Pharmacological Reports

2011, 63, 305336

ISSN 1734-1140

Copyright 2011
by Institute of Pharmacology
Polish Academy of Sciences

Review

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as

antitumor agents: their biological activities
and methods of synthesis
Grzegorz Cholewiski, Krystyna Dzierzbicka, Aleksander M. Koodziejczyk
Department of Organic Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, PL 80-233 Gdask,
Poland
Correspondence: Grzegorz Cholewiski, e-mail: gch@chem.pg.gda.pl

Abstract:
Acridine derivatives constitute a class of compounds that are being intensively studied as potential anticancer drugs. Acridines are
well-known for their high cytotoxic activity; however, their clinical application is limited or even excluded because of side effects.
Numerous synthetic methods are focused on the preparation of target acridine skeletons or modifications of naturally occurring compounds, such as acridone alkaloids, that exhibit promising anticancer activities. They have been examined in vitro and in vivo to test
their importance for cancer treatment and to establish the mechanism of action at both the molecular and cellular level, which is necessary for the optimization of their properties so that they are suitable in chemotherapy. In this article, we review natural and synthetic acridine/acridone analogs, their application as anticancer drugs and methods for their preparation.
Key words:
acridine/acridone analogs, synthesis, biological activity, anticancer activity

Abbreviations: ABC ATP-binding cassette protein superfamily, ABCG2 ATP-binding cassette, sub-family G (WHITE),
member 2, CAN ceric ammonium nitrate, CDI 1,1-carbonyldiimidazole, DIPEA N,N-diisopropylethylamine, DMF
N,N-dimethylformamide, DMP Dess-Martin reagent, EDCI
1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride,
HOBt 1-hydroxybenzotriazole, IC50 drug concentration at
which 50% inhibition is observed, MDP N-acetyl-muramylL-alanyl-D-isoglutamine (muramyl dipeptide), MS molecular sieves, NAD+ nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NBS
N-bromosuccinimide, NMO N-methylmorpholine N-oxide,
nor-MDP N-acetyl-nor-muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine (normuramyl dipeptide), ODNs oligodeoxynucleotides, PBO
benzoyl peroxide, P-gp P-glycoprotein, PTSA p-toluenesulfonic acid, TBS t-butyldimethylsilyl, TEBAC triethylbenzylammonium chloride, TMS trimethylsilyl, Topo topoisomerase, TPAP tetrapropyl ammoniumperruthenate

Introduction
Numerous research groups have focused on the synthesis of new compounds that possess cytotoxic activity,
among which acridine/acridone compounds play an
important role. Acridine/acridone analogs are known
anticancer drugs and cytotoxic agents, and they represent a very interesting class, displaying other forms of
bioactivity [7, 20, 3941, 56, 58, 62, 82]. They are used
as biological fluorescent probes, anti-bacterial drugs,
e.g., 16 [41], anti-protozoal drugs, e.g., 712 [20,
3941, 82], anti-malarial agents, e.g., 13 [6], and antiHIV drugs, e.g., 14 [40, 53] (Fig. 1).
Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

305

NMe2
NH

HN

N
HN

N
Me

NO2

N
1

NRR
OMe

CO2R

N
OMe

Cl

Fig. 1. Some acridine derivatives 114

NH2
N
H

Cl
O

NH

HN

HN

+
N

Cl

Me
5

SO2NH2

OH

NH2

NBu
N

HN

HN
OMe

H2N

NH2

Cl

9
NH(CH2)5Me

H2N

HN

N
O

MeO
10
HO

N
11

12

N
NH

OCH3

OMe
NH
Cl

N
13 Quinacrine

14 CGP40336A

H2N

NH2

Many acridine/acridone compounds that have anticancer activity have been synthesized, including the
following: asulacrine 15; analogs with a 1-carbamate
16; acridine-carboxamides, e.g., N-(2-(dimethylamino)
ethyl)acridine-4-carboxamide (DACA) 17; nitroacridines, e.g., 18; nitropyrazolo-acridine 19; bis(acridines),
e.g., 20; and amsacrine 21 (Fig. 2) [41].
Examples of natural acridine/acridone analogs
are acridone alkaloids isolated from plants and pyridoacridine alkaloids extracted from various marine
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Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

organisms [40]. Synthetic or natural acridine/acridone drugs showed the ability to intercalate DNA
and inhibit topoisomerase or telomerase enzymes
[20, 40, 51]. Numerous reviews on the usefulness of
acridine/acridone analogs in therapy have already
been published [7, 20, 21, 32, 3941, 56, 58, 62,
82]. In this survey, we describe interesting acridine/
acridone analogs described since 2000, methods of
their synthesis and their potential clinical applications.

