1

Suggested Citation: Haznedar, B. & Uysal, H. H. (2010). Introduction:

!"racing t#eory and $ractice in teac#ing languages to young learners. In B.
Haznedar & H. H. Uysal (ds.). Handbook for teaching foreign languages to young
learners in primary schools ($$. 1%20). &n'ara: &n( )u"lications.


Introduction: Embracing Theory and Practice in
Teaching Languages to Young Learners


Belma HAZNEDAR
Hacer Hande UYSAL


Changing perspectives in teaching foreign languages to young
learners
In recent years, *it# t#e in+luence o+ glo"alization and t#e increasing
i!$ortance o+ nglis# as an international language in *orld
co!!unication, !any uro$ean (,er!any, Italy, U-, ,reece, S$ain) and
&sian countries (e.g. -orea, .a$an, /#ailand) #a0e ta'en ste$s to introduce
t#e teac#ing o+ nglis# to c#ildren at an earlier age (+or a detailed
discussion o+ t#e issue see 1i'olo0a, 20023 1i'ilo0 & Curtain, 20003 )aul,
20043 1unan, 20043 and also -(r'g5z6s c#a$ter in t#is 0olu!e). 7or instance,
uro$ean Union countries introduced nglis# to t#eir $ri!ary curriculu!
and t#e age o+ "eginning instruction "eca!e 8 in 2002. Si!ilarly, +oreign
language $olicy #as undergone c#anges in /ur'ey as *ell. Under t#e ne*
la* t#at too' e++ect in 199:, and in a *ay rene*ed in 200;, it "eca!e
2

o"ligatory +or $ri!ary sc#ool students to start studying a +oreign language
1

as $art o+ t#e core $ri!ary curriculu! +ro! ,rade <.
/#is ne* re+or! in /ur'ey necessitated a ne* +oreign language
education curriculu! at $ri!ary le0el "ased on t#e constructi0ist and t#e
co!!unicati0e $ers$ecti0es. &ccordingly, a ne* course in $re%ser0ice =/
$rogra!s at uni0ersities > ?teac#ing nglis# to young learners@ *as
introduced and a series o+ in%ser0ice education se!inars *ere organized "y
t#e Ainistry o+ 1ational ducation to +a!iliarize t#e nglis# language
teac#ers *it# t#e ne* curriculu! goals and t#e constructi0ist and
co!!unicati0e teac#ing $#iloso$#ies, and to eBui$ t#e! *it# s$ecial s'ills
to "e a"le to teac# young learners (-(r'g5z, 200:3 Airici, 2008).
1e0ert#eless, t#ese teac#er $re$aration e++orts +ell s#ort o+ t#e desired
goals in curriculu! $lanning and $olicy, regarding teac#ing nglis# to
young learners due to t#e ra$idity o+ t#e c#anges *it#out esta"lis#ing t#e
necessary in+rastructure. Se0eral studies #a0e re$orted t#at nglis#
language teac#ers (#ence+ort# =/) are still una*are o+ t#e s$ecial needs o+
young learners, t#us teac#ing t#roug# traditional teac#ing !et#ods
in0ol0ing teac#er%centered instruction, eC$licit gra!!ar instruction, and
translation o+ +or!s into +irst language e0en in $ri!ary sc#ools (Hin'el &
7otos, 20023 -(r'g5z, 2002a,"). /#is situation indicates t#at t#e long lasting
$ro"le!s *it# regard to +oreign language teac#ing in /ur'ey are still going
on, and t#e 'no*ledge "ase o+ teac#ers *it# regard to teac#ing young
learners is seriously de+icient.
,i0en t#is situation, t#e !ain o"Decti0e o+ t#is 0olu!e is to contri"ute to
7= teac#ersE "ot# $re%ser0ice and in%ser0ice $ro+essional de0elo$!ent "y
$ro0iding t#e! *it# t#e necessary t#eoretical 'no*ledge "ase as *ell as
$ractical suggestions and classroo! acti0ities concerning young learners.
/#is 0olu!e es$ecially e!$#asizes and illustrates t#eoretical as$ects o+
+oreignFsecond language (=2) learning in c#ildren as $rereBuisite +or
$ractical a$$lications "ecause *e "elie0e t#at "eing a*are o+ t#e studies
in0estigating 0aria"les a++ecting t#e nature o+ young learners classroo!s
#as a strong !erit in in+or!ing our $edagogical decisions.

1
1ot to !ention t#at !any learners "egin learning nglis# e0en "e+ore t#is
age, in $articular in $ri0ate sc#ools in /ur'ey.


