The 8051 Microcontroller So " eyekyDe The 8051 Microcontroller ARCHITECTURE, PROGRAMMING, and APPLICATIONS Kenneth J. Ayala Western Carolina University WEST PUBLISHING COMPANY ST. PAUL = NEW YORK = LOS ANGELES * SAN FRANCISCO.Copyediting: Technical Texts, Inc. Text and Cover Design: Roslyn Stendahl, Dapper Design Cover Image: Christopher Springmann, The Stock Market ‘Composition: G&S Typesetters, Inc. Artwork: George Barile, Accurate Art COPYRIGHT © 1991 By WEST PUBLISHING COMPANY 50 W. Kellogg Boulevard PO. Box 64526 St.Paul, MN 55164-0526 All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America @ 98 97 96 95 9493 9291 87654321 Library of Congress Cataloging in-Publication Data ‘Ayala, Kenneth J The 8051 microcontroller : architecture, programming, and applications / Kenneth J. Ayala, poem. Includes index. ISBN 0-314-77278-2 (soft) 1, Inte! 8051 (Computer) 2. Digital control systems. |. Title QA76.8.127093 1991 004.165—de20 90-12928, cP= To John Jamison of VMI and John Peatman of Georgia Tech, both of whom made this book possible> Contents ‘1 MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS 1 Introduction 1 Microprocessors and Microcontrollers 2 Microprocessors 2 Microcontrollers 3 Comparing Microprocessors and Microcontrollers 4 The 280 and the 8051 4 A Microcontroller Survey 5 Four-Bit Microcontroller 5 Eight-Bit Microcontrollers 6 Sixteen-Bit Microcontrollers 7 Thirty-Two Bit Microcontrollers 8 Development Systems for Microcontrollers 9 Summary 9 Questions 10 2 =~ THE 8051 ARCHITECTURE 11 Introduction 11 8051 Microcontroller Hardware = 11 The 8051 Oscillator and Clock 16 Program Counter and Data Pointer 17 AandB CPU Registers 17 Flags and the Program Status Word (PSW) 18 internal Memory 19 Internal RAM = 19 The Stack and the Stack Pointer 19 Special Function Registers 21 Internal ROM = 22 Input/Output Pins, Ports, and Circuits 22 PortO = 23 Port1 25 viiviii CONTENTS Port2 25 Port3 25 External Memory 26 Connecting External Memory 26 Counter and Timers 28 Timer Counter interrupts 29 Timing 30 Timer Modes of Operation 30 Timer Mode 0 30 Timer Mode 1 30 Timer Mode 231 Timer Mode 3 32 Counting 32 Serial Data Input/Output _ 32 Serial Data Interrupts 32 Data Transmission 34 Data Reception 34 Serial Data Transmission Modes 34 Serial Data Mode 0-Shift Register Mode 34 Serial Data Mode 1-Standard UART 35 Made 1 Baud Rates 36 Serial DataMode 337 Interrupts 37 Timer Flag Interrupt 39 Serial Port Interrupt 39 External Interrupts 39 Reset 40 Interrupt Control 40 Interrupt Enable/Disable 40 Interrupt Priority 41 Interrupt Destinations 41 Software Generated Interrupts 41 Summary 41 Questions 42 3° MOVING DATA 44 introduction 44 Addressing Modes 45 Immediate Addressing Mode 45 Register Addressing Mode 45 Direct Addressing Mode 47 Indirect Addressing Mode 49 External Data Moves 50 ‘Code Memory Read-Only Data Moves 51 PUSH and POP Opcodes Data Exchanges 53 Example Programs 54 Summary 56 Problems 57‘CONTENTS, ix LOGICAL OPERATIONS 59 Introduction 59 Byte-Level Logical Operations 60 Bit-Level Logical Operations 62 Internal RAM Bit Addresses 62 SFR Bit Addresses 62 Bit-Level Boolean Operations 63 Rotate and Swap Operations 66 Example Programs 68 Summary 69 Problems 70 ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS 71 Introduction = 71 Flags 72 Instructions Affecting Flags 72 incrementing and Decrementing 73 Addition 74 Unsigned and Signed Addition 74 Signed Addition 75 Multiple-Byte Signed Arithmetic 76 Subtraction 77 Unsigned and Signed Subtraction 78 Unsigned Subtraction 78 Signed Subtraction 78 Multiplication and Division 80 Multiplication 80 Division 80 Decimal Arithmetic 81 Example Programs 82 Summary 84 Problems 85 JUMP AND CALL OPCODES 86 Introduction 86 The Jump and Call Program Range 87 Relative Range 87 Short Absolute Range 88 Long Absolute Range 88 Jumps 89 Bit Jumps 89 Byte Jumps 90 Unconditional Jumps 90 Calls and Subroutines 92 Subroutines 92 Calls and the Stack 92CONTENTS Calls and Returns 93. Interrupts and Returns 94 Example Problems 95 Summary 97 Problems 98 7 AN 8051 MICROCONTROLLER DESIGN 100 Introduction 100 A Microcontroller Specification 101 A Microcontroller Design 102 External Memory and Memory Space Decoding 102 Reset and Clock Circuits 102 Expanding /O = 103 Memory-Mapped /O0 104 Part Speed 106 Production Concerns 106 Testing the Design 107 Crystal Test 107 ROM Test 107 RAM Test 108 Timing Subroutines 110 Time Delays 110 Pure Software Time Delay 111 Software Polled Timer 112 Pure Hardware Delay 114 Lookup Tables for the 8051 117 PC as aBase Address 118 DPTR