and set and to many application-defined types.

DotSuffix = '.' identifier .

A dot expression fails if the value does not have an attribute of the specified name.

Use the built-in function hasattr(x, "f") to ascertain whether a value has a specific attribute, or dir(x) to enumerate all its attributes. The getattr(x, "f") function can be used to select an attribute when the name "f" is not known statically.

A dot expression that selects a method typically appears within a call expression, as in these examples:

["able", "baker", "charlie"].index("baker")     # 1
"banana".count("a")                             # 3
"banana".reverse()                              # error: string has no .reverse field or method

But when not called immediately, the dot expression evaluates to a bound method, that is, a method coupled to a specific receiver value. A bound method can be called like an ordinary function, without a receiver argument:

f = "banana".count
f                                               # <built-in method count of string value>
f("a")                                          # 3
f("n")                                          # 2

Subscript expressions

A subscript expression a[x] retrieves a value identified by x from the value a.

SubscriptSuffix = '[' Expressions ']' .

There are two main cases: indexing a sequence, and retrieving values of a mapping.

When a is a Sequence (such as a list or tuple), or another indexable object like string or bytes, the expression a[i] yields the ith element of a. Here, i must be an int value in the range -n ≤ i < n, where n is len(a); any other index results in an error.

A valid negative index i behaves like the non-negative index n+i, allowing for convenient indexing relative to the end of the sequence.

"abc"[0]                        # "a"
"abc"[1]                        # "b"
"abc"[-1]                       # "c"

("zero", "one", "two")[0]       # "zero"
("zero", "one", "two")[1]       # "one"
("zero", "one", "two")[-1]      # "two"

For a subscript expression m[k], where the value of m is a Mapping (most commonly a dict) or any other mapping-like object, the expression retrieves the value that m associates with k. It is an error if m contains no such key k.

A subscript expression appearing on the left side of an assignment causes the specified sequence element or mapping value to be updated:

a = range(10, 13)       # a == [10, 11, 12]
a[2] = 7                # a == [10, 11, 7]

coins = {}              # coins == {}
coins["suzie b"] = 100  # coins == {"suzie b": 100}

It is a dynamic error to attempt to update an element of an immutable type, such as a tuple or string, or a frozen value of a mutable type.

Starlark does not have a del statement like Python. Deleting the value associated with an index or key requires calling a method on the containing object.

Slice expressions

The slice expression acts as a sort of indexing subscript expression that retrieves a range of elements rather than a single element. It applies to types that can be indexed with an integer as above, such as Sequences, string, and bytes.

SubscriptSuffix = '[' [Expressions] [':' Expression [':' Expression]] ']' .

A slice expression a[start:stop:stride] yields a copy of a containing exactly the values whose indices are in the specified range. Conceptually, the range begins at start, progresses in increments of stride, and ends before reaching stop, without ever going out-of-bounds.

Each of the start, stop, and stride operands may be None or omitted entirely; otherwise, they must evaluate to integers. If stride is omitted then the second colon may optionally also be omitted. (The first colon is syntactically required in order to distinguish from a subscript expression.)

If stride is omitted its value defaults to 1. It is an error to specify a stride of 0.

The effective start and stop indices are computed from the three operands as follows. Let n be the length of the sequence.

If the stride is positive: If the start operand was omitted, it defaults to -infinity. If the end operand was omitted, it defaults to +infinity. For either operand, if a negative value was supplied, n is added to it. The start and end values are then "clamped" to the nearest value in the range 0 to n, inclusive.

If the stride is negative: If the start operand was omitted, it defaults to +infinity. If the end operand was omitted, it defaults to -infinity. For either operand, if a negative value was supplied, n is added to it. The start and end values are then "clamped" to the nearest value in the range -1 to n-1, inclusive.

"abc"[1:]               # "bc"  (remove first element)
"abc"[:-1]              # "ab"  (remove last element)
"abc"[1:-1]             # "b"   (remove first and last element)
"banana"[1::2]          # "aaa" (select alternate elements starting at index 1)
"banana"[4::-2]         # "nnb" (select alternate elements in reverse, starting at index 4)

Unlike Python, Starlark does not allow a slice expression to be the target of an assignment, although it may appear as a subexpression in the target.

Slicing a tuple, string, or bytes may be more efficient than slicing a list because tuple, string, and bytes values are immutable, so the result of the operation can share the underlying representation of the original operand (when the stride is 1). By contrast, slicing a list requires the creation of a new list and copying of the necessary elements.

Lambda expressions

A lambda expression yields a new function value.

LambdaExpr = 'lambda' [Parameters] ':' Expression .

Syntactically, a lambda expression consists of the keyword lambda, followed by a parameter list like that of a def statement but unparenthesized, then a colon :, and a single expression, the function body.

Example:

def map(f, list):
    return [f(x) for x in list]

map(lambda x: 2*x, range(3))    # [2, 4, 6]

As with functions created by a def statement, a lambda function captures the syntax of its body, the default values of any optional parameters, a reference to each free variable appearing in its body, and the global dictionary of the current module.

The name of a function created by a lambda expression is "lambda".

The two statements below are essentially equivalent, but the function created by the def statement is named twice and the function created by the lambda expression is named lambda.

def twice(x):
   return x * 2

twice = lambda x: x * 2

Statements

Statement  = DefStmt | IfStmt | ForStmt | SimpleStmt .
SimpleStmt = SmallStmt {';' SmallStmt} [';'] '\n' .
SmallStmt  = ReturnStmt
           | BreakStmt | ContinueStmt | PassStmt
           | AssignStmt
           | ExprStmt
           | LoadStmt
           .

Pass statements

A pass statement does nothing. Use a pass statement when the syntax requires a statement but no behavior is required, such as the body of a function that does nothing.

PassStmt = 'pass' .

Example:

def noop():
   pass

def list_to_dict(items):
  # Convert list of tuples to dict
  m = {}
  for k, m[k] in items:
    pass
  return m

Assignments

An assignment statement has the form lhs = rhs. It evaluates the expression on the right-hand side then assigns its value (or values) to the variable (or variables) on the left-hand side.

AssignStmt = Expressions '=' Expressions .

The expression on the left-hand side is called a target. The simplest target is the name of a variable, but a target may also have the form of a subscript expression to update the element of a list or dictionary, or the form of a dot expression to update the field of an object. These forms may be nested.

k = 1
a[i] = v
o.f = ""
o.g(1)[2] = None

Compound targets may consist of a comma-separated list of subtargets, optionally surrounded by parentheses or square brackets. These too may be nested. An assignment to a compound target checks that the right-hand value is a sequence with the same number of elements as the target. Each element of the sequence is then assigned to the corresponding element of the target, recursively applying the same logic.

a, b = 2, 3
(x, y) = f()
[zero, one, two] = range(3)
[] = ()

[(a, b), (c, d)] = ("ab", "cd")

The same process for assigning a value to a target expression is used in for statements and in comprehension for clauses.