7or t#at reason, *e ai! to eC$and t#e $icture *#ic# researc# on young
learners #as "uilt u$ since t#e !id 1990s and to "ring toget#er researc#ers
and teac#ers *or'ing *it# young language learners +or an eCc#ange o+ t#e
!ost recent 0ie*s in t#is crucial area in /ur'ey. /#is is a 0ery i!$ortant
+eature o+ t#is 0olu!e "ecause *#ile t#e issues o+ age e++ects, language
trans+er, t#e!eFtas'%"ased !et#odology, story use, co!$uter tec#nology
etc. #a0e long "een t#e to$ic o+ intense researc# o0er t#e $ast ten years in
t#e +ield o+ +oreign language education, to t#e "est o+ our 'no*ledge, no
s$ecial 0olu!e, *#ic# integrates t#eory and $ractice in an accessi"le *ay,
eCists on teac#ing +oreign languages to young learners in /ur'ey. /#e
!aDority o+ t#e a0aila"le "oo's and re+erences $ri!arily +ocus on 0arious
ty$es o+ acti0ities and tas's t#at can "e used in young learners6 classroo!s
(e.g. )#illi$s, 19943 =e*is & Bedson, 199<3 rs5z, 200:3 -arag5z%Gnce, 200:).
Ho*e0er, as t#e acti0ities in t#ese "oo's are not grounded in a sound
t#eoretical "ase, it is not clear *#et#er suc# indi0idual acti0ities *ould
*or' in real classroo! settings or not. /o t#is end, t#is 0olu!e di++ers +ro!
ot#er *or's in its e!$#asis on connecting t#eory *it# $ractice, +illing a
ga$ "et*een t#eoretical "oo's and resource "oo's.
In t#is regard, t#is #and"oo' is an atte!$t to $ro0ide a co!$re#ensi0e
o0er0ie* o+ so!e crucial issues surrounding t#e teac#ing o+ young
learners. &s can "e seen in eac# c#a$ter, it co0ers a *ide s$ectru! o+
t#eoretical issues in young learner classroo!s and $a0es *ay +or
discussion on t#e i!$lications o+ t#ese issues +or classroo! $ractice. /#e
0olu!e e!$#asizes on $ri!ary le0el language $olicies, curriculu! and
sylla"us ty$es, and s$ecial classroo! tec#niBues and a$$ro$riate
!et#odology. It also $ro0ides $ractical ad0ice and guidance +or teac#ers
t#roug# sa!$le lesson $lans and acti0ities on integrated language s'ills,
0oca"ulary and gra!!ar teac#ing, !aterials de0elo$!ent, use o+
tec#nology and stories, as *ell as *ays o+ assess!ent and e0aluation +or
young learners.
In *#at +ollo*s, *e +irst "rie+ly discuss so!e crucial issues in regard to
young learner classroo!s and t#en su!!arize eac# c#a$ter o+ t#e 0olu!e
*it# a +ocus on t#eir s$ecial contri"ution to t#is 0olu!e.
Who are young learners?
!

Hn standard assu!$tions, young learners, also 'no*n as c#ild second
language (=2) learners, re+er to c#ildren *#ose +irst eC$osure to anot#er
language occurs a+ter t#eir +irst language #as "een esta"lis#ed +or at least 4%
; years (Ac=aug#lin, 19:23 Sc#*artz, 2004a,"3 Aeisel, 2002). I#ile t#e
lo*er%"ound di++erentiating c#ild =2 +ro! +irst language (=1) is considered
to "e around age 4 (Ac=aug#lin, 19:2), as $ointed out correctly "y
=a's#!anan (199;), not all as$ects o+ t#e +irst language are acBuired
around age 4. Jes$ite lac' o+ agree!ent a!ong researc#ers and
$ractitioners, t#e u$$er%"ound di++erentiating c#ild =2 learners +ro! adult
=2 learners, on t#e ot#er #and, is considered to "e :%10 years old, *#ic# is
in +act an issue relating to t#e critical $eriod de"ate discussed in t#e
+ollo*ing section (e.g. .o#nson & 1e*$ort, 19293 Aeisel, 20023 Sc#*artz,
20043 also see Je-eyser & =arson%Hall, 200; +or a recent o0er0ie* o+ t#e
critical $eriod #y$ot#esis). &s in 'no*n, in 7= conteCts young learners
are generally re+erred to c#ildren aged siC to t*el0e. ,i0en t#e sco$e and
t#e o"Decti0es o+ t#e t#is #and"oo', our !aDor +ocus in t#is study concerns
c#ildren aged 8%12.
Age of acqus!on
I+ t#ere is anyt#ing a"out second language acBuisition t#at #as attracted
so !uc# attention and #as led to !uc# contro0ersy all o0er t#e *orld, it is
$ro"a"ly t#e de"ate a"out t#e age o+ acBuisition, $er#a$s !ainly "ecause
!any c#ild =2 learners generally $er+or! "etter t#an adult language
learners (e.g. Hya!a, 19:8, 19:23 )at'o*s'i, 19203 -ras#en, Scarcella, &
=ong, 19223 7eliC, 192;, 19913 Singleton, 19293 =ong, & =arsen%7ree!an,
19913 .o#nson & 1e*$ort, 19293 Bley%Kro!an, 19903 .o#nson, 19923 Sla0o++,
,.L. & .o#nson, 199;). &ccording to !any researc# +indings, t#e younger
t#e c#ild is *#en =2 acBuisition starts, t#e "etter $ro+iciency t#e c#ild
arri0es at. In #is long re0ie* on =2 de0elo$!ent, =ong (1990) re$orts a
nu!"er o+ studies s#o*ing t#at starting a+ter age 8 a$$ears to !a'e it
i!$ossi"le +or !any learners to ac#ie0e nati0e%li'e $ro+iciency in
$#onology, and starting later t#an t#e early teens see!s to create si!ilar
$ro"le!s in !or$#ology and syntaC. =ong notes t#at studies s#o*ing an
initial rate ad0antage +or adults o0er c#ildren and +or older c#ildren o0er
young c#ildren s#ould "e inter$reted as only a s#ort%ter! rate ad0antage.
I#at #e suggests is t#at "ot# initial rate o+ acBuisition and ulti!ate
attain!ent de$end on t#e age at *#ic# learning "egins. It is suggested t#at
"