as a Base Address 120 Serial Data Transmission 121 Character Transmission Using a Time Delay 123 Character Transmission by Polling 124 Interrupt-Driven Character Transmission 125 Receiving Serial Data 126, Polling for Received Data 126 Interrupt-Driven Data Reception 127 Summary 128 Problems 129 8 APPLICATIONS = 131 Introduction 131 Keyboards 132 Human Factors 132 Key Switch Factors 132 Key Configurations 133 Programs for Keyboards 134 A Scanning Program for Small Keyboards 136 Interrupt-Driven Programs for Small Keyboards 139CONTENTS. xi Program for a Large Matrix Keyboard 147 Displays 151 Seven-Segment Numeric Display 151 Intelligent LCD Display 155 Pulse Measurement 158 Measuring Frequency 158 Pulse Width Measurement 161 D/A and A/D Conversions 162 D/A Conversions 163 A/D Conversion 165 Multiple interrupts 166 Hardware Circuits for Multiple Interrupts 173 Putting it all Together 177 Summary 181 Problems 182 Q SERIAL DATA COMMUNICATION 185 Introduction Network Configurations 186 8051 Data Communication Modes _ 189 Mode 0: Shift Register Mode 189 Mode 1: Standard 8-Bit UART Mode 192 Modes 2 and 3: Multiprocessor 197 Summary 202 Problems 202 Appendix A 8051 Operational Code Mneumonics 203 Appendix B How to Use the Assembler 212 Appendix C How to Use the Simulator 220 Appendix D The 8255 Programmable /O Port 233 Appendix E Control Registers 236 Index 238> Preface ‘The microprocessor has been with us for some fifteen years now, growing from an awkward 4-bit child to a robust 32-bit adult. Soon, 64- and then 128-bit wizards will appear to crunch numbers, spreadsheets, and, CAD CAM. The engineering community became aware of, and enamored with, the &-bit microprocessors of the middle to late 1970's. The bit size, cost, and power of these early CPUs were particularly useful for specific tasks involving data gathering, machine control, human interaction, and many other applica- tions that granted a limited intelligence to machines and appliances. ‘The personal computer that was spawned by the 8-bit units predictably became faster by increasing data word size and more complex by the addition of operating system hard- ware. This process evolved complex CPUs that are poorly suited to dedicated applications and more applicable to the generic realm of the computer scientist and system program- mer. Engineering applications, however, did not change: these applications continue to be best served by 8-bit CPUs with limited memory size and 1/0 power. Cost per unit also continues to dominate processing considerations. Using an expensive 32-bit micro- processor to perform functions that can be as efficiently served by an inexpensive 8-bit microcontrotier will doom the 32-bit product to failure in any competitive marketplace. Many designers continue to use the older families of 8-bit microprocessors. The 8085, 6502, 6800, and Z80 are familiar friends to those of us who had our first successes with these radical new computers. We know their faults and idiosyncrasies; we have, quite literally, tons of application software written for them. We are reluctant to abandon this investment in time and money. New technology makes possible, however, a better type of small computer—one with not only the CPU on the chip, but RAM, ROM, Timers, UARTS, Ports, and other com- mon peripheral 1/0 functions also. The microprocessor has become the microcontroller. Some manufacturers, hoping to capitalize on our software investment, have brought ‘out families of microcontrollers that are software compatible with the older micro- processors. Others, wishing to optimize the instruction set and architecture to improve speed and reduce code size, produced totally new designs that had litle in common with their earlier microprocessors. Both of these trends continue.This book has been written for a diverse audience. It is meant for use primarily by those who work in the area of the electronic design and assembly language programming of small, dedicated computers. An extensive knowledge of electronics is not required to program the microcontroller. Many practitioners in disciplines not normally associated with computer electronics — transportation, HVAC, mechanisms, medicine, and manufacturing processes of all types — can benefit from a knowledge of how these “smart chips” work and how they can be used to improve their particular product. Persons quite skilled in the application of classical microprocessors, as well as novice users who have a basic understanding of computer operation but little actual experience, should all find this book useful. The seasoned professional can read Chapter 2 with some care, glance at the mnemonics in Chapters 3 through 6, and inspect the applications in Chapters 7. 