Augmented assignments

An augmented assignment, which has the form lhs op= rhs updates the variable lhs by applying a binary arithmetic operator op (one of +, -, *, /, //, %, &, |, ^, <<, >>) to the previous value of lhs and the value of rhs.

AssignStmt = Expressions ('=' | '+=' | '-=' | '*=' | '/=' | '//=' | '%=' | '&=' | '|=' | '^=' | '<<=' | '>>=') Expressions .

The left-hand side must be a simple target: a name, a subscript expression, or a dot expression.

x -= 1
x.filename += ".sky"
a[index()] *= 2

Any subexpressions in the target on the left-hand side are evaluated exactly once, before the evaluation of rhs. The first two assignments above are thus equivalent to:

x = x - 1
x.filename = x.filename + ".sky"

and the third assignment is similar in effect to the following two statements but does not declare a new temporary variable i:

i = index()
a[i] = a[i] * 2

Function definitions

A def statement creates a named function and assigns it to a variable.

DefStmt = 'def' identifier '(' [Parameters [',']] ')' ':' Suite .

Example:

def twice(x):
    return x * 2

str(twice)              # "<function f>"
twice(2)                # 4
twice("two")            # "twotwo"

The function's name is preceded by the def keyword and followed by the parameter list (which is enclosed in parentheses), a colon, and then an indented block of statements which form the body of the function.

The parameter list is a comma-separated list whose elements are of several kinds. First come zero or more required parameters, which are simple identifiers; all calls must provide an argument value for these parameters.

The required parameters are followed by zero or more optional parameters, of the form name=expression. The expression specifies the default value for the parameter for use in calls that do not provide an argument value for it.

The required parameters are optionally followed by a single parameter name preceded by a *. This is the called the varargs parameter, and it accumulates surplus positional arguments specified by a call. It is conventionally named *args.

The varargs parameter may be followed by zero or more parameters, again of the forms name or name=expression, but these parameters differ from earlier ones in that they are keyword-only: if a call provides their values, it must do so as keyword arguments, not positional ones.

Note that even though keyword-only arguments are declared after *args in a function's definition, they nevertheless must appear before *args in a call to the function.

def g(a, *args, b=2, c):
  print(a, b, c, args)

g(1, 3)                 # error: function g missing 1 argument (c)
g(1, *[4, 5], c=3)      # error: keyword argument c may not follow *args
g(1, 4, c=3)            # "1 2 3 (4,)"
g(1, c=3, *[4, 5])      # "1 2 3 (4, 5)"

A non-variadic function may also declare keyword-only parameters, by using a bare * in place of the *args parameter. This form does not declare a parameter but marks the boundary between the earlier parameters and the keyword-only parameters. This form must be followed by at least one optional parameter.

def f(a, *, b=2, c):
  print(a, b, c)

f(1)                    # error: function f missing 1 argument (c)
f(1, 3)                 # error: function f accepts 1 positional argument (2 given)
f(1, c=3)               # "1 2 3"

Finally, there may be an optional parameter name preceded by **. This is called the keyword arguments parameter, and accumulates in a dictionary any surplus name=value arguments that do not match a prior parameter. It is conventionally named **kwargs.

Here are some example parameter lists:

def f(): pass
def f(a, b, c): pass
def f(a, b, c=1): pass
def f(a, b, c=1, *args): pass
def f(a, b, c=1, *args, **kwargs): pass
def f(**kwargs): pass
def f(a, b, c=1, *, d=1): pass

Execution of a def statement creates a new function object. The function object contains: the syntax of the function body; the default value for each optional parameter; a reference to each free variable appearing within the function body; and the global dictionary of the current module.

def f(x):
  res = []
  def get_x():
    res.append(x)
  get_x()
  x = 2
  get_x()

f(1) # returns [1, 2]

Return statements

A return statement ends the execution of a function and returns a value to the caller of the function.

ReturnStmt = 'return' [Expressions] .

A return statement may have zero, one, or more result expressions separated by commas. With no expressions, the function has the result None. With a single expression, the function's result is the value of that expression. With multiple expressions, the function's result is a tuple.

return                  # returns None
return 1                # returns 1
return 1, 2             # returns (1, 2)

Expression statements

An expression statement evaluates an expression and discards its result.

ExprStmt = Expressions .

Any expression may be used as a statement, but an expression statement is most often used to call a function for its side effects.

list.append(1)

If statements

An if statement evaluates an expression (the condition), then, if the truth value of the condition is True, executes a list of statements.

IfStmt = 'if' Expression ':' Suite {'elif' Expression ':' Suite} ['else' ':' Suite] .

Example:

if score >= 100:
    print("You win!")
    return

An if statement may have an else block defining a second list of statements to be executed if the condition is false.

if score >= 100:
        print("You win!")
        return
else:
        print("Keep trying...")
        continue

It is common for the else block to contain another if statement. To avoid increasing the nesting depth unnecessarily, the else and following if may be combined as elif:

if x > 0:
        result = 1
elif x < 0:
        result = -1
else:
        result = 0

An if statement is permitted only within a function definition. An if statement at top level results in a static error.

For statements

A for statement evaluates its operand, which must be an iterable value. Then, for each element of the iterable, the loop assigns the successive element values to one or more variables and executes a list of statements, the loop body.

ForStmt = 'for' LoopVariables 'in' Expressions ':' Suite .

Example:

for x in range(10):
   print(10)

The assignment of each value to the loop variables follows the same rules as an ordinary assignment. In this example, two-element lists are repeatedly assigned to the pair of variables (a, i):

for a, i in [["a", 1], ["b", 2], ["c", 3]]:
  print(a, i)                          # prints "a 1", "b 2", "c 3"

Because Starlark loops always iterate over a finite iterable (assuming the host application does not define an unbounded type), they are guaranteed to terminate, unlike loops in most languages which can execute an arbitrary and perhaps unbounded number of iterations.

Within the body of a for loop, break and continue statements may be used to stop the execution of the loop or advance to the next iteration.

In Starlark, a for statement is permitted only within a function definition. A for statement at top level results in a static error.

Break and Continue

The break and continue statements terminate the current iteration of a for statement. Whereas the continue statement resumes the loop at the next iteration, a break statement terminates the entire loop.

BreakStmt    = 'break' .
ContinueStmt = 'continue' .

Example:

for x in range(10):
    if x%2 == 1:
        continue        # skip odd numbers
    if x > 7:
        break           # stop at 8
    print(x)            # prints "0", "2", "4", "6"

Both statements affect only the innermost lexically enclosing loop. It is a static error to use a break or continue statement outside a loop.

Load statements

The load statement loads another Starlark module, extracts one or more values from it, and binds them to names in the current module.

Syntactically, a load statement looks like a function call load(...).

LoadStmt = 'load' '(' string {',' [identifier '='] string} [','] ')' .

A load statement requires at least two "arguments". The first must be a literal string; it identifies the module to load. Its interpretation is determined by the application into which the Starlark interpreter is embedded, and is not specified here.