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

NHSO2Me

MeO

NHCO2Me

MeO

HN

NO2 NH

HN

O
N

N
CONHMe

Me

NMe2

N
NMe2

NH

DACA

Nitracrine

17

18

16

15

N
N
H

NHSO2Me

MeO

NMe2

MeO

N
H

NO2

N
H

HN

20

19

N
Amsacrine
21

Fig. 2. Acridines 1521 displaying anticancer activity

NH

NMe2

NH

NEt2

22

23

24

NH

NH

NH

NMe2

26b

25

OMe

CP-31398
26a

Fig. 3. DNA-targeting acridines 2226b

N
OMe

N
H

Cl

O
N

Cl
R

27a-d

28e-k
OH OH

HO
27a: R =

HO
HO

O-N=CH

27c: R =

HO
O

HO

OH

OH

O
HO

O-N=CH

OH

OH
HO
27b: R =

HO
HO

27d: R =

HO
HO

O
OH
OH

OH
O-N=CH
28e: R = NH-(CH2)2-NMe2
28f: R = NH-(CH2)3-NMe2
28g: R = NH-(CH2)3-NH2
28h: R = NH-(CH2)8-NH2

O
HO

O
HO
OH O
HO

O-N=CH

OH

28i: R = NH-(CH2)3-NH-(CH2)3-NH2
28j: R = NH-(CH2)2-OH
28k: R = NH-C6H5

Fig. 4. Pyrido[4,3,2-kl]acridines 27ad and pyrido[4,3,2-kl]acridin-4-ones 28ek developed by Bouffier et al. [24]

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

307

Acridine/acridone as DNA-targeting agents

The utility of acridines as chemotherapeutics is due to
their chemical and biological stability and their capability of effective binding to DNA or RNA [21], resulting in the disorder of the biological functions in
living cells. The mechanism of their intercalation into
DNA is based on p-stacking interaction with base
pairs of double-stranded nucleic acids. The heterocyclic, polyaromatic flat structure of acridine fits effectively into the gap between two chains of polynucleotides, and the intercalation of the acridine moiety disturbs their crucial role in cell division. The ability of
acridines to intercalate into DNA is necessary for their
antitumor activity. The strength and kinetics of binding acridine to DNA have a crucial impact on the activity of this type of anticancer agent. Examination of
a large number of such derivatives proved that there is
a good correlation between their strength together
with the time of binding to DNA and their biological
activity. Acridine derivatives perturb the function of
cancer cells by decreasing the activity of some enzymes that are crucial for proper DNA actions, such
as topoisomerases, telomerases and cyclin-dependent
kinases [20, 21, 3941, 68].
In addition to a few natural acridine/acridone analogs, thousands of acridine/acridone compounds have
been synthesized. Some of them have been used as
anticancer chemotherapeutics (e.g., nitracrine 18 or
amsacrine 21) (Fig. 2). Nitracrine 18 (also known as
ledakrin), developed by Ledchowskis group, was
clinically used for several years [99]. Amsacrine 21
(m-AMSA) [15, 41] was the first synthetic drug of the
DNA-intercalating type to show clinical efficiency.
Acridine derivatives having nitro, methoxy, methyl,
amino acids, aminoalkylamino or hydroxyalkylamino
substituents have been tested as potential anticancer
agents [28, 100]. Among them, strong antitumor activity and lower toxicity was shown for 1-nitro-9alkylamino-alkylamino-acridines [51, 64, 78] and 1nitro-9-hydroxyalkylamino-acridines, which were patented by Wysocka-Skrzela et al. in 1981 [100]. Their
properties were confirmed by many tests in vitro and
in vivo.
Wang et al. [94] synthesized four acridine derivatives 2226 with a similar structure to CP-31398 26a
(Fig. 3).
CP-31398 is a small molecule that has been reported to stabilize the DNA-binding core domain of