t#ere are sensiti0e $eriods go0erning language de0elo$!ent during *#ic#
t#e acBuisition o+ s$eci+ic language a"ilities is !ore success+ul and a+ter
*#ic# language acBuisition is so!e*#at inco!$lete. =ong e!$#asizes t#at
t#e age%related loss o+ language learning a"ility is cu!ulati0e rat#er t#an a
one%s#ot e0ent a++ecting se0eral linguistic do!ains successi0ely and t#is
loss is not li!ited to $#onology. =oss o+ language learning a"ility is
clai!ed to "egin as early as 8. H0erall, =ong argues t#at e0en t#oug# t#ere
is no single critical age, t#e a"ility to learn a second language *ea'ens "y
ti!e and t#e $ossi"ility o+ reac#ing t#e nati0e%li'e ulti!ate attain!ent
descreases. It s#ould "e noted, #o*e0er, t#at recent classroo!%"ased
researc# $resents e0idence +or "etter $er+or!ance o+ older learners, as *ell
(e.g. Cenoz, 20043 AuMoz, 2008). Indeed, older learners #a0e "een re$orted
to !a'e +aster initial $rogress in t#e acBuisition o+ gra!!atical and leCical
co!$onents o+ an =2, due to t#eir #ig#er le0els o+ cogniti0e !aturity and
analytical s'ills (e.g. Harley & Iang, 199:).
&s can "e seen, reac#ing a consensus a!ong researc#ers and $ro0iding
an eC$lanation +or t#e $#eno!enon a$$ear to "e +ar +ro! conclusi0e. In
t#e last ten years, so!e researc#ers #a0e s#o*n rene*ed interest in age
e++ects (e.g. Hyltensta! & &"ra#a!sson, 2001), ot#ers #a0e "een !ainly
critical in t#e *ay t#ey #a0e a$$roac#ed =2 learning in c#ild#ood (e.g.
Singleton, 2001).
/#e reason *#y age o+ acBuisition #as recei0ed so !uc# attention in t#e
literature is !ainly due to its $ractical and t#eoretical $otentials. 7or t#e
$ro$onents o+ t#e Nt#e younger t#e "etter6 a$$roac#, early introduction o+
anot#er language reBuires s$ecial treat!ent +or !aCi!u! $edagogical
"ene+its (Aarino0a%/odd et al., 20003 Sco0el, 1922). 7ro! a t#eoretical
$ers$ecti0e it #as +ar%reac#ing inter$retations in cogniti0e and neurological
as$ects o+ language acBuisition (e.g. 1e*$ort, 19913 )ul0er!Oller &
Sc#u!ann, 199<).
H0erall, one can argue t#at nor!ally de0elo$ing c#ildren can learn
anot#er language at an early age, gi0en su++icient eC$osure and interaction.
Hur +ocus in t#is #and"oo' is restricted to young c#ildren *#o start
learning a +oreignFsecond language in t#e early years o+ sc#ooling (!ainly
<t# and ;t# graders), "ecause t#is is t#e age range !ost teac#ers in /ur'ey
need su$$ort in t#eir teac#ing $ractice, due to t#e relati0ely recent
#

introduction o+ +oreign languages in /ur'is# $ri!ary sc#ools. H"0iously, it
is i!$ortant to 'ee$ in !ind at t#is $oint t#at eC$osure to t#e
secondF+oreign language in /ur'ey is !ostly li!ited to class settings.
"rmary foregn language !eachng n #ur$ey
Under t#e ne* legislation o+ t#e /ur'is# educational syste!,
co!$ulsory education lasts +or 2 years, until t#e age o+ 1; years. It is
$ro0ided "y state sc#ools and $ri0ate sc#ools and is di0ided into t#ree
cycles: /#e +irst cycle o+ $ri!ary education caters +or c#ildren "et*een t#e
ages o+ : and 11, and t#e second cycle o+ $ri!ary education co!$rises
grades 8, :, and 2, c#ildren "et*een 12, 14, and 1<. Hig# sc#ool education
starts a+ter t#e 2t# year o+ sc#ooling, consisting o+ +our years o+ education,
eit#er in general education t#at $ro0ides access to #ig#er education, or in
0ocational education *#ic# is !ainly c#aracterized "y a dual syste! in
*#ic# education is $ro0ided "y t#e *or'$lace and t#e sc#ool. Since 199:,
$ri!ary sc#ools #a0e "een c#arged *it# introducing c#ildren in ,rade < to
a +oreign language. nglis# is "y +ar t#e !ost co!!on and !ost
intensi0ely taug#t +oreign language in /ur'ey, +ollo*ed "y 7renc# and
,er!an in so!e $ri0ate sc#ools ('!e'Pi, 20043 ,enP, 200<).
2
7or
languages taug#t as co!$ulsory su"Dect, t#e nu!"er o+ $eriods $er year
and *ee' is $rescri"ed in t#e national curriculu!. /#e ti!e allocated to
eac# language de$ends on students6 grade and t#e ty$e o+ t#e sc#ool,
ranging +ro! 2 #ours to 2 #ours $er *ee'. Hn a0erage students aged 11%1;
recei0e 2%< #ours o+ instruction in nglis# $er *ee'. 7or students aged 1;%
1:, t#e a0erage a!ount o+ ti!e allocated to nglis# is 4 #ours $er *ee'.
%e!hodology n young learners& classrooms
& nu!"er o+ resource "oo's on teac#ing nglis# to young learners
e!$#asize t#e +ollo*ing $rinci$les, all o+ *#ic# deri0e +ro! recent
t#eorizing in t#e +ield *it# a +ocus on classroo! $ractice (e.g. Ca!eron,
20013 Halli*ell, 19923 House, 199:3 Aoon, 20003 )#illi$s, 19943 )inter, 20083
LiCon, 19993 Scott & Qtre"erg, 19903 and Slattery & Iillis, 2001).
=istening and s$ea'ing s#ould "e taug#t +irst.