During execution, the application determines what action to take for a load statement. A typical implementation locates and executes a Starlark file, populating a cache of files executed so far to avoid duplicate work, to obtain a module, which is a mapping from global names to values.

The remaining arguments are a mixture of literal strings, such as "x", or named literal strings, such as y="x".

The literal string ("x"), which must denote a valid identifier not starting with _, specifies the name to extract from the loaded module. In effect, names starting with _ are not exported. The name (y) specifies the local name; if no name is given, the local name matches the quoted name.

load("module.sky", "x", "y", "z")       # assigns x, y, and z
load("module.sky", "x", y2="y", "z")    # assigns x, y2, and z

A load statement within a function is a static error.

Module execution

Each Starlark file defines a module, which is a mapping from the names of global variables to their values. When a Starlark file is executed, whether directly by the application or indirectly through a load statement, a new Starlark thread is created, and this thread executes all the top-level statements in the file. Because if statements and for statements cannot appear outside of a function, control flows from top to bottom.

If execution reaches the end of the file, module initialization is successful. At that point, the value of each of the module's global variables is frozen, rendering subsequent mutation impossible. The module is then ready for use by another Starlark thread, such as one executing a load statement. Such threads may access values or call functions defined in the loaded module.

A Starlark thread may carry state on behalf of the application into which it is embedded, and application-defined functions may behave differently depending on this thread state. Because module initialization always occurs in a new thread, thread state is never carried from a higher-level module into a lower-level one. The initialization behavior of a module is thus independent of whichever module triggered its initialization.

If a Starlark thread encounters an error, execution stops and the error is reported to the application, along with a backtrace showing the stack of active function calls at the time of the error. If an error occurs during initialization of a Starlark module, any active load statements waiting for initialization of the module also fail.

Starlark provides no mechanism by which errors can be handled within the language.

Built-in constants and functions

The outermost block of the Starlark environment is known as the "predeclared" block. It defines a number of fundamental values and functions needed by all Starlark programs, such as None, True, False, and len, and possibly additional application-specific names.

These names are not reserved words so Starlark programs are free to redefine them in a smaller block such as a function body or even at the top level of a module. However, doing so may be confusing to the reader. Nonetheless, this rule permits names to be added to the predeclared block in later versions of the language (or application-specific dialect) without breaking existing programs.

As with built-in functions, built-in methods accept only positional arguments except where noted. The parameter names serve merely as documentation.

None

None is the distinguished value of the type NoneType.

True and False

True and False are the two values of type bool.

abs

abs(x) takes either an integer or a float, and returns the absolute value of that number (a non-negative number with the same magnitude).

any

any(x) returns True if any element of the collection x is true. If the collection is empty, it returns False.

all

all(x) returns False if any element of the collection x is false. If the collection is empty, it returns True.

bool

bool(x) interprets x as a Boolean value---True or False. With no argument, bool() returns False.

bytes

bytes(x) converts its argument to a bytes.

If x is a bytes, the result is x.

If x is a string, the result is a bytes whose elements are the UTF-8 encoding of the string. Each element of the string that is not part of a valid encoding of a code point is replaced by the UTF-8 encoding of the replacement character, U+FFFD.

If x is an iterable of int values, the result is a bytes whose elements are those integers. It is an error if any element is not in the range 0-255.

bytes("hello 😃")		# b"hello 😃"
bytes(b"hello 😃")		# b"hello 😃"
bytes("hello 😃"[:-1])          # b"hello ���"
bytes([65, 66, 67])		# b"ABC"
bytes(65)			# error: got int, want string, bytes, or iterable of int

dict

dict creates a dictionary. It accepts up to one positional argument, which is interpreted as an iterable of two-element sequences (pairs), each specifying a key/value pair in the resulting dictionary.

dict also accepts any number of keyword arguments, each of which specifies a key/value pair in the resulting dictionary; each keyword is treated as a string.

dict()                          # {}, empty dictionary
dict([(1, 2), (3, 4)])          # {1: 2, 3: 4}
dict([(1, 2), ["a", "b"]])      # {1: 2, "a": "b"}
dict(one=1, two=2)              # {"one": 1, "two", 1}
dict([(1, 2)], x=3)             # {1: 2, "x": 3}

With no arguments, dict() returns a new empty dictionary.

dict(x) where x is a dictionary returns a new copy of x.

dir

dir(x) returns a new sorted list of the names of the attributes (fields and methods) of its operand. The attributes of a value x are the names f such that x.f is a valid expression.

For example,

dir("hello")                    # ['capitalize', 'count', ...], the methods of a string

Several types known to the interpreter, such as list, string, and dict, have methods, but none have fields. However, an application may define types with fields that may be read or set by statements such as these:

y = x.f
x.f = y

enumerate

enumerate(x) returns a list consisting of pairs (i, v), where each successive v is the next item of collection x, and where i starts at 0 and is incremented sequentially. (For sequences, i is the index of v in x, but enumerate() can be used on non-sequence collections too.)

The optional second parameter, start, specifies an integer value to add to each index.

enumerate(["zero", "one", "two"])               # [(0, "zero"), (1, "one"), (2, "two")]
enumerate(["one", "two"], 1)                    # [(1, "one"), (2, "two")]

fail

The fail(*args) function causes execution to fail with an error message that includes the string forms of the argument values. The precise formatting depends on the implementation.

fail("oops")			# "fail: oops"
fail("oops", 1, False)		# "fail: oops 1 False"

float

float(x) interprets its argument as a floating-point number.

If x is a float, the result is x.

If x is an int, the result is the floating-point value nearest x. The call fails if x is too large to represent as a finite float.

If x is a bool, the result is 1.0 for True and 0.0 for False.

If x is a string, the string is interpreted as a floating-point literal. The function also recognizes the names Inf (or Infinity) and NaN, optionally preceded by a + or - sign. These construct the IEEE 754 non-finite values. Letter case is not significant. The call fails if the literal denotes a value too large to represent as a finite float.

With no argument, float() returns 0.0.

getattr

getattr(x, name[, default]) returns the value of the attribute (field or method) of x named name if it exists. If not, it either returns default (if specified) or raises an error.

getattr(x, "f") is equivalent to x.f.

getattr("banana", "split")("a")	       		# ["b", "n", "n", ""], equivalent to "banana".split("a")
getattr("banana", "myattr", "mydefault")	# "mydefault"

The three-argument form getattr(x, name, default) returns the provided default value instead of failing.

hasattr

hasattr(x, name) reports whether x has an attribute (field or method) named name.

hash

hash(x) returns an integer hash of a string or bytes x such that two equal values have the same hash. In other words x == y implies hash(x) == hash(y). Any other type of argument in an error, even if it is suitable as the key of a dict.

In the interests of reproducibility of Starlark program behavior over time and across implementations, the specific hash function for bytes is 32-bit FNV-1a, and the hash function for strings is the same as that implemented by java.lang.String.hashCode, a simple polynomial accumulator over the UTF-16 transcoding of the string:

s[0]*31^(n-1) + s[1]*31^(n-2) + ... + s[n-1]

int

int(x[, base]) interprets its argument as an integer.