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Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

the human tumor suppressor protein p53 in vitro. The

compound activates wild-type p53 by a still unknown
mechanism, but it does not involve the phosphorylation of the amino-terminus of p53 and disassociation
of MDM2. These four compounds 2226 induced
strong p53 transcription in cells with wild-type p53.
Wang et al. [96] also found that several randomly chosen strong anticancer acridine derivatives, including
9-aminoacridine, quinacrine 13 (Fig. 1), amsacrine 21
(Fig. 2) and acridine orange 26b (Fig. 3) induced p53
transcriptional activity. All of these acridine derivatives stabilized the p53 protein by blocking its ubiquitination without the phosphorylation of ser15 or
ser20 on p53. In addition, in vivo delivery of
quinacrine and amsacrine induced p53 transcriptional
activity in tumor xenografts. These findings provide
insights into p53 regulation in response to DNAintercalating drugs and may assist new anticancer
drug design [96].
Bouffier et al. [24] presented the synthesis, antitumor activity, and DNA-binding kinetics of amino- and
glycoconjugates of pyrido[4,3,2-kl]acridine 27ad
and pyrido[4,3,2-kl]acridin-4-one 28ek (Fig. 4).
The amino conjugates 28e and 28i had the highest
cytostatic activities against HT-29 cancer cells at micromolar concentrations. These molecules bind DNA
by intercalation, and none of them inhibit topoisomerase activity.
Topoisomerase inhibition

DNA topoisomerases are a class of enzymes involved

in the regulation of DNA supercoiling. Type I topoisomerases change the degree of supercoiling of DNA
by causing single-strand breaks and religation,
whereas type II topoisomerases cause double-strand
breaks. The different roles of DNA topo I and II may
indicate opposing roles in the regulation of DNA supercoiling. Both activities are necessary during DNA
transcription, replication and chromatin condensation.
Two series of acridine derivatives, anilinoacridines
and acridin-4-carboxamides, interfere to some extent
with topoisomerase activities. Amsacrine (m-AMSA)
21 (Fig. 2), obtained by Dennys group [20, 39, 41],
was the first synthetic drug that was shown to act as
a topoisomerase inhibitor and that was approved for
clinical usage. It has been used since 1976 in leukemia treatment. An interaction of amsacrine with topo
II-DNA has been already shown. This interaction is
due to its side chain, which influences inhibiting

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

R2
R3

R1

CH2OH

HN
HN

NHCO2Me

MeO
R4
HN

NHCO2Et
N
CH3

N
29

NMe2

NH

N
31

30
AMT R1 = H; R2 = CH3; R3 = H; R4 = NH2
APT R1 = CH3; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = NH2
AOT R1 = H; R2 = H; R3 = CH3; R4 = NH2
AOA R1 = H; R2 = H; R3 = OCH3; R4 = NH2
AMA R1 = H; R2 = OCH3; R3 = H; R4 = NH2
APA R1 = OCH3; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = NH2

Fig. 5. Acridines 2931 acting as topoisomerase inhibitors

NH2

NH2

N
O

NMe2

NH

O
O

32: X = Br
33: X = H

NH

34

O HN

O HN

HO

HO
N
N

N
N

N
36

35
Fig. 6. Topoisomerase inhibitors 3236

Acr

Acr
N

N R
Acr
N

37a,b
37a: R = CN
37b: R = C3H7

N
Acr

Acr =
N

38a-g

38a: n = 1; 9 = H; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 4

38b: n = 3; 9 = H; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 4
38c: n = 5; 9 = H; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 4
38d: n = 7; 9 = H; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 4
38e: n = 1; 9 = NH2; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 4
38f: n = 3; 9 = Cl; 7 = Br; Linkage position on the Acr = 4
38g: n = 7; 9 = H; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 2

Fig. 7. Bis- 37 and tetra-acridines 38 described by Visps group [93]