8, and 9. The student may wish to quickly read Chapter 2, study the mnemonics and program examples carefully in Chapters 3 through 6, and then exercise the example programs in Chapters 7, 8, and 9 (0 see how it all works. The text is suitable for a one- oF two-semester course in microcontrollers. A two semester course sequence could involve the study of Chapters 1 to 6 in the first semester and Chapters 7. 8. and 9 in the second semester in conjunction with several involved stu- dent programs. A one-semester course might stop with Chapter 7 and use many short student assignments drawn from the problems at the end of each chapter. The only pre- requisite would be introductory topics concerning the basic organization and operation of any digital computer and a working knowledge of using a PC compatible personal computer. ‘No matter what the interest level, I hope all groups will enjoy using the software that has been included on a floppy disk as part of the text. It is my belief that one should not have to buy unique hardware evaluation boards, or other hardware-specific items, in order to “try out” a new microcontrolter. ¥ also believe that it is important to get to the job of writing code as easily and as quickly as possible. The time spent learning to use the hard- ware board, board monitor, board communication software, and other boring overhead is time taken from learning to write code for the microcontroller. The programs included on the disk, an 8051 assembler named ASI, and a simulator, named $51. were both written by David Akey of PscudoCorp, Newport News, Virginia, PseudoCorp has provided us all with a software development environment that is not only casy to use but one that we can uniquely configure for our own special purposes. Details on the assembler and simulator are provided in the proper appendixes; use them as early as possible in your studies. Many points that are awkward to explain verbally become clear when you see them work in the simulator windows! Further information on products developed by PseudoCorp follows this Preface. Thave purposefully not included a great deal of hardware-specific information with the text. If your studies include building working systems that interface digital logic to the microcontroller. you will become very aware of the need for precise understanding of the electrical loading and timing requirements of an operating microcontroller. These details are best discussed in the manufacturer's data book(s) for the microcontroller and any associated memories and interface logic. Timing and loading considerations are not trivial; an experienced designer is required to configure a system that will work reliably. Hopefully, many readers will be from outside the area of electronic design and are mainly concerned with the essentials of programming and interfacing a microcontroller. For these users, I would recommend the purchase of complete boards that have the electrical design completed and clear directions as to how to interface common 1/0 circuits.Many people have played a part in writing this book. Special thanks go to all of the following people: The reviewers of the early, really rough, drafts of the text Richard Barnett, Purdue University Richard Castetlucis, Southern College of Technology Jerry Cockrell, Indiana State University James Grover, University of Akron Chris Conant, Broome Community College—New York Alan Cocchetto, Alfred State College~New York for their thoughtful criticisms and words of encouragement Cecil A. Moore, Staff Applications Engineer for Intel Corporation in Chandler, Arizona, whose meticulous comments have greatly improved the technical accuracy and readability of the text. ‘Tom Tucker of West Publishing for his willingness to experiment. Anne, my wife, for many years of patience and understanding. My students, past and present, who have taught me much more than | have taught them. Finally, let me thank you, the reader. I would be very grateful if any errors of omission or commission are gently pointed out to me by letter or telephone. Thank you for your help. Kenneth J. Ayala Western Carolina University Cullowhee, North CarolinaCHAPTER ee Microprocessors and Microcontrollers Chapter Outline Introduction Development Systems Microprocessors and Microcontrotiers for Microcontrollers ‘The Z80 and the 8051 summary ‘A Microcontroller Survey Introduction ‘The past two