2
Hne s#ould note t#at t#e !aDority o+ t#e $ri0ate sc#ools t#at o++er 7renc# and
,er!an usually "egin in t#e u$$er secondary sc#ools.
$

/#e $ri!ary +ocus s#ould "e on !eaning rat#er t#an +or!.
&cti0ities s#ould "e +un and enDoya"le.
&cti0ities s#ould in0ol0e RdoingR or $er+or!ing tas's.
&cti0ities s#ould create a need or a desire to co!!unicate.
Qoung learners s#ould +eel relaCed in t#e classroo!.
=anguage use s#ould "e illustrated "y use o+ o"Dects, $ictures,
actions or gesture.
Suita"le acti0ities include use o+ r#y!es, songs, stories, $oe!s,
dra!a, $roDectFt#e!e%"ased a$$roac#es and /)L acti0ities.
/#e use o+ Ec#un'sE o+ language s#ould "e $ro!oted.
=essons s#ould "e conducted in t#e =2 as !uc# as $ossi"le.
/#ere s#ould "e a 0ariety o+ acti0ities.
Classroo! routines s#ould "e esta"lis#ed.
&cti0ities s#ould use c#ildrenEs sense o+ i!agination.
/as's s#ould "e si!$le enoug# +or c#ildren to understand *#at
t#ey are eC$ected to do.
&cti0ities s#ould "e de!anding, "ut not too de!anding, and !ust
"e ac#ie0a"le.
I#ile *e do not Buestion t#e i!$ortance o+ t#ese $rinci$les in teac#ing
to young learners in class settings, *e *ould li'e to ta'e a ste$ +urt#er and
argue t#at t#ese $rinci$les s#ould "e su$$orted *it# researc# +indings in
t#e +ield and t#at teac#ers s#ould see t#e rele0ance o+ t#eir classroo!
$ractice. In !ost cases, teac#ers are $ro0ided co$ies o+ $#otoco$ia"le
!aterials *#ic# are not necessarily lin'ed to young learners6
de0elo$!ental stages or catering indi0idual di++erences a!ong students. It
is, t#ere+ore, not clear to *#at eCtent young learners can "ene+it +ro! suc#
teac#ing !aterials, an i!$ortant issue *#ic# is addressed in 0arious
$ortions o+ t#is 0olu!e.
'n!egra!ed language s$lls
In order to "e a"le to $resent and discuss in detail t#e t#eoretical
"ac'ground "e#ind t#e teac#ing o+ language s'ills, t#e s'ills *ere
%

$resented in a distinct and se$arate !anner in t#is 0olu!e. Ho*e0er, *e
*ould li'e to caution readers not to inter$ret t#is organization in style
*#ic# introduced s'ills se$arately as an indicator t#at *e su$$ort a
segregated%s'ill a$$roac#. In contrast, *e strongly concur *it# t#e recent
a$$roac#es su$$orting integrated%s'ill a$$roac#es in language classes, and
es$ecially *it# young learners. &lt#oug# learning a language and using it
at t#e sa!e ti!e !ay "e di++icult (Hyland, 2004) resulting in c#allenges in
i!$le!entation o+ an integrated s'ill a$$roac# *it# lo* $ro+iciency
ele!entary sc#ool learners, e0ery e++ort s#ould "e !ade to integrate all
language s'ills into our teac#ing. Instead o+ *aiting +or students to learn
t#e language rules, listen, read and t#en start to s$ea' and *rite in t#e
target language, *e s#ould *or' all s'ills toget#er. Studies #a0e re0ealed
t#at language acBuisition and $roduction can occur si!ultaneously along
*it# so!e sort o+ attention ta'ing to +or! (S*ain, 2000). Lesearc# also
suggests t#at +unctional listening and reading as *ell as s$ea'ing and
*riting s#ould "e esential in designing classroo! acti0ities "ecause all
t#ese s'ills interact *it# and su$$ort one anot#er (7ree!an & 7ree!an,
1992, $. 122). /#ere+ore, i+ *e +irst +ocus on so!e s'ills, "ut delay ot#ers,
t#at !eans ?*e are li!iting c#oices and *ays to su$$ort our students6
learning@ (7ree!an & 7ree!an, 1992, $. 124). 7or t#at reason, *e s#ould
integrate all s'ills in classroo! tas's as !uc# as $ossi"le suc# as
encouraging our students to ta'e notes a+ter listening, to *rite a+ter
s$ea'ing and discussing, and t#en to s$ea' again on *#at *as *ritten and
listen to eac# ot#er at t#e sa!e ti!e.