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

309

properties. Free radical production can be involved in

amsacrine metabolism. Thus, DNA damage is possible in tumors and healthy cells. Reactive quininodiimine, produced as a result of the biooxidation of
m-AMSA, reacts with nucleophiles present in cells.
Some m-AMSA derivatives with stronger antitumor
activity and weaker side effects were also obtained.
Su and co-workers [86] developed compounds with
substitutions in the meta position of the aniline residue, in relation to the 9-amino group. The leading
compound in this series (5-hydroxymethylaniline derivative (AHMA) 29 (Fig. 5)) exhibits higher efficiency in leukemia and solid tumor treatment in rodents, compared with m-AMSA.
The half-life of AHMA 29 in human blood plasma
is also longer. The meta position occupied by the
amino group prevents the transformation to the quininodiimine intermediate. AHMA is a topo II inhibitor.
In 2003, Sus group [30] described the synthesis of
some AHMA analogs 30 that have higher cytotoxicity
than AHMA in vitro. Moreover, in in vivo studies on
mice bearing human breast cancer cells MX-1, these
analogs demonstrated activity and toxicity similar to
AHMA. In these AHMA derivatives, AOA, AMA and
APA, the methyl group in the orto, meta and para positions was substituted by a methoxy group, respectively. Among them, AOA exhibited the highest cytotoxicity. AMCA 31 is an amsacrine derivative that
possesses a carbaminate group instead of a sulfamidate group. This compound displays high toxicity toward non-proliferative cells and has the ability to
cross the membrane barrier in resistant cell lines [41].
4-Carboxyamido-acridines are another type of topoisomerase inhibitor based on acridine derivatives. DACA
17 (Fig. 2), prepared in 1987, is one of the exceptional
compounds that inhibit two enzymes: topo I and II [20,
3942]. This unusual property of DACA and its derivatives 3234 (Fig. 6) was studied using x-ray evaluation
of complexes formed with DNA sequences.
It was concluded that the acridine molecule intercalates within the base pair d(CG)2, NMe2H+ group of 4carboxyamide and participates in the hydrogen bond
with the N7 atom of guanine in the major groove (similarly to the NH+ morpholine group). Lack of activity in
the case of morpholin-9-amino-DACA is probably due
to the presence of the morpholine moiety. The shape of
the morpholine molecule seems to disturb the formation of the stable resolving complex [1, 91].
Triazoleacridone (C-1305) 35 (Fig. 6), which was
synthesized at Gdansk University of Technology, is

310

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

a topo II inhibitor. Although its mechanism of action is

still being investigated, it has been shown that C-1305
demonstrates strong inhibiting properties in vitro toward topo II, like amsacrine 21. It was established
that triazoleacridone causes structural changes in
DNA sequences containing guanine triplets. These
specific structural perturbations caused by C-1305 rationally explain its cytotoxicity and anticancer effect
[59, 98]. Imidazoacridone (C-1311) 36 was synthesized in 1990 in the same laboratory. It is currently in
the clinical phase of testing. Similarly to triazoleacridone, it inhibits the cell cycle in the G2 phase in cancer cells. The molecular mechanism indicates its intercalation with DNA base pairs and the formula of
a topo II-stabilizing complex. The presence of the
8-OH group in imidazoacridone explains the antitumor activity of compounds of this type. It is considerably more sensitive toward oxidative processes than
compounds bearing the 8-OMe group, which also
shows lower biological activity. Thus, it can be concluded that the activation of the heterocyclic ring is
essential for the high anticancer activity of imidazoacridone [34, 65].
Visps group [93] proposed the mechanism of action of a novel series of bis-37 and tetra-acridines 38
(Fig. 7). These derivatives of acridine can interact
with DNA and, in most cases, inhibit topo II-mediated
decatenation of DNA. They are cytotoxic to HL-60
human leukemia cells and maintain an equally potent
cytotoxicity when the topo II activity of these cells is
down-regulated. HL-60/MX2, which is resistant to
the topo II poison mitoxantrone and cross-resistant to
amsacrine, is not resistant to the acridine derivatives
tested, suggesting that topo II is not the unique or primary target of these compounds. Searching for alternative targets, the authors identified the proteasome as
a potential receptor for these compounds. In addition,
these molecules are selective for the proteasome without any significant inhibition of four other proteases,
calpain, trypsin, cathepsin B and chymotrypsin. The
study provides the next opportunity to design molecules that are capable of interfering with two oncogenic targets at the same time, namely topo II and the
proteasome. If the anticancer mechanism can be confirmed in vivo (e.g., compound 38b which is currently
tested in xenograft models), then the dual topo II/proteasome targeting could be a promising new anticancer strategy [93].