decades have seen the introduction of a technology that has radically changed the way in which we analyze and control the world around us. Born of parallel develop- ments in computer architecture and integrated circuit fabrication, the microprocessor, or “computer on a chip,” first became a commercial reality in 1971 with the introduction of the 4-bit 4004 by a small, unknown company by the name of Intel Corporation. Other, more well-established, semiconductor firms soon followed Intel’s pioneering technology 0 that by the late 1970s one could choose from a half dozen or so microprocessor types. ‘The 1970s also saw the growth of the number of personal computer users from a handful of hobbyists and “hackers” to millions of business, industrial, governmental, defense, educational, and ite users now enjoying the advantages of inexpensive ‘computing. A by-product of microprocessor development was the microcontroller. The same fab- rication techniques and programming concepts that make possible the general-purpose microprocessor also yielded the microcontroller. Microcontrollers are not as well known to the general public, or even the technical ‘community, as are the more glamorous microprocessors. The public is, however, very well aware that “something” is responsible for all of the smart VCRs, clock radios, wash-2 CHAPTER ONE ers and dryers. video games. telephones, microwaves, TVs, automobiles, toys, vending machines, copiers, elevators, irons, and a myriad of other artictes that have suddenly be- come intelligent and “programmable.” Companies are also aware that being competitive in this age of the microchip requires their products, or the machinery they use to make those products, to have some “smarts.” The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the concept of a microcontroller and sur- vey a representative group. The remainder of the book will study one of the most popular types, the 8051, in detail, Microprocessors and Microcontrollers FIGURE 1.1 Microprocessors and microcontrollers stem from the same basic idea, are made by the same people, and are sold to the same types of system designers and programmers. What is the difference between the two? Microprocessors A microprocessor, as the term has come to be known, is a general-purpose digital com- puter central processing unit (CPU). Although popularly known as a “computer on a chip,” the microprocessor is in no sense a complete digital computer. Figure 1.1 shows a block diagram of a microprocessor CPU, which contains an arith- ‘metic and logic unit (ALU), a program counter (PC), a Stack pointer (SP), some working registers, a clock timing circuit, and interrupt circuits To make a complete microcomputer, one must add memory, usually read-only pro- gram memory (ROM) and random-access data memory (RAM), memory decoders, an oscillator, and a number of input/output (1/0) devices, such as paralfel and serial data ports. Additionally, special-purpose devices, such as interrupt handlers, or counters, may A Block Diagram of a Microprocessor Arithmetic and Logic Unit ‘Accumulator Working Register(s) Program Counter Stack Pointer Clock Interrupt Circuit CircuitsFIGURE 1.2 MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS. 3 be added to relieve the CPU from time-consuming counting or timing chores. Equipping the microcomputer with a mass storage device, commonly a floppy disk drive, and VO peripherals, such as a keyboard and a CRT display, yields a small computer that can be applied to a range of general-purpose software application ‘The key term in describing the design of the microprocessor is “general-purpose.” ‘The hardware design of a microprocessor CPU is arranged so that a small, or very large. system can be configured around the CPU as the application demands. The internal CPU architecture, as well as the resultant machine level code that operates that architecture, is comprehensive but as flexible as possible. ‘The prime use of a microprocessor is to fetch data, perform extensive calculations on that data, and store those calculations in a mass storage device or display the results for human use. The programs used by the microprocessor are stored in the mass storage de- vice and loaded into RAM as the user directs. A few microprocessor programs are stored in ROM. The ROM-based programs are primarily small fixed programs that operate pe- ripherals and other fixed devices that are connected to the system. The design of the mi- croprocessor is driven by the desire to make it as expandable as possible, in the expecta- tion