1& 'eatures of this volume
It is i!$ortant to #ig#lig#t at t#is $oint t#at *#ile al!ost all o+ t#e
c#a$ters o+ t#is 0olu!e deal *it# nglis# language teac#ing, *e argue t#at
t#e 0ie*s and $ers$ecti0es articulated in t#e contri"utions o+ t#e $resent
#and"oo' +or nglis# can "e a$$lied to ot#er languages, as c#anging
$ers$ecti0es in language learning and teac#ing occur no !atter *#ic#
language is under discussion. Iit# s$ecial e!$#asis on nglis#, -(r'g5z6s
c#a$ter eCa!ines !acro le0el and !icro le0el language $olicies ado$ted in
t#e /ur'is# educational syste!. 1oone can deny t#at si!ilar 0ie*s on
decision !a'ing $rocesses at !acro le0el are a$$lica"le to teac#ing
(

languages ot#er t#an nglis#. Si!ilarly, &'can6s c#a$ter eCa!ines #o*
young learners6 classroo!s can "e enric#ed "ased on !odern language
teac#ing !et#odologies. Besides, Bayyurt6s c#a$ter in0estigates t#e crucial
$ro$erty o+ tas'Ft#e!e%"ased teac#ing, !any di++erent acti0ities "eing
lin'ed toget#er "y t#eir content, *#ic# *e "elie0e, is i!$ortant +or
teac#ing +oreign languages in general, not Dust teac#ing nglis# to young
c#ildren. Hn si!ilar grounds, in contrast to co!!on concerns on gra!!ar
teac#ing in t#e young learner classroo!, recent studies suggest t#at +ocus%
on%+or! instruction

#as a $ositi0e e++ect on t#e second language $ro+iciency
o+

young learners (Aitc#ell, 20003 1orris & Hrtega, 20003 Iillia!s, 200;3
llis, 2008). 7or Iiddo*son (1990), +or eCa!$le, *#en learners are le+t to
t#eir o*n resources, Nt#ey do not 0ery readily in+er 'no*ledge o+ t#e
language syste! +ro! t#eir co!!unicati0e acti0ities6 ($. 181). /#ere+ore,
so!e +or! o+ +ocus on linguistic +eatures are considered to "e use+ul in
order to desta"ilize learners6 interlanguage (llis, 2008). Legarding t#is
#otly de"ated issue in +oreign language teac#ing, Uysal in t#is 0olu!e
$ro0ides a su"stanti0e o0er0ie* o+ recent trends *#ic# #a0e

i!$lications
+or "ot# t#e i!$le!entation o+ +ocus%on%+or! instruction

at $ri!ary sc#ool
le0el, and t#e !ani$ulation and su$$licance o+ +eed"ac' +or errors
$roduced "y young learners at t#is le0el. &s is 'no*n, e0aluation is an
essential co!$onent o+ any ty$e o+ curriculu! !odel and language
teac#ing !et#odology (Clar', 192:3 Lic#ards, 192<3 1unan, 192;3 I#ite,
1922). It is only t#roug# !onitoring and syste!atic e0aluation t#at *e can
co!$are and ta'e nesessary actions in ter!s o+ +ailure and de+icits
o"ser0ed in t#e syste!. In line *it# recent de0elo$!ents in t#e +ield
Sar(Po"an and -OntaS6s c#a$ter +ocusses on t#is #ig#ly neglected area in
t#e young learner classroo! and $resents recent $ers$ecti0es on asses!ent
and e0aluation.
Iit# its e!$#asis on "ot# t#eory and $ractice, t#is "oo' is #ig#ly li'ely
to #a0e a strong i!$act on +uture *or' *it# young learners. H0erall, a
0olu!e suc# as t#is is intended to #el$ teac#ers and student teac#ers #a0e
access to t#eoretical and $ractical $ers$ecti0es, o++ering o$$ortunities +or
critical engage!ent *it# recent ideas and +indings.
In addition, in grou$ing toget#er in a single 0olu!e t#e !ost recent
de0elo$!ents, t#is "oo' $ro0ides a uniBue o$$ortunity +or readers to
1)

re0ie* t#e c#anging $ers$ecti0es and tendencies in +oreign language
teac#ing.
Who s !hs (oo$ for?
/#is "oo' is $ri!arily addressed to undergraduate students o+ +oreign
language education de$art!ents in education +aculties. It can "e used at
t#e senior undergraduate le0el as a re+erence "oo' +or a se!inar on to$ics
suc# as secondF+oreign language learning in c#ild#ood, language $olicy
and curriculu! de0elo$!ent, !et#odology +or young learners, *it#
s$ecial re+erence to story%"ased and tas'Ft#e!e%"ased teac#ing,
intercultural co!!unication and assess!ent and e0aluation +or young
learners. It could also "e used as a su$$le!ental re+erence +or a !ore
general o0er0ie* +or graduate students *#o do not #a0e !uc#
"ac'ground in language learning and teac#ing.
In addition, t#is 0olu!e could "e use+ul +or $ractising $ri!ary le0el
language teac#ers as a source +or $ro+essional de0elo$!ent in a +ield *#ic#
#as !ade considera"le ad0ances in recent years. 7inally, t#e "oo' *ould "e
in+or!ati0e to $olicy !a'ers and curriculu! de0elo$ers interested in u$%
to%date researc# de0elo$!ents in +oreign language education "ot# in
t#eoretical and $ractical ter!s.
So!e c#a$ters o+ t#e 0olu!e are intended to suggest *ays t#at teac#ing
$ractices in young learners classroo!s are e++iciently designed, ot#ers +ocus
on #o* s'ill de0elo$!ent $roceeds in c#ildren in anot#er gra!!atical
syste!, and so!e ot#ers #ig#lig#t t#eoretical $ers$ecti0es o+
+oreignFsecond language learning *it# a +ocus on #o* educators and
teac#ers could $ut t#eory into $ractice. In *#at +ollo*s, *e "rie+ly
su!!arize eac# c#a$ter *it# a +ocus on t#e s$eci+ics o+ t#eir contri"ution
to t#is 0olu!e.