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

HN
O
N

O
N
H

HN

NH

39
F
Me

F
N

Me

RNH

41

Me

R = (CH2)3N(CH3)2

40

R
O
R1

NHR

O
HN

R1

NH

45

e.g., 45a: R = HN

N
H

NH2

46

; R1 =

F
45b: R =

HN

F ; R1 =

OMe
45c: R =

HN

; R1 =

OMe
Fig. 8. Telomerase inhibitors

Telomerase inhibition and protein kinase

inhibitors

Several small molecule structures have been described to inhibit telomere maintenance via the stabilization of the quadruplex G4 structure, thus inhibiting telomerase action. A number of studies have demonstrated that the inhibition of telomerase in cancer

cells leads to senescence and apoptosis [20]. Among

these studies, there are some acridine-based structures, which can be divided into three sub-familes: trisubstituted acridines, e.g., BRACO-19 39, pyridoacridines, e.g., 40, and dibenzophenanthrolines, e.g., 41
(Fig. 8) [20].
Neidles group synthesized a series of 3,6,9-trisubstituted acridines as potential telomerase inhibitors [28,
Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

311

O
Cl
H N

N
H

Cl

O
Cl

NH

42

N
H

O
N
H

N
H

43

Cl

N
H

Cl

2. PCl
POCl

p-Me NPhNH
N

N
H

NH

1.

MeOH

44
NMe
HN
O
N

O
N
H

N
H

39

Scheme 1. Synthesis of BRACO-19 39 [69]

52, 54, 63, 69, 79], one of which, BRACO-19 39

(Scheme 1), has been studied in detail as a potent Gquadruplex binding molecule and telomerase inhibitor.
Results of the studies led to the conclusion that
these molecules, acting as telomere-targeting agents,
selectively uncapped telomerase at the telomere ends,
resulting in the induction of rapid DNA damage and
consequently cell death.
Diaminoacridone 42, the starting material in the synthesis of BRACO-19, was acylated with 3-chloropropionyl
chloride. Then, 3,6-bis(3-chloropropyl-amido) acridone 43,
after reaction with pyrrolidine, was treated with phosphorous pentachloride and phosphoryl chloride. Finally, 3,6bis[3-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)propylamido]-9-chloroacridine 44,
heated in methanolic solution with p-N,N-dimethylaminoaniline, gave the expected product [69].
Gunaratnam et al. [52] suggested that the cellular
activity of BRACO-19 can be ascribed to the uncapping of 3 telomere ends and telomere shortening,
which may preferentially affect cells with short telomeres. In 2007, Neidles group [63] presented the
synthesis, biophysical and biochemical evaluation
of a new series of benzylamino-substituted acridines
as G-quadruplex-binding telomerase inhibitors 45
(Fig. 8). Replacement of an aniline substituent by
a benzylamino group resulted in enhanced quadruplex

312

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

interaction. The favorable DTm and telEC50 values for

compound 45b compared to BRACO-19, together
with its lipophilicity and improved pharmacokinetic
behavior, led to the selection of 45b as a potential
molecule for clinical treatment.
Another type of acridine derivatives, thioacridones,
are effective kinase inhibitors. One compound of this
type, 3-ATA 46 (Fig. 8), is a selective CDK4 inhibitor.
It attenuates kainic acid-induced apoptosis in neurons
and is able to prevent neuronal cell death induced by
doxorubicine [20, 39].
The structures of MDR-overcoming acridine/
acridone compounds