of commercial success in the marketplace. Microcontrollers Figure 1.2 shows the block diagram of a typical microcontroller, which is a true computer on a chip. The design incorporates all of the features found in a microprocessor CPU: ALU, PC, SP, and registers. It also has added the other features needed to make a com- plete computer: ROM, RAM, parallel! I/O, serial 1/0, counters, and a clock circuit Like the microprocessor, a microcontroller is a general-purpose device. but one which is meant to fetch data, perform limited calculations on that data, and control its A Block Diagram of a Microcontroller AW Timer/Counter i Port ‘Accumulator Register(s) an Port Internal Internal iad Interrupt RAM Circuits Clock ‘Stack Pointer Circuit Program Counter4 (CHAPTER ONE environment based on those calculations. The prime use of a microcontroller is to control the operation of a machine using a fixed program that is stored in ROM and that does not change over the lifetime of the system. ‘The design approach of the microcontroller mirrors that of the microprocessor: make a single design that can be used in as many applications as possible in order to sell, hope- fully, as many as possible. The microprocessor design accomplishes this goal by having a very flexible and extensive repertoire of multi-byte instructions. These instructions work in a hardware configuration that enables large amounts of memory and 1/0 to be con- nected to address and data bus pins on the integrated circuit package. Much of the activity in the microprocessor has to do with moving code and data words to and from external memory to the CPU. The architecture features working registers that can be programmed to take part in the memory access process, and the instruction set is aimed at expediting this activity in order to improve throughput. The pins that connect the microprocessor to external memory are unique, each having a single function, Data is handled in byte, or larger, sizes The microcontroller design uses a much more limited set of single- and double-byte instructions that are used to move code and data from internal memory to the ALU. Many instructions are coupled with pins on the integrated circuit package; the pins arc “pro- grammable”—that is, capable of having several different functions depending upon the wishes of the programmer. The microcontroller is concerned with getting data from and to its own pins: the ar- chitecture and instruction set are optimized to handle data in bit and byte size. Comparing Microprocessors and Microcontrollers The contrast between 2 microcontroller and a microprocessor is best exemplified by the fact that most microprocessors have many operational codes (opcodes) for moving data from external memory to the CPU; microcontrollers may have one, or two. Micto- Processors may have one or two types of bit-handling instructions: microcontrollers will have many. To summarize, the microprocessor is concerned with rapid movement of cade and data from external addresses to the chip; the microcontroller is concerned with rapid movement of bits within the chip. The microcontroller can function as a computer with the addition of no external digital parts: the microprocessor must have many additional parts to be operational. The Z80 and the 8051 To see the differences in concept between a microprocessor and a microcontroller, in the following table we will examine the pin configurations, architecture, and instruction sets, for a very popular 8-bit microprocessor. the Zilog Z80. and an equally ubiquitous micro- controller, the 8-bit Intel 8051: 780 8051 Pin Configurations Total pins 40 40 Address pins 16 (fixed) 16 Data pins 8 (fixed) 8 Interrupt pins 2 (fixed) 2 VO pins o 32 ContinuedMICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS 5 z80 8051 Architecture B-bit registers 20 34 16-bit registers 4 2 Stack size ak 128 Internal ROM 0 4K bytes Internal RAM ° 128 bytes External memory 64K 128K bytes Flags 6 4 Timers ° 2 Parallel port 0 4 Serial port 0 1 Instruction Sets (types/variations) External moves 4/14 216 Block moves 214 0 Bit manipulate aia 122 Jump on bit ° 323 Stack 35, 22 Single byte 203 49 Multi-byte 490 62 Note that the point here is not to show that one design is “better than the other; the two designs are intended to be used for different purposes and in different ways. For ex- ample, the Z80 has a very rich instruction set. The penalty that is paid for this abundance is the number of multi-byte instructions needed, some 71 percent of the total number. Each byte of a multi-byte