2& The chapters of this volume
&s #as "een e!$#asized, t#e contri"utions in t#is 0olu!e start *it#
t#eoretical "ac'ground in+or!ation +ollo*ed "y $ractical suggestions or
classroo! i!$lications and sa!$le acti0ities and eCa!$les related to
young learners, in $articular *it# res$ect to recent $ers$ecti0es in
11

language teac#ing. /o t#is end, t#e 0olu!e is organized in ter!s o+ +our
!aDor t#e!es:
(i) =anguage $olicy, language acBuisitionFlearning, !et#odology
and sylla"us are t#e $ri!ary concerns in0estigated in -(r'g5z,
Haznedar, &'can, and Bayyurt3
(ii) =anguage s'ills are addressed in QO'sel, ,Or"Oz, ,Ol%)e'er,
and Qang(n%rsanl(3
(iii) Conte!$orary a$$roac#es in teac#ing to young learners are
in0estigated in Ta'(r, Uysal, Haznedar, &'$(nar, and rPetin3
(iv) &ssess!ent and e0aluation are addressed in 'Si and Sar(Po"an
and -OntaS.
Language )olcy* language acqus!on+learnng* me!hodology* and
sylla(us
In #er contri"ution, *+r,g-. re$orts recent ad0ances in +oreign
language $olicy in /ur'ey, *it# s$ecial e!$#asis on t#e ne* curriculu!
introduced +or teac#ing nglis# to young learners. )arallel to recent trends
in !any countries t#at #a0e lo*ered t#e age o+ eC$osure to nglis# in
$ri!ary sc#ools, +ollo*ing t#e &ct o+ 4<08 *#ic# *as i!$le!ented in 199:,
/ur'ey #as also introduced c#anges in t#e national curriculu! as $art o+ its
+oreign language education $olicy in order to ada$t its curriculu! to t#e
uro$ean Union standards and to res$ond to t#e c#anging nature o+ t#e
glo"alized *orld at !acro le0el. /#e early introduction o+ nglis# #as also
necessitated t#e need to re0ise t#e +oreign language curriculu!, and to
introduce inno0ati0e teac#ing !et#ods. In t#is c#a$ter, -(r'g5z discusses
t*o !aDor curriculu! inno0ations in /ur'ey, t#e +irst one in 199:, and t#e
second one in 200;, regarding nglis# language teac#ing (=/) in $ri!ary
education. S#e argues t#at t#e s$eed o+ t#e nation*ide i!$le!entation o+
t#e curriculu! inno0ation $resented 0arious $ro"le!s and c#allenges in
$articular regarding teac#er education, ti!e +ra!e and in%ser0ice teac#er
training $rogra!s designed and i!$le!ented "y t#e !inistry o+ education.
/a.nedar0s contri"ution +ocuses on !o0ing +ro! t#eory to $ractice in
language teac#ing in early c#ild#ood. Haznedar suggests t#at t#eoretical
*or' in c#ild second language (=2) acBuisition studies o0er t#e last se0eral
decades can contri"ute signi+icantly to a "etter understanding o+ language
teac#ing to young learners. Haznedar addresses t#ree !aDor $#eno!ena in
12

c#ild =2 acBuisition, *it# s$ecial re+erence to (i) t#e role o+ t#e +irst
language in c#ild =2 acBuisition, (ii) gradual de0elo$!ent in c#ild =2
gra!!ars, (iii) error ty$es $roduced "y young =2 learners, *#ic# all #a0e
t#e $otential to $resent crucial i!$lications +or classroo! teac#ing.
In regard to !et#odology +or young learners classroo!s, 1,can re0ie*s
language teac#ing !et#odologies *it# a +ocus on learning eC$eriences t#at
surround young learners *it# !eaning+ul and interacti0e literacy%"ased
acti0ities in order to su$$ort second language de0elo$!ent. S#e +irst
discusses so!e !et#odologies *#ic# +ocus on +or! and oral language, and
t#en $roceeds *it# !ore co!!unicati0e a$$roac#es *#ic# can #el$
young learners attend to language and content !atter 'no*ledge.
Co!$ati"le *it# recent t#eorizing on young learners, &'can argues t#at
young c#ildren learn language as a !ediu! o+ co!!unication "y using it
t#roug# $ur$ose+ul, real, and #ere and no* eC$eriences.
2ayyurt6s *or' +ocuses $ri!arily on tas'%"ased sylla"us. Bayyurt +irst
$resents in+or!ation a"out di++erent sylla"us ty$es and argues t#at a tas'%
"ased sylla"us designed around +a!iliar to$ics *ould "e t#e !ost e++icient
one +or young learners. S#e su$$orts #er argu!ent *it# a t#oroug#
discussion o+ t#e t#eoretical "asis o+ tas'%"ased language learning and
teac#ing. /#en, a+ter eC$laining in detail *#at a tas' in0ol0es and gi0ing
in+or!ation a"out di++erent tas' ty$es, Bayyurt suggests *ays to de0elo$ a
tas'%"ased sylla"us.
Language s$lls
Y3,sel discusses listening and t#e teac#ing o+ listening *it# regard to
young learners and argues t#at listening is a +oundation s'ill +or ot#er
language s'ills. /#e c#a$ter $rogresses around t#ree !ain to$ics *#ic# are
t#e listening $rocess, listening s'ills, and listening in t#e classroo!. QO'sel
+irst descri"es t#e listening $rocess and t#en eC$lains t#e $ur$ose and
ty$es o+ listening (one%*ay and t*o%*ay listening). In t#e second #al+ o+
#er c#a$ter, QO'sel eC$ands on t#e relation "et*een listening and
$ronunciation +ollo*ed "y $ractical suggestions regarding *#ere to start
and #o* to design listening acti0ities. /#e c#a$ter ends *it# a 0ariety o+
classroo! tec#niBues and acti0ities *#ic# can "e used *it# young learners.
43rb3. +ocusses on de0elo$ing oral s'ills in t#e young learner
classroo!. ,Or"Oz starts #er c#a$ter *it# a re0ie* o+ t#e t#eoretical issues
1