Antonini [7] synthesized two very interesting classes

of acridine derivatives: tricyclic and polycyclic compounds. Structural modifications of pyrimido[5,6,1de]acridines 47 included the preparation of pyrimido[4,5,6-kl]acridines 48, bis(amine-functionalized)
acridone-4-carboxamides 49, bis(amine-functionalized)acridine-4-carboxamides 50 and pyrazolo[3,4,5kl] acridine-5-carboxamides 51 (Fig. 9).
These compounds are composed of fused five- or
six-membered heterocyclic rings, making them able
to overcome multidrug resistance (MDR) [23]. Antonini et al. [10, 11] described a series of bis acridine

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

NHR'

NO2

H
N

X
O

X
N

N
R

N
H
RHN

R'

NHR'

NHR'

N
H
RHN

RHN

47

49

48

N
O

51

50

X = H, NO2; R - N-aminoalkyl derivatives e.g.,

CH2N(Me)2, (CH2)3N(Et)2, N(Me)2
Fig. 9. Acridine/acridone derivatives developed by Antonini [7]

NH

NH O

X
N
H
HN

N
H
O

NH O

O HN

NH

N
H

N
H
N

NH

52

NH

HN

53

NH O

N
X

X
O

O
N
H

N
H

NH

54

HN

55

e.g. Y = (CH2)3N(Me)(CH2)3;; (CH2)2N(Me)(CH2)2;

(CH2)3; (CH2)6; (CH2)3; (CH2)8; (CH2)12
X = H; 9,9'-OMe; 9,9',10,10'-OMe

Y = (CH2)3N(Me)(CH2)3; (CH2)2N(Me)(CH2)2
X = H; 9,9'-OMe
55a: Y = (CH2)3N(Me)(CH2)3; X = H
O
O

HN

O HN
X

O
N

X
O

N
H
N
56a
X = H; 9-OMe; 9,10-OMe;
9-OH; 9-NO2

NH

56b

NO2

N
57

X = H; 9-OMe; 9-OH

Fig. 10. Compounds described by Antonini et al. [7, 9, 10]

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

313

possessing a sulfur mustard residue, epoxy sulfide

and sulfoxide group displayed the highest activity.
A series of mono- and dinuclear isoquinolino[4,5-bc]acridine derivatives 6065 (Fig. 11) was
synthesized by Yang et al. [102, 103]. The DNAbinding affinity and cytotoxic activity of these compounds were evaluated. The authors showed that
compound 65 exhibited the highest in vitro antitumoral activity against human lung cancer cells (A549),
while 63 was the most active against murine leukemia
cells (P388). DNA-binding studies and molecular
modeling of the 64/65 DNA complexes indicated that
65, having optimal linker length, exhibits higher DNA
affinity than 64.
Stefaska et al. [84] synthesized a very promising
group of 2,7-dihydro-3H-pyridazino[5,4,3-kl]acridin3-one derivatives 66a-f (Fig. 11). They were prepared
in the reaction of 9-oxo-9,10-dihydroacridine-1carboxylate with POCl3, followed by the addition of
the appropriate (alkylamino)alkylhydrazines. The cytotoxic activities of the examined compounds toward
sensitive and resistant leukemia cell lines (L1210,
K562, K562/DX, HL-60, HL-60/VINC, and HL60/DX) with various types of MDR and MRP, was
weaker than those of compounds that were previously
described by the authors, due to a lower affinity for
DNA [83, 85].

derivatives: bis(acridine-4-carboxamides) 52, 53 [7]

bis(pyrimido-acridines) 54 and bis(pyrazolo-acridinecarboxamides) 55 (Fig. 10).
Results of a biological study indicate that the target
compounds are excellent DNA ligands; the bis derivatives 54 and 55 are more DNA-affinic than corresponding monomers 56a and 56b, they are also less
efficient in binding the related bis(acridine-4-carboxamides) 52 and 53. Compound 55a was selected for
evaluation in a National Cancer Institute (NCI) in vivo
hollow fiber assay [9]. In 2006, Antonini et al. [11]
published a synthesis of asymmetrical bis derivatives
endowed with noticeable DNA-binding properties
and antiproliferative activity. In particular, compound
57 (Fig. 10), showing high DNA affinity, very potent
cytostatic and cytocide action, and capacity of early
apoptosis induction, may be a good candidate for in
vivo preclinical studies.
Santelli-Rouvier et al. [81] described the syntheses
of several acridine thioethers 58, which after oxidation were converted into corresponding sulfoxides
59a and sulfones 59b (Scheme 2).
These compounds were tested in vitro against the human cancer cell line panel of NCI screening. The authors
claimed that activity of these analogs was increased 510
fold when sulfides were converted into sulfoxides.
Among derivatives substituted in the side chain, those