If x is an int, the result is x.

If x is a float, the result is the integer value nearest to x, truncating towards zero. It is an error if x is not finite (NaN or infinity).

If x is a bool, the result is 0 for False or 1 for True.

If x is a string, it is interpreted as a sequence of digits in the specified base, decimal by default.

If base is zero, x is interpreted like an integer literal, the base being inferred from an optional base prefix such as 0b, 0o, or 0x preceding the first digit.

When a nonzero base is provided explicitly, its value must be between 2 and 36. The letters a-z represent the digits 11 through 35. A matching base prefix is also permitted, and has no effect.

Irrespective of base, the string may start with an optional + or -, indicating the sign of the result.

int("21")          # 21
int("1234", 16)    # 4660
int("0x1234", 16)  # 4660
int("0x1234", 0)   # 4660
int("0b0", 16)     # 176
int("0b111", 0)    # 7
int("0x1234")      # error (invalid base 10 number)

len

len(x) returns the number of elements in its argument.

It is a dynamic error if its argument is not a collection, string, or bytes. (Applications may define additional types acceptable to len().)

list

list constructs a list.

list(x) returns a new list containing the elements of the iterable x.

With no argument, list() returns a new empty list.

max

max(x) returns the greatest element in the collection x.

It is an error if any element does not support ordered comparison, or if the collection is empty.

The optional named parameter key specifies a function to be applied to each element, whose result is used for the comparison in place of the element.

max([3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9])                         # 9
max("two", "three", "four")                     # "two", the lexicographically greatest
max("two", "three", "four", key=len)            # "three", the longest

min

min(x) returns the least element in the collection x.

It is an error if any element does not support ordered comparison, or if the collection is empty.

The optional named parameter key specifies a function to be applied to each element, whose result is used for the comparison in place of the element.

min([3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9])                         # 1
min("two", "three", "four")                     # "four", the lexicographically least
min("two", "three", "four", key=len)            # "two", the shortest

print

print(*args, sep=" ") prints its arguments, followed by a newline. Arguments are formatted as if by str(x) and separated with a space, unless an alternative separator is specified by a sep named argument.

Example:

print(1, "hi", x=3)                             # "1 hi x=3\n"
print("hello", "world")                         # "hello world\n"
print("hello", "world", sep=", ")               # "hello, world\n"

Typically the formatted string is printed to the standard error file, but the exact behavior is a property of the Starlark thread and is determined by the host application.

range

range returns an immutable sequence of integers defined by the specified interval and stride.

range(stop)                             # equivalent to range(0, stop)
range(start, stop)                      # equivalent to range(start, stop, 1)
range(start, stop, step)

range requires between one and three integer arguments. With one argument, range(stop) returns the ascending sequence of non-negative integers less than stop. With two arguments, range(start, stop) returns only integers not less than start.

With three arguments, range(start, stop, step) returns integers formed by successively adding step to start until the value meets or passes stop. A call to range fails if the value of step is zero.

A call to range does not materialize the entire sequence, but returns a fixed-size value of type "range" that represents the parameters that define the sequence. The range value is iterable and may be indexed efficiently.

list(range(10))                         # [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
list(range(3, 10))                      # [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
list(range(3, 10, 2))                   # [3, 5, 7, 9]
list(range(10, 3, -2))                  # [10, 8, 6, 4]

The len function applied to a range value returns its length. The truth value of a range value is True if its length is non-zero.

Range values are comparable: two range values compare equal if they denote the same sequence of integers, even if they were created using different parameters.

Range values are not hashable.

The str function applied to a range value yields a string of the form range(10), range(1, 10), or range(1, 10, 2).

The x in y operator, where y is a range, reports whether x is equal to some member of the sequence y; the operation fails unless x is a number.

repr

repr(x) formats its argument as a string.

All strings in the result are double-quoted.

repr(1)                 # '1'
repr("x")               # '"x"'
repr([1, "x"])          # '[1, "x"]'

When applied to a string containing valid text, repr returns a string literal that denotes that string. When applied to a string containing an invalid UTF-K sequence, repr uses \x and \u escapes with out-of-range values to indicate the invalid elements; the result is not a valid literal.

repr("🙂"[:1])		# "\xf0" (UTF-8) or "\ud83d" (UTF-16)
"\xf0"                  # error: non-ASCII hex escape
"\ud83d"                # error: invalid Unicode code point U+D83D

reversed

reversed(x) returns a new list containing the elements of the collection x in reverse order.

reversed(range(5))                              # [4, 3, 2, 1, 0]
reversed({"one": 1, "two": 2}.keys())           # ["two", "one"]

set

set(x) returns a new set containing the unique elements of the iterable x in iteration order.

set(x) fails if any element of x is unhashable.

With no argument, set() returns a new empty set.

set()                          # an empty set
set([3, 1, 1, 2])              # set([3, 1, 2]), a set of three elements
set({"k1": "v1", "k2": "v2"})  # set(["k1", "k2"]), a set of two elements

sorted

sorted(x) returns a new list containing the elements of the collection x, in sorted order. The sort algorithm is stable, i.e., equal elements appear in the same relative order in the result.

The optional named boolean parameter reverse, if true, causes sorted to return results in reverse sorted order.

The optional named parameter key specifies a function of one argument to apply to obtain the value's sort key. The default behavior is the identity function. The key function is called exactly once per element of the sequence, in order, even for a single-element list.

sorted([3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9])                                 # [1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 9]
sorted([3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9], reverse=True)                   # [9, 5, 4, 3, 1, 1]

sorted(["two", "three", "four"], key=len)                  # ["two", "four", "three"], shortest to longest
sorted(["two", "three", "four"], key=len, reverse=True)    # ["three", "four", "two"], longest to shortest

str

str(x) formats its argument as a string.

If x is a string, the result is x (without quotation). All other strings, such as elements of a list of strings, are double-quoted.

str(1)                          # '1'
str("x")                        # 'x'
str([1, "x"])                   # '[1, "x"]'
str(0.0)                        # '0.0'        (formatted as if by "%g")
str(b"abc")                     # 'abc'

The string form of a bytes value is the UTF-K decoding of the bytes. Each byte that is not part of a valid encoding is replaced by the UTF-K encoding of the replacement character, U+FFFD.

tuple

tuple(x) returns a tuple containing the elements of the iterable x.