regarding t#e teac#ing o+ s$o'en language in t#e young learner classroo!.
/#e +irst section o+ t#e c#a$ter is !ainly a"out #o* c#ildren acBuire oral
co!!unication s'ills in t#eir +irst language and to *#at eCtent t#e +irst
language acBuisition $rinci$les can "e a$$lied to an 7= classroo!
at!os$#ere. =ater, t#e c#allenges o+ teac#ing oral co!!unication s'ills to
young learners in 7= conteCts *#ere o$$ortunities +or $ractice are
con+ined to classroo! settings are noted. ,Or"Oz, t#en, discusses teac#ing
oral co!!unication s'ills to young learners es$ecially *it# re+erence to
teac#ing $ronunciation, intelligi"ility and a$$ro$riateness. S#e also +ocuses
on !oti0ation and error correction and $resents a set o+ guiding $rinci$les
and a 0ariety o+ sa!$le acti0ities to i!$ro0e young learners6 s$ea'ing
s'ills.
43l5Pe,er integrates t#e use o+ dra!a into $re% and $ost%reading tas's
+or young learners. )e'er argues t#at t#e use o+ dra!atic acti0ity is a
constructi0ist and co!!unicati0e teac#ing tool to $ro0ide eC$eriences t#at
allo* students to construct t#eir o*n understanding in co!!unication
and interaction *it# t#e teac#er and t#eir $eers. S#e discusses #o* dra!a,
"eing suc# an e++ecti0e tool, ena"les acti0e learning in !eeting t#e ai!s o+
t#e $re%reading and $ost%reading stages in a lesson. /#en, )e'er $resents
eCa!$les o+ dra!a acti0ities +or classroo! use.
Yang+n5Ersanl+ discusses !ain tenets o+ de0elo$ing *riting s'ills in
anot#er language. S#e +irst argues t#at *riting in t#e target language
s#ould "e +ostered as early as $ossi"le +ro! t#e "eginning o+ t#e instruction
as it contri"utes to students6 cogniti0e de0elo$!ent and sc#ool
ac#ie0e!ent. S#e suggests t#at a "lend o+ $rocess and genre a$$roac#es
s#ould "e utilized in classes *it# a $ri!ary +ocus on co!!unicating t#e
ideas. Qang(n%rsanl( introduces *ays to guide learners t#roug# t#e
$lanning, organising, dra+ting, re0ising, and editing stages o+ *riting. S#e
also discusses #o* to #el$ learners to +ul+il $articular layout and sc#e!atic
structure o+ t#e discourse de$ending on t#e conteCt o+ t#e co!!unication.
Qang(n%rsanl(, +inally, $ro0ides sa!$le tas's +or *riting to $ro!ote
+luency in *riting and to #el$ students see *riting as one !eans o+ sel+%
eC$ression.
,on!em)orary a))roaches
1!

6a,+r introduces an o0er0ie* o+ teac#ing 0oca"ulary in general and
t#en +ocuses on +or!ulaic leCicon in $articular. He su!!arizes t#e "asic
conce$ts and !odels t#at are concerned *it# +or!ulaic rat#er t#an creati0e
as$ects o+ language. He in0estigates $rinci$les o+ t#e leCical a$$roac# *it#
s$ecial re+erence to +or!ulaic 0oca"ulary teac#ing, and t#en #e addresses
*#at +unctions +or!ulaic leCicon #as in ter!s o+ +luency, e++ecti0e
co!!unication, and c#ildren6s acBuisition o+ =1 and =2 leCicon. /#e
c#a$ter also lists ti$s +or teac#ing +or!ulaic leCicon to young =2 learners,
and $ro0ides sa!$le acti0ities to teac# =2 +or!ulaic leCicon to young
learners t#roug# !et#ods li'e /otal )#ysical Les$onse, s$aced re$etition,
leCical note"oo', real recordings o+ young =1 users as !odels +or young =2
learners, and constant integration o+ gra!!ar and +or!ulaic leCicon in =2
teac#ing.
7ysal e!$#asizes t#e i!$ortance o+ gra!!ar instruction and error
correction *it# young learners. S#e ad0ocates +or a "alanced a$$roac#
integrating "ot# +or! and !eaning in classes. S#e +irst discusses t#e $ros
and cons o+ t#e t#ree !ain a$$roac#es to gra!!ar teac#ing> ?focus-on-
formS,@ ?focus-on-meaning,@ and ?focus-on-form.@ /#en, in lig#t o+ t#e
e!$irical su$$ort +or a focus-on-form approach *it# young learners, s#e
$ro0ides $ractical suggestions to !o0e +ro! ?+ocus%on%+or!S@%% a
do!inant a$$roac# in !ost 7= classroo!s, to a !ore ?+ocus%on%+or!@
a$$roac# "lending +or! and !eaning *it# one anot#er. S#e also
introduces sa!$le acti0ities to i!$le!ent +ocus%on%+or! gra!!ar
instruction and a$$ro$riate *ays o+ error correction during oral
co!!unicati0e interaction, *riting, reading, and listening acti0ities.
/a.nedar #ig#lig#ts t#e i!$ortance o+ a story%"ased !et#odology in
young learners6 classroo!s, an issue *#ic# #as not recei0ed !uc#
attention neit#er in classroo! $ractice nor in teCt"oo's designed +or young
learners in /ur'is# sc#ools. S#e discusses #o* stories in language
classroo!s $ro0ide a !eaning+ul and !oti0ating conteCt +or young =2
learners, i!$lications on 0oca"ulary de0elo$!ent and reading as *ell as
understanding and s$ea'ing t#e ot#er language. Haznedar +irst discusses
*ea'nesses in0ol0ed in general $ractices o+ reading stories in 7= settings.
S#e t#en eCe!$li+ies #o* stories can "e used *it# young =2 learners, in
$articular *it# res$ect to language%related and curriculu!%related
o$$ortunities stories o++er in t#e class.
1"