S
R'

R'' + RBr

a, b or c
R''

R'

S(O)n
R''

R'

59a

59b

H
58

n=1

e.g., R' = R'' = H

R = C2H4Cl
R' = R'' = 2,7-(OCH3)2
R' = R'' = H

R = C4H6Cl

R' = R'' = H
R = H2C
R' = R'' = 2,7-(OCH3)2

R = CH2C6H4NO2
R' = R'' = H
R' = R'' = 2,7-(OCH3)2

n=1
n=2

a. alkyl halide, TEBAC, toluene, 110oC; b. alkyl halide, DMF, K2CO3; c. alkyl halide, toluene, NaOH;
d. H2O2, (NH4)6Mo7O24x 4H2O, THF, buffer pH = 6.8

Scheme 2. Synthesis of thioethers, sulfoxides and sulfones [81]

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Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

N
N

NH

N
N

60
N

NH

NH

N
N

61: L = (CH2)2NH(CH2)2
62: L = (CH2)3NH(CH2)3
63: L = (CH2)3NCH3(CH2)3
64: L = (CH2)2NH(CH2)2NH(CH2)2
65: L = (CH2)2NH(CH2)3NH(CH2)2
O

R
N

OCH3

O
N

N
H

OCH3

N
H
O

OCH3

N
H

66

67 GF-1209189 (GG-918)

66a: R = CH2CH2N(CH3)2; X = H
66b: R = CH2CH2CH2N(CH3)2; X = H
66c: R = CH2CH2N(CH2CH2)2; X = H
66d: R = CH2CH2-c-N(CH2)4O; X = H
66e: R = CH2CH2-c-N(CH2)5; X = H
66f: R = CH2CH2CH2N(CH3)2; X = H

Fig. 11. Derivatives synthesized by Stefaska et al. [84]

The syntheses of new 9-substituted acridine derivatives [2] and 5-(9-acridinyl-amino)anisidine derivatives [17] were also described. These compounds displayed the ability to inhibit various human tumor
cells, showed inhibitory effects against topo II, and
inhibited DNA interactions.
The 9-acridone derivative GF-120918 (elacridar)
67 (Fig. 11) is a potent inhibitor of multidrug resistance [80]. It has been shown that elacridar 67 acts on
P-gp, and it is active in a cell sub-line expressing

a newly identified mitoxantrone transporter (MXR).

This compound is under clinical investigation (against
malignant neoplastic disease and solid tumors) as an
MDR-modulator [80].
Sus group [87] prepared a series of 9-anilinoacridine and derivatives bearing an alkylating N-mustard residue at C4 of the acridine chromophore
6875 (Fig. 12).
These compounds were very potent in vitro cytotoxic agents against human leukemia and various
Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

315

NH2

CH2OH

HN

OH

NHCOOEt

N
O(CH2)nN(CH2CH2Cl)2

70a,c
NH2

NH2

Me
HN

OMe

HN

Me

HN

O(CH2)nN(CH2CH2Cl)2

O(CH2)nN(CH2CH2Cl)2
69

68a-c

NH2

CH2OH

HN

CH2OH

HN

O(CH2)nN(CH2CH2Cl)2

O(CH2)nN(CH2CH2Cl)2

O(CH2)nN(CH2CH2Cl)2

73a,c

72a,c

71a,c
NH2
OMe
HN

N
O(CH2)nN(CH2CH2Cl)2

N
O(CH2)nN(CH2CH2Cl)2

75a,b,c

74a,c
a: n = 2; b: n = 3; c: n = 4

Fig. 12. Acridines prepared by Sus group [87]