With no arguments, tuple() returns the empty tuple.

type

type(x) returns a string describing the type of its operand.

type(None)              # "NoneType"
type(0)                 # "int"
type(0.0)               # "float"

zip

zip() returns a new list of n-tuples formed from corresponding elements of each of the n collections provided as arguments to zip. That is, the first tuple contains the first element of each of the collections, the second element contains the second element of each of the collections, and so on. The result list is only as long as the shortest of the input collections.

zip()                                   # []
zip(range(5))                           # [(0,), (1,), (2,), (3,), (4,)]
zip(range(10), ["a", "b", "c"])         # [(0, "a"), (1, "b"), (2, "c")]

Built-in methods

This section lists the methods of built-in types. Methods are selected using dot expressions. For example, strings have a count method that counts occurrences of a substring; "banana".count("a") yields 3.

bytes·elems

b.elems() returns an opaque iterable value containing successive int elements of b. Its type is "bytes.elems", and its string representation is of the form b"...".elems().

type(b"ABC".elems())	# "bytes.elems"
b"ABC".elems()	        # b"ABC".elems()
list(b"ABC".elems())  	# [65, 66, 67]

dict·clear

D.clear() removes all the entries of dictionary D and returns None. It fails if the dictionary is frozen or if there are active iterators.

x = {"one": 1, "two": 2}
x.clear()                               # None
print(x)                                # {}

dict·get

D.get(key[, default]) returns the dictionary value corresponding to the given key. If the dictionary contains no such value, get returns None, or the value of the optional default parameter if present.

get fails if key is unhashable, or the dictionary is frozen or has active iterators.

x = {"one": 1, "two": 2}
x.get("one")                            # 1
x.get("three")                          # None
x.get("three", 0)                       # 0

dict·items

D.items() returns a new list of key/value pairs, one per element in dictionary D, in the same order as they would be returned by a for loop.

x = {"one": 1, "two": 2}
x.items()                               # [("one", 1), ("two", 2)]

dict·keys

D.keys() returns a new list containing the keys of dictionary D, in the same order as they would be returned by a for loop.

x = {"one": 1, "two": 2}
x.keys()                               # ["one", "two"]

dict·pop

D.pop(key[, default]) returns the value corresponding to the specified key, and removes it from the dictionary. If the dictionary contains no such value, and the optional default parameter is present, pop returns that value; otherwise, it fails.

pop fails if key is unhashable, or the dictionary is frozen or has active iterators.

x = {"one": 1, "two": 2}
x.pop("one")                            # 1
x                                       # {"two": 2}
x.pop("three", 0)                       # 0
x.pop("four")                           # error: missing key

dict·popitem

D.popitem() returns the first key/value pair, removing it from the dictionary.

popitem fails if the dictionary is empty, frozen, or has active iterators.

x = {"one": 1, "two": 2}
x.popitem()                             # ("one", 1)
x.popitem()                             # ("two", 2)
x.popitem()                             # error: empty dict

dict·setdefault

D.setdefault(key[, default]) returns the dictionary value corresponding to the given key. If the dictionary contains no such value, setdefault, like get, returns None or the value of the optional default parameter if present; setdefault additionally inserts the new key/value entry into the dictionary.

setdefault fails if the key is unhashable, or if the dictionary is frozen or has active iterators.

x = {"one": 1, "two": 2}
x.setdefault("one")                     # 1
x.setdefault("three", 3)                # 3
x                                       # {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}
x.setdefault("three", 33)               # 3
x                                       # {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}
x.setdefault("four")                    # None
x                                       # {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": None}

dict·update

D.update([pairs][, name=value[, ...]) makes a series of key/value insertions into dictionary D, then returns None.

If the positional argument pairs is present, it must be None, another dict, or some other iterable. If it is another dict, then its key/value pairs are inserted into D. If it is an iterable, it must provide a sequence of pairs (or other iterables of length 2), each of which is treated as a key/value pair to be inserted into D.

Then, for each name=value argument present, an entry with key name and value value is inserted into D.

All insertions overwrite any previous entries having the same key.

It is permissible to update the dict with itself given as pairs. The operation is no-op.

update fails if the dictionary is frozen or has active iterators.

x = {}
x.update([("a", 1), ("b", 2)], c=3)
x.update({"d": 4})
x.update(e=5)
x                                       # {"a": 1, "b": "2", "c": 3, "d": 4, "e": 5}

dict·values

D.values() returns a new list containing the dictionary's values, in the same order as they would be returned by a for loop over the dictionary.

x = {"one": 1, "two": 2}
x.values()                              # [1, 2]

list·append

L.append(x) appends x to the list L, and returns None.

append fails if the list is frozen or has active iterators.

x = []
x.append(1)                             # None
x.append(2)                             # None
x.append(3)                             # None
x                                       # [1, 2, 3]

list·clear

L.clear() removes all the elements of the list L and returns None. It fails if the list is frozen or if there are active iterators.

x = [1, 2, 3]
x.clear()                               # None
x                                       # []

list·extend

L.extend(x) appends the elements of x, which must be iterable, to the list L, and returns None.

It is permissible to extend the list with itself. The operation doubles the list.

extend fails if x is not iterable, or if the list L is frozen or has active iterators.

x = []
x.extend([1, 2, 3])                     # None
x.extend(["foo"])                       # None
x                                       # [1, 2, 3, "foo"]

y = [1, 2]
y.extend(y)
y                                       # [1, 2, 1, 2]

list·index

L.index(x[, start[, end]]) finds x within the list L and returns its index.

The optional start and end parameters restrict the portion of list L that is inspected. If provided and not None, they must be list indices of type int. If an index is negative, len(L) is effectively added to it, then if the index is outside the range [0:len(L)], the nearest value within that range is used; see Indexing.

index fails if x is not found in L, or if start or end is not a valid index (int or None). To avoid this error, test x in list before calling list.index(x).

x = ["b", "a", "n", "a", "n", "a"]
x.index("a")                            # 1 (bAnana)
x.index("a", 2)                         # 3 (banAna)
x.index("a", -2)                        # 5 (bananA)

list·insert

L.insert(i, x) inserts the value x in the list L at index i, moving higher-numbered elements along by one. It returns None.

As usual, the index i must be an int. If its value is negative, the length of the list is added, then its value is clamped to the nearest value in the range [0:len(L)] to yield the effective index.

insert fails if the list is frozen or has active iterators.

x = ["b", "c", "e"]
x.insert(0, "a")                        # None
x.insert(-1, "d")                       # None
x                                       # ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"]

list·pop

L.pop([index]) removes and returns the last element of the list L, or, if the optional index is provided, at that index.

pop fails if the index is negative or not less than the length of the list, of if the list is frozen or has active iterators.

x = [1, 2, 3]
x.pop()                                 # 3
x.pop()                                 # 2
x                                       # [1]

list·remove

L.remove(x) removes the first occurrence of the value x from the list L, and returns None.

remove fails if the list does not contain x, is frozen, or has active iterators.

x = [1, 2, 3, 2]
x.remove(2)                             # None (x == [1, 3, 2])
x.remove(2)                             # None (x == [1, 3])
x.remove(2)                             # error: element not found

set·add

S.add(x) adds the value x to the set S. It returns None.

It is permissible to add a value already present in the set; this leaves the set S unchanged.

add fails if the set S is frozen or has active iterators, or if x is unhashable.