1,p+nar +ocuses on de0elo$ing intercultural co!$etence o+ young
learners "uilding on co!!unicati0e co!$etence. &'$(nar argues t#at
contrary to t#e $o$ular "elie+, c#ildren are ready and ca$a"le o+
de0elo$ing intercultural co!$etence. S#e, t#en, de+ines intercultural
co!$etence in a young learner6s conteCt and eC$lains "ene+its o+
de0elo$ing intercultural co!$etence in young learners. 7inally, &'$(nar
$resents suggestions +or t#e content o+ t#e cultural co!$onent, tec#niBues,
and so!e sa!$le acti0ities +or teac#ing culture as *ell as discussions o+ t#e
teac#er6s role as a catalyst in t#is $rocess.
Er8etin argues t#at !ulti!edia resources and tools s#ould "e integrated
in young learner classroo!s. 7ollo*ing a s#ort discussion o+ t#eoretical
issues in !ulti!edia and #y$er!edia en0iron!ents, rPetin $ro0ides
in+or!ation regarding #o* !ulti!edia and #y$er!edia +acilitate language
learning "y en#ancing interaction, colla"oration, aut#enticity, autono!y,
and !ulti!odal learning. rPetin also $resents suggestions +or #o* to
select so+t*are +or young learners, and #o* to use #y$er!edia aut#oring
tools, and s#e gi0es use+ul Internet lin's and resources.
E-alua!on
E,9i argues t#at language teac#ers are in a sense ?!aterials de0elo$ers@
as t#ey need to select, e0aluate, ada$t and $roduce !aterials to ensure a
!atc# "et*een t#e gi0en students and t#e !aterials t#ey use. /#ere+ore,
'Si +irst $ro0ides in+or!ation a"out $rinci$led and syste!atic *ays t#at
*ould #el$ teac#ers learn a"out !aterials and language learning. /#en,
a+ter re0ie*ing t#e a$$roac#es and criteria to "e e!$loyed in t#e selection
and e0aluation o+ instructional !aterials in =/, 'Si discusses t#e role and
+unction o+ course"oo's and t#eir $ossi"le ad0antages and s#ortco!ings.
'Si also descri"es $rocedures *#ile adding, deleting, si!$li+ying,
reordering and re$lacing t#e !aterial and $ro0ides a #el$+ul !aterials
e0aluation c#ec'list +or t#e teac#ers. S#e also re0ie*s t#e $arts o+ a
course"oo' as an eCa!$le +or t#is $rocess and +ocuses on $roducing
!aterials o+ all 'inds (0isual, co!$uter%"ased, auditory, etc.) in a !ore
learner%centered *ay.
:ar+8oban and *3nta9 a$$roac# assess!ent as a natural $art o+ t#e
learning and teac#ing $rocess. /#ey eC$lain t#e reasons *#y *e need to
assess learners, #o* t#e assess!ent $rocess *or's, and *#at s#ould "e
1#

assessed and #o* in a suita"le *ay +or young learners. /#ey suggest t#at
teac#ers are res$onsi"le +or t#eir learners6 $rogression3 t#us, t#ey need to
gat#er e0idence to turn t#e a"stract ?learn a language@ as$ect into a
concrete +eed"ac'. /#ey argue t#at "ecause young learners are di++erent
t#an t#e ot#er learners, teac#ers need to ado$t !et#odologies a$$ro$riate
+or young learners rat#er t#an traditional !et#ods in order to !eet t#eir
s$ecial needs. /#ey o++er so!e c#ild%+riendly and !oti0ating alternati0e
assess!ent tec#niBues targeting not Dust t#e $roduct o+ learning, "ut also
t#e $rocess in *#ic# learners6 $rogress can "e docu!ented. 7inally, t#ey
introduce *ays to design assess!ent instru!ents suc# as $roDects, $ort+olio
assess!ent, sel+%assess!ent, con0entional tests, o"ser0ation, ta'e%#o!es
according to di++erent assess!ent $ur$oses.
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