instruction must be fetched from program memory, and each fetch takes time; this results in longer program byte counts and slower execution time versus single-byte instructions. The 8051 has a 62 percent multi-byte instruction content; the 8051 program is more compact and will run faster to accomplish similar tasks. The disadvantage of using a “lean” instruction set as in the 8051 is increased pro- grammer effort (expense) to write code; this disadvantage can be overcome when writing large programs by the use of high-level languages such as BASIC and C. both of which are popular with 8051 system developers. The price paid for reducing programmer time (there is always a price) is the size of the program generated. A Microcontroller Survey Markets for microcontrollers can run into milions of units per application. At these vol- umes the microcontroller is a commodity item and must be optimized so that cost is at a minimum. Semiconductor manufacturers have produced a mind-numbing array of designs that would seem to meet almost any need. Some of the chips listed in this section are no longer in regular production, most are current, and a few are best termed “smokeware": the dreams of an aggressive marketing department Four-Bit Microcontrollers In a commodity chip, expense is represented more by the volume of the package and the number of pins it has than the amount of silicon inside, To minimize pin count and pack- age size, it is necessary that the basic data word-bit count be held to a minimum, while still enabling useful intelligence to be implemented6 CHAPTER ONE Although 4 bits. in this era of 64-bit “maximicros.” may seem somewhat ludicrous, ‘one must recall that the original 4004 was a 4-bit device, and all else followed. Indeed. in terms of production numbers. the 4-bit microcontroller is today the most popular micro made. The following table lists representative models from major manufacturers’ data hooks. Many of these designs have been licensed to other vendors. RAM ROM Manufacturer:Model Pins:1/O Counters (bytes) (bytes) Other Features Hitachi: HMCS40 28:10 — 32 512 10-bit ROM. National :COP420 28:23 ' 4 IK Serial bit VO. OKI:MSM6d 11 16:11 _ 32 1K T-TMS 1000 2:23 — 64 1K LED display Toshiba: TLCS47 42:35 2 128 2K Serial bit 0 These 4-bit microcontrollers are generally intended for use in large volumes as true ‘computers; expanding external memory, while possible, would negate the cost ad- vantage desired. Typical applications consist of appliances and toys: worldwide volumes tun into the tens of millions. Eight-Bit Microcontrollers Eight-bit microcontrollers represent a transition zone between the dedicated. high volume, 4-bit microcontrollers, and the high performance. 16- and 32-bit units that will conclude this chapter. Eight bits has proven to be a very useful word size for small computing tasks. Ca- pable of 256 decimal values, or quarter-percent resolution. the 1-byte word is adequate for many control and monitoring applications. Serial ASCH data is also stored in byte sizes, making 8 bits the natural choice for data communications. Most integrated circuit memo- ries and many logic functions are arranged in an 8-bit configuration that interfaces easily to data buses of 8 bits. Application volumes for 8-bit microcontrollers may be as high as the 4-bit models, or they may be very low. Application sophistication can also range from simple appliance control to high-speed machine control and data collection. For these reasons, the micro- controller vendors have established extensive “families” of similar models. All feature a common language, but differ in the amount of internal ROM, RAM, and other cost- sensitive features. Often the memory can be expanded to include off-chip ROM and RAM: in some cases. the microcontroller has no on-board ROM at all, or the ROM is an Electrically Reprogrammable Read Only Memory (EPROM), ‘The purpose of this diversity is to offer the designer a menu of similar devices that can solve almost any problem, The ROMIess or EPROM versions can be used by the designer {© prototype the application, and then the designer can order the ROM version in large ‘quantities from the factory. Many times the ROM version is never used. The designer makes the ROMIess or EPROM design sufficiently general so that one configuration may be used many times, or because production volumes never justify the cost of a factory ROM implementation. As a further enticement for the buyer, some families have members with fewer external pins to shrink the package and the cost: others have