NH(CH2)2OH

NH(CH2)2OH

NO2

NO2

76 C-1748

77 C-857

N
78a-f

NH
O

78a: R = CH3
78b: R = CH2-Cl
78c: R = CH2-Br
78d: R = CH2O-CH2Ph
78e: R = Ph
78f: R = p-Ph-NO2

Fig. 13. Acridine derivatives described by Ashok et al. [13]

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Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

DNA

O
P

DNA

79

NH2
HN

HN

NH2

R:

N
H

Fig. 14. Twisted intercalating nucleic acids (TINA) that have acridine moieties investigated by Geci et al. [50]

solid tumors. Compounds 72a and 72c were shown to

have high antitumor activity in nude mice bearing the
human breast carcinoma MX-1 xenograft. The therapeutic efficacy of these two agents is comparable to
that of taxol.
Ashok et al. [13] presented the pre-clinical toxicology of 9-(2-hydroxyethylamino)-4-methyl-1-nitroacridine (C-1748) 76 (Fig. 13), a novel anticancer
agent in male beagle dogs. In separate studies, they
observed that C-1748 76 had lower mutagenic activity
compared to 9-(2-hydroxyethylamino)-1-nitroacridine (C-857) 77. C-1748 76 is a potential drug, as it
shows low toxicity; only thrombocytopenia and leukopenia were observed at high doses. Based on the
toxicity profile in dogs, it is feasible to test C-1748 in
prostate cancer (CaP) patients, and it may be possible
to predict that the drug will be well-tolerated [13].
Ouberai et al. [76] synthesized a series of 3,4-dihydro-1H-[1,3]oxazino[4,5-c]acridines 78af (Fig. 13)
whose cytotoxic activity has been evaluated against
the HT29 colon carcinoma cell line. They found that
the biological effect was dependent on the nature of the
substituent present on position 2 of the oxazine ring.
The authors showed that the presence of an electronattracting substituent stabilizes the ring, and that effect
is associated with a decrease in cytotoxicity. The activation of the nitro derivative 78f by nitroreductase indicates its potency as a pro-drug for either genedirected or antibody-directed enzyme therapies.

Geci et al. [50] described twisted intercalating nucleic acids (TINA) with acridine derivatives using
postsynthetic modifications of oligonucleotides containing (R)-1-O-(4-iodobenzyl)glycerol or (R)-1-O(4-ethynylbenzyl)glycerol at the 5 end or in the middle of the molecule as a bulge 79 (Fig. 14). Thermal
denaturation studies and fluorescence properties of
TINA-acridine oligonucleotide duplexes and triplexes
were discussed.
The synthesis of 9-(alkylsulfanyl)- and 9-(arylsulfanyl)acridine derivatives and the study of their physicochemical properties were described by Nemcova et
al. in 2006 [73]. The authors also presented the effect
of the presence of (2-hydroxypropyl)cyclodextrins on
the properties of such substituted acridines.
ABCG2 inhibitors

Recent developments led to the synthesis of 7-(p-bromophenyl)-10,10-dimethyl-8-alkylthio-7,9,10,11-tetrahydrobenz[c]acridines and 7-[(o-; and p-substituted)
phenyl]-10,10-dimethyl-7,8,9,10,11,12-hexahydrobenz[c]acridin-8-thiones [35], which are new acridine inhibitors, e.g., ABCG2. One of the acridone derivatives was even more potent than the reference inhibitor GF120918 67 (Fig. 11), as shown by its strong
ability to inhibit mitoxantrone efflux [26].
Amato et al. [5] described an easy and convenient
method for the synthesis of ODNs containing a 3-3
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317

Acridine

NH
O

N
O

R1O

OR2

NH

5'-CTCTCTCTX
5'-GAGAGAGAA TCTCTCTC-3'
3'-CTCTCTCTT AGAGAGA-5'
YCTCTCTC-5'
Triplex A X = TAcr; Y = T
Triplex B X = TAcr; Y = C

80: R1 = R2 = DMT
81: R1 = Fmoc; R2 = DMT

Fig. 15. Acridine derivatives synthesized by Amato et al. [5]

phosphodiester linkage and bearing an acridine residue on the thymidine base flanking 3-3 junction.
This synthesis was