If you need to add multiple elements to a set, see update or the |= augmented assignment operation.

set·clear

S.clear() removes all elements from the set S. It returns None.

clear fails if the set S is frozen or has active iterators.

set·difference

S.difference(*others) returns a new set containing elements found in the set S but not found in any of the collections *others.

If s and t are sets, s.difference(t) is equivalent to s - t; however, note that the - operation requires both sides to be sets, while the difference method accepts arbitrary collections.

It is permissible to call difference without any arguments; this returns a copy of the set S.

difference fails if any element of any of the *others is unhashable.

set([1, 2, 3]).difference([2])             # set([1, 3])
set([1, 2, 3]).difference([0, 1], [3, 4])  # set([2])

set·difference_update

S.difference_update(*others) removes from the set S any elements found in any of the collections *others. It returns None.

If s and t are sets, s.difference_update(t) is equivalent to s -= t; however, note that the -= augmented assignment requires both sides to be sets, while the difference_update method accepts arbitrary collections.

It is permissible to call difference_update without any arguments; this leaves the set S unchanged.

difference_update fails if the set S is frozen or has active iterators, or if any element of any of the *others is unhashable.

s = set([1, 2, 3, 4])
s.difference_update([2])             # None; s is set([1, 3, 4])
s.difference_update([0, 1], [4, 5])  # None; s is set([3])

set·discard

S.discard(x) removes the value x from the set S if present. It returns None.

It is permissible to discard a value not present in the set; this leaves the set S unchanged. If you want to fail on an attempt to remove a non-present element, use remove instead. If you need to remove multiple elements from a set, see difference_update or the -= augmented assignment operation.

discard fails if the set S is frozen or has active iterators, or if x is unhashable. This applies even if x is not a member of the set.

s = set(["x", "y"])
s.discard("y")  # None; s == set(["x"])
s.discard("y")  # None; s == set(["x"])

set·intersection

S.intersection(*others) returns a new set containing those elements that the set S and all of the collections *others have in common.

If s and t are sets, s.intersection(t) is equivalent to s & t; however, note that the & operation requires both sides to be sets, while the intersection method accepts arbitrary collections.

It is permissible to call intersection without any arguments; this returns a copy of the set S.

intersection fails if any element of any of the *others is unhashable.

set([1, 2]).intersection([2, 3])             # set([2])
set([1, 2, 3]).intersection([0, 1], [1, 2])  # set([1])

set·intersection_update

S.intersection_update(*others) removes from the set S any elements not found in at least one of the collections *others. It returns None.

If s and t are sets, s.intersection_update(t) is equivalent to s &= t; however, note that the &= augmented assignment requires both sides to be sets, while the intersection_update method accepts arbitrary collections.

It is permissible to call intersection_update without any arguments; this leaves the set S unchanged.

intersection_update fails if the set S is frozen or has active iterators, or if any element of any of the *others is unhashable.

s = set([1, 2, 3, 4])
s.intersection_update([0, 1, 2])       # None; s is set([1, 2])
s.intersection_update([0, 1], [1, 2])  # None; s is set([1])

set·isdisjoint

S.isdisjoint(x) returns True if the set S and the collection x do not have any values in common, and False otherwise.

This is equivalent to not S.intersection(x).

isdisjoint fails if any element of x is unhashable.

set·issubset

S.issubset(x) returns True if every element of the set S is present in the collection x, and False otherwise.

This is equivalent to not S.difference(x).

issubset fails if any element of x is unhashable.

set·issuperset

S.issuperset(x) returns True if every element of the collection x is present in the set S, and False otherwise.

This is equivalent to S == S.union(x).

issuperset fails if any element of x is unhashable.

set·pop

S.pop() removes and returns the first element (in iteration order, which is the order in which elements were first added to the set) from the set S.

pop fails if the set is empty, is frozen, or has active iterators.

s = set([3, 1, 2])
s.pop()  # 3; s == set([1, 2])
s.pop()  # 1; s == set([2])
s.pop()  # 2; s == set()
s.pop()  # error: empty set

set·remove

S.remove(x) removes the value x from the set S. It returns None.

remove fails if the set doesn't contain x (which, in particular, implies that remove fails if x is unhashable), or if the set is frozen or has active iterators. If you don't want to fail on an attempt to remove a non-present element, use discard instead. If you need to remove multiple elements from a set, see difference_update or the -= augmented assignment operation.

s = set([1, 2])
s.remove(2)  # None; s == set([1])
s.remove(2)  # error: element not found

set·symmetric_difference

S.symmetric_difference(x) returns a new set containing elements found only in the set S or in the collection x but not those found in both S and x.

If s and t are sets, s.symmetric_difference(t) is equivalent to s ^ t; however, note that the ^ operation requires both sides to be sets, while the symmetric_difference method accepts an arbitrary collection.

symmetric_difference fails if any element of x is unhashable.

set([1, 2]).symmetric_difference([2, 3])  # set([1, 3])

set·symmetric_difference_update

S.symmetric_difference_update(x) removes from the set S any elements found in both S and the collection x, and adds to S any elements found in x but not in S. It returns None.

If s and t are sets, s.symmetric_difference_update(t) is equivalent to s ^= t; however, note that the ^= augmented assignment requires both sides to be sets, while the symmetric_difference_update method accepts an arbitrary collection.

symmetric_difference_update fails if the set S is frozen or has active iterators, or if any element of x is unhashable.

s = set([1, 2])
s.symmetric_difference_update([2, 3])  # None; s == set([1, 3])

set·union

S.union(*others) returns a new set containing elements found in the set S or in any of the collections *others.

If s and t are sets, s.union(t) is equivalent to s | t; however, note that the | operation requires both sides to be sets, while the union method accepts arbitrary collections.

It is permissible to call union without any arguments; this returns a copy of the set S.

union fails if any element of any of the *others is unhashable.

set([1, 2]).union([2, 3])                    # set([1, 2, 3])
set([1, 2]).union([2, 3], {3: "a", 4: "b"})  # set([1, 2, 3, 4])

set·update

S.update(*others) adds to the set S any elements found in any of the collections *others. It returns None.

If s and t are sets, s.update(t) is equivalent to s |= t; however, note that the |= augmented assignment requires both sides to be sets, while the update method accepts arbitrary collections.

It is permissible to call update without any arguments; this leaves the set S unchanged.

update fails if the set S is frozen or has active iterators, or if any element of any of the *others is unhashable.

s = set()
s.update([1, 2])          # None; s is set([1, 2])
s.update([2, 3], [3, 4])  # None; s is set([1, 2, 3, 4])

string·capitalize

S.capitalize() returns a copy of string S, where the first character (if any) is converted to uppercase; all other characters are converted to lowercase.

"hello, world!".capitalize()		# "Hello, world!"

string·count

S.count(sub[, start[, end]]) returns the number of occurrences of sub within the string S, or, if the optional substring indices start and end are provided, within the designated substring of S. They are interpreted according to Starlark's indexing conventions.