special features such as analog-to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A) converters on the chip. The 8-bit arena is crowded with capable and cleverly designed contenders; this is the ‘growth segment of the market and the manufacturers are responding vigorously to the marketplace. ‘The following table lists the generic family name for each chip, but keepMICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS 7 in mind that ROMless, EPROM, and reduced pin-count members of the family are also available, Each entry in the table has many variations; the total number of configurations available exceeds a total of eighty types for the cleven model numbers listed. RAM ROM Manufacturer: Model Pins:1/O Counters (bytes) (bytes) Other Features Intel: 8048 40:27 1 64 1K External memory 8k Intel: 8051 40:32 2 128 4K External memory to 128K; serial port National:COP820 28: 1 64 1K Serial bit 1/0 Motorola: 6805 28: 1 64 IK Motorola:68HCI1 52: 2 256 8K Serial ports; A/D; watch dog timer wot) Rockwell: 6500/1 40:32 1 64 2K Signetics:87C552 68:48 3 256 8K Serial port; A/D: WDT T1:TMS7500 40:32 1 128 2K External memory 10 64K TI:TMS370C050 68:55 2 256 4K External memory to 112K; A/D: serial ports; WDT Zilog:Z8 40:32 2 128 2K External memory to 124K; serial port Zilog :28820 44:40 2 272 8K External memory to +f CAUTION Not all of the pins can be used for general-purpose I/O and addressing external memory at the same time, The sales literature should be read with some care to see how many of the pins have more than one function. Inspection of the table shows that the designers made tradeoffs: ex- ternal memory addressing for extra on-chip functions. Generally, the ability to expand memory off of the chip implies that a ROMless family member is available for use in limited production numbers where the expense of factory programming can be avoided. Lack of this feature implies that the chip is meant for high production volumes where the expense of factory- programmed parts can be amortized over a large number of devices. Sixteen-Bit Microcontrollers Eight-bit microcontrollers can be used in a variety of applications that involve limited cal- culations and relatively simple control strategies. As the requirement for faster response and more sophisticated calculations grows, the 8-bit designs begin to hit a limit inherent with byte-wide data words. One solution is to increase clock speeds; another is to increase the size of the data word. Sixteen-bit microcontrollers have evolved to solve high-speed control problems of the type that might typically be confronted in the control of ser- vomechanisms, such as robot arms, or for digital signal processing (DSP) applications. The designs become much more focused on these types of real-time problems; some generality is lost, but the vendors still try to hit as many marketing targets as they can. The following table lists only three contenders. Intel has recently begun vigorously marketingthe $0% Lamy Other vendors are expected to appear as this market segment grows in inportanee. RAM ROM Manufacturer: Model Pins:1/O Counters (bytes) (bytes) Other Features Hitachi: H8/532 84:65 5 1K 32K External memory to 1 megabyte; serial port; A/D; pulse width modulation Intel :8096 68:40 2 232 8K —_ External memory to 64K; serial port; A/D; WDT; pulse width modulation National: HPCI6164 68:52 4 $12 16K External memory to 64K; serial port: AID; WDT; pulse width modutation The pulse width modulation (PWM) output is useful for controlling motor speed: it can be done using software in the 8-bit units with the usual loss of time for other tasks. ‘The 16- (and 32-) bit controllers have also been designed to take advantage of high- level programming languages in the expectation that very little assembly language pro- gramming will be done when employing these controlters in sophisticated applications. Thirty-Two Bit Microcontrollers Crossing the boundary from 16 to 32 bits involves more than merely doubling the word size of the computer. Software boundaries that separate dedicated programs from super visory programs are also breached. Thirty two bit designs target robotics, highly intell ‘gent instrumentation, avionics, image processing, telecommunications, automobiles, and other environments that feature application programs running under an operating system. ‘The line between microcomputers and microcontrollers becomes very fine here, ‘The design emphasis now switches from on-chip features, such as RAM, ROM, timers, and serial ports, to high-speed computation features. The