"hello, world!".count("o")              # 2
"hello, world!".count("o", 7, 12)       # 1  (in "world")

string·elems

S.elems() returns an opaque iterable value containing successive 1-element substrings of S. Its type is "string.elems", and its string representation is of the form "...".elems().

"Hello, 123".elems()	        # "Hello, 123".elems()
type("Hello, 123".elems())	# "string.elems"
list("Hello, 123".elems())	# ["H", "e", "l", "l", "o", ",", " ", "1", "2", "3"]

string·endswith

S.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]]) reports whether the string S[start:end] has the specified suffix.

"filename.sky".endswith(".sky")         # True
"filename.sky".endswith(".sky", 9, 12)  # False
"filename.sky".endswith("name", 0, 8)   # True

The suffix argument may be a tuple of strings, in which case the function reports whether any one of them is a suffix.

'foo.cc'.endswith(('.cc', '.h'))         # True

string·find

S.find(sub[, start[, end]]) returns the index of the first occurrence of the substring sub within S.

If either or both of start or end are specified, they specify a subrange of S to which the search should be restricted. They are interpreted according to Starlark's indexing conventions.

If no occurrence is found, found returns -1.

"bonbon".find("on")             # 1
"bonbon".find("on", 2)          # 4
"bonbon".find("on", 2, 5)       # -1

string·format

S.format(*args, **kwargs) returns a version of the format string S in which bracketed portions {...} are replaced by arguments from args and kwargs.

Within the format string, a pair of braces {{ or }} is treated as a literal open or close brace. Each unpaired open brace must be matched by a close brace }. The optional text between corresponding open and close braces specifies which argument to use.

{}
{field}

The field name may be either a decimal number or a keyword. A number is interpreted as the index of a positional argument; a keyword specifies the value of a keyword argument. If all the numeric field names form the sequence 0, 1, 2, and so on, they may be omitted and those values will be implied; however, the explicit and implicit forms may not be mixed.

"a{x}b{y}c{}".format(1, x=2, y=3)               # "a2b3c1"
"a{}b{}c".format(1, 2)                          # "a1b2c"
"({1}, {0})".format("zero", "one")              # "(one, zero)"

string·index

S.index(sub[, start[, end]]) returns the index of the first occurrence of the substring sub within S, like S.find, except that if the substring is not found, the operation fails.

"bonbon".index("on")             # 1
"bonbon".index("on", 2)          # 4
"bonbon".index("on", 2, 5)       # error: substring not found  (in "nbo")

string·isalnum

S.isalnum() reports whether the string S is non-empty and consists only Unicode letters and digits.

"base64".isalnum()              # True
"Catch-22".isalnum()            # False

string·isalpha

S.isalpha() reports whether the string S is non-empty and consists only of Unicode letters.

"ABC".isalpha()                 # True
"Catch-22".isalpha()            # False
"".isalpha()                    # False

string·isdigit

S.isdigit() reports whether the string S is non-empty and consists only of Unicode digits.

"123".isdigit()                 # True
"Catch-22".isdigit()            # False
"".isdigit()                    # False

string·islower

S.islower() reports whether the string S contains at least one cased Unicode letter, and all such letters are lowercase.

"hello, world".islower()        # True
"Catch-22".islower()            # False
"123".islower()                 # False

string·isspace

S.isspace() reports whether the string S is non-empty and consists only of Unicode spaces.

"    ".isspace()                # True
"\r\t\n".isspace()              # True
"".isspace()                    # False

string·istitle

S.istitle() reports whether the string S contains at least one cased Unicode letter, and all such letters that begin a word are in title case.

"Hello, World!".istitle()       # True
"Catch-22".istitle()            # True
"HAL-9000".istitle()            # False
"123".istitle()                 # False

string·isupper

S.isupper() reports whether the string S contains at least one cased Unicode letter, and all such letters are uppercase.

"HAL-9000".isupper()            # True
"Catch-22".isupper()            # False
"123".isupper()                 # False

string·join

S.join(iterable) returns the string formed by concatenating each element of its argument, with a copy of the string S between successive elements. The argument must be an iterable whose elements are strings.

", ".join(["one", "two", "three"])      # "one, two, three"
"a".join("ctmrn".elems())               # "catamaran"

string·lower

S.lower() returns a copy of the string S with letters converted to lowercase.

"Hello, World!".lower()                 # "hello, world!"

string·lstrip

S.lstrip([cutset]) returns a copy of the string S with leading whitespace removed.

Like strip, it accepts an optional string parameter that specifies an alternative set of Unicode code points to remove.

"\n hello  ".lstrip()                   # "hello  "
"   hello  ".lstrip("h o")              # "ello  "

string·partition

S.partition(x) splits string S into three parts and returns them as a tuple: the portion before the first occurrence of string x, x itself, and the portion following it. If S does not contain x, partition returns (S, "", "").

partition fails if x is not a string, or is the empty string.

"one/two/three".partition("/")		# ("one", "/", "two/three")

string·removeprefix

S.removeprefix(x) removes the prefix x from the string S at most once, and returns the rest of the string. If the prefix string is not found then it returns the original string.

removeprefix fails if x is not a string.

"banana".removeprefix("ban")		# "ana"
"banana".removeprefix("ana")		# "banana"
"bbaa".removeprefix("b")		# "baa"

string·removesuffix

S.removesuffix(x) removes the suffix x from the string S at most once, and returns the rest of the string. If the suffix string is not found then it returns the original string.

removesuffix fails if x is not a string.

"banana".removesuffix("ana")		# "ban"
"banana".removesuffix("ban")		# "banana"
"bbaa".removesuffix("a")		# "bba"

string·replace

S.replace(old, new[, count]) returns a copy of string S with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new. If the optional argument count, which must be an int, is non-negative, it specifies a maximum number of occurrences to replace.

"banana".replace("a", "o")		# "bonono"
"banana".replace("a", "o", 2)		# "bonona"

string·rfind

S.rfind(sub[, start[, end]]) returns the index of the substring sub within S, like S.find, except that rfind returns the index of the substring's last occurrence.

"bonbon".rfind("on")             # 4
"bonbon".rfind("on", None, 5)    # 1
"bonbon".rfind("on", 2, 5)       # -1

string·rindex

S.rindex(sub[, start[, end]]) returns the index of the substring sub within S, like S.index, except that rindex returns the index of the substring's last occurrence.

"bonbon".rindex("on")             # 4
"bonbon".rindex("on", None, 5)    # 1                           (in "bonbo")
"bonbon".rindex("on", 2, 5)       # error: substring not found  (in "nbo")

string·rpartition

S.rpartition(x) is like partition, but splits S at the last occurrence of x.

"one/two/three".rpartition("/")         # ("one/two", "/", "three")

string·rsplit

S.rsplit([sep[, maxsplit]]) splits a string into substrings like S.split, except that when a maximum number of splits is specified, rsplit chooses the rightmost splits.

"banana".rsplit("n")                         # ["ba", "a", "a"]
"banana".rsplit("n", 1)                      # ["bana", "a"]
"one two  three".rsplit(None, 1)             # ["one two", "three"]

string·rstrip

S.rstrip([cutset]) returns a copy of the string S with trailing whitespace removed.

Like strip, it accepts an optional string parameter that specifies an alternative set of Unicode code points to remove.

"  hello\r ".rstrip()                   # "  hello"
"  hello   ".rstrip("h o")              # "  hell"

string·split

S.split([sep [, maxsplit]]) returns the list of substrings of S, splitting at occurrences of the delimiter string sep.

Consecutive occurrences of sep are considered to delimit empty strings, so 'food'.split('o') returns ['f', '', 'd']. Splitting an empty string with a specified separator returns ['']. If sep is the empty string, split fails.

If sep is not specified or is None, split uses a different algorithm: it removes all leading spaces from S (or trailing spaces in the case of rsplit), then splits the string around each consecutive non-empty sequence of Unicode white space characters.

If S consists only of white space, split returns the empty list.

If maxsplit is given and non-negative, it specifies a maximum number of splits.

"one two  three".split()                    # ["one", "two", "three"]
"one two  three".split(" ")                 # ["one", "two", "", "three"]
"one two  three".split(None, 1)             # ["one", "two  three"]
"banana".split("n")                         # ["ba", "a", "a"]
"banana".split("n", 1)                      # ["ba", "ana"]

string·splitlines

S.splitlines([keepends]) returns a list whose elements are the successive lines of S, that is, the strings formed by splitting S at line terminators (currently assumed to be \n, \r and \r\n, regardless of platform).

The optional argument, keepends, is interpreted as a Boolean. If true, line terminators are preserved in the result, though the final element does not necessarily end with a line terminator.

"A\nB\rC\r\nD".splitlines()     # ["A", "B", "C", "D"]
"one\n\ntwo".splitlines()       # ["one", "", "two"]
"one\n\ntwo".splitlines(True)   # ["one\n", "\n", "two"]

string·startswith

S.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]]) reports whether the string S[start:end] has the specified prefix.

"filename.sky".startswith("filename")         # True
"filename.star".startswith("name", 4)         # True
"filename.star".startswith("name", 4, 7)      # False

The prefix argument may be a tuple of strings, in which case the function reports whether any one of them is a prefix.

'abc'.startswith(('a', 'A'))                  # True
'ABC'.startswith(('a', 'A'))                  # True
'def'.startswith(('a', 'A'))                  # False

string·strip

S.strip([cutset]) returns a copy of the string S with leading and trailing whitespace removed.

It accepts an optional string argument, cutset, which instead removes all leading and trailing Unicode code points contained in cutset.

"\rhello\t ".strip()                    # "hello"
"  hello   ".strip("h o")               # "ell"

string·title

S.title() returns a copy of the string S with letters converted to titlecase.

Letters are converted to uppercase at the start of words, lowercase elsewhere.

"hElLo, WoRlD!".title()                 # "Hello, World!"

string·upper

S.upper() returns a copy of the string S with letters converted to uppercase.

"Hello, World!".upper()                 # "HELLO, WORLD!"

Grammar reference

File = {Statement | newline} eof .

Statement = DefStmt | IfStmt | ForStmt | SimpleStmt .

DefStmt = 'def' identifier '(' [Parameters [',']] ')' ':' Suite .

Parameters = Parameter {',' Parameter}.

Parameter  = identifier
           | identifier '=' Expression
           | '*'
           | '*' identifier
           | '**' identifier
           .

IfStmt = 'if' Expression ':' Suite {'elif' Expression ':' Suite} ['else' ':' Suite] .

ForStmt = 'for' LoopVariables 'in' Expressions ':' Suite .

Suite = [newline indent {Statement} outdent] | SimpleStmt .

SimpleStmt = SmallStmt {';' SmallStmt} [';'] '\n' .
# NOTE: '\n' optional at EOF

SmallStmt = ReturnStmt
          | BreakStmt | ContinueStmt | PassStmt
          | AssignStmt
          | ExprStmt
          | LoadStmt
          .

ReturnStmt   = 'return' [Expressions] .
BreakStmt    = 'break' .
ContinueStmt = 'continue' .
PassStmt     = 'pass' .
AssignStmt   = Expressions ('=' | '+=' | '-=' | '*=' | '/=' | '//=' | '%=' | '&=' | '|=' | '^=' | '<<=' | '>>=') Expressions .
ExprStmt     = Expressions .

LoadStmt = 'load' '(' string {',' [identifier '='] string} [','] ')' .

Expression = IfExpr | PrimaryExpr | UnaryExpr | BinaryExpr | LambdaExpr .

IfExpr = Expression 'if' Expression 'else' Expression .

PrimaryExpr = Operand
            | PrimaryExpr DotSuffix
            | PrimaryExpr CallSuffix
            | PrimaryExpr SubscriptSuffix
            .

Operand = identifier
        | int | float | string | bytes
        | ListExpr | ListComp
        | DictExpr | DictComp
        | '(' [Expressions [',']] ')'
        .

DotSuffix   = '.' identifier .
SubscriptSuffix = '[' [Expressions] [':' Expression [':' Expression]] ']'
                | '[' Expressions ']'
                .
CallSuffix  = '(' [Arguments [',']] ')' .

Arguments = Argument {',' Argument} .
Argument  = Expression | identifier '=' Expression | '*' Expression | '**' Expression .

ListExpr = '[' [Expressions [',']] ']' .
ListComp = '[' Expression {CompClause} ']'.

DictExpr = '{' [Entries [',']] '}' .
DictComp = '{' Entry {CompClause} '}' .
Entries  = Entry {',' Entry} .
Entry    = Expression ':' Expression .

CompClause = 'for' LoopVariables 'in' Expression | 'if' Expression .

UnaryExpr = '+' Expression
          | '-' Expression
          | '~' Expression
          | 'not' Expression
          .

BinaryExpr = Expression {Binop Expression} .

Binop = 'or'
      | 'and'
      | '==' | '!=' | '<' | '>' | '<=' | '>=' | 'in' | 'not' 'in'
      | '|'
      | '^'
      | '&'
      | '<<' | '>>'
      | '-' | '+'
      | '*' | '%' | '/' | '//'
      .

LambdaExpr = 'lambda' [Parameters] ':' Expression .

Expressions = Expression {',' Expression} .
# NOTE: trailing comma permitted only when within [...] or (...).

LoopVariables = PrimaryExpr {',' PrimaryExpr} .

Tokens:

spaces: newline, eof, indent, outdent.
identifier.
literals: string, bytes, int, float.
plus all quoted tokens such as '+=', 'return'.

Notes:

Ambiguity is resolved using operator precedence.
The grammar does not enforce the legal order of params and args, nor that the first CompClause must be a 'for'.

Provide feedback

Saved searches

Use saved searches to filter your results more quickly

Uh oh!