following table provides a general list of the capability of the Inte! 80960: HARDWARE FEATURES SOFTWARE FEATURES 132-pin ceramic package Efficient procedure calls 20 megahertz clack Fault-handling capability 32-bit bus Trace events Floating-point unit Global registers §12-byte instruction cache Efficient interrupt vectors Interrupt control Versatile addressing All of the functions needed for 1/0, data communications, and timing and counting are done by adding other specialized chips. This manufacturer has dubbed all of its microcontrollers “embedded controllers,” a term that seems to describe the function of the 32-bit 80960 very well.MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS, 9 Development Systems for Microcontrollers Summary What is needed to be able to apply a microcontroller to your product? That is, what pack- age of hardware and software will allow the microcontroller to be programmed and con- nected to your application? A package commonly called a “development system” is required First, trained personnel must be available either on your technical staff or as consul tants. One person who is versed in digital hardware and computer software is the mini- mum number. Second, a device capable of programming EPROMs must be available to test the prototype device. Many of the microcontroller families discussed have a ROMIess ver- sion, an EPROM version, or an Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Mem- ory (EEPROM) version that lets the designer debug the hardware and software prototype before committing to full-scale production. Many inexpensive EPROM programmers are sold that plug into a slot of most popular personal computers. More expensive, and more versatile, dedicated programmers are also available. An alternative to EPROMs are vendor- supplied prototype cards that allow code to be down loaded from a host computer, and the program run from RAM for debugging purposes. An EPROM will eventually have to be ‘Programmed for the production version of the microcontroller. Finally, software is needed, along with a personal computer to host it. The minimum software package consists of a machine language assembler. which can be supplied by the microcontroller vendor or bought from independent developers. More expensive software mainly consisting of high-level language compilers and debuggers is also available. ‘A minimum development system, then, consists of a personal computer, a plug-in EPROM programmer, and a public-brand assembler. A more extensive system would con- sist of vendor-supplied dedicated computer systems with attendant high-level software packages and in-circuit emulators for hardware and software debugging. In 1990 dollars, the cost for the range of solutions outlined here is from $1000 to $10,000. ‘The fundamental differences between microprocessors and microcontrollers are: © Microprocessors are intended to be general-purpose digital computers while micro- controllers are intended to be special-purpose digital controllers, © Microprocessors contain a CPU, memory addressing circuits, and interrupt han- dling circuits. Microcontrotiers have these features as well as timers. parallel and serial 1/O, and internal RAM and ROM. © Microcontroller models vary in data size from 4 to 32 bits. Four-bit units are pro- duced in huge volumes for very simple applications, and 8-bit units are the most versatile. Sixteen- and 32-bit units are used in high-speed control and signal pro- cessing applications. © Many models feature programmable pins that allow external memory to be added with the loss of 1/0 capability. :10 CHAPTER ONE Questions 1, Name four major differences between a microprocessor and a microcontroller. 2. The 8051 has 40 pins on a Dual Inline Package (DIP) package. yet the comparison with the Z80 microprocessor totals 58 pins. Explain this difference, 3. Name 20 items that have a built-in microcontroller. microcontroller, 4, Name 10 items that should have a built 5. Name the most unusual application of a microcontroller that you have seen actually for sale 6. Name the most likely bit size for each of the following products. Modem Printer Toaster Automobile engine control Robot arm Small ASCH data terminat Chess player House thermostat 7. Explain why ROMIess versions of microcontrollers exist 8. Name wo ways to speed up digital data processing 9. List three essential items needed to make up a development system for programming microcontroller. 10. Search the literature and determine whether any manufacturer has announced a 64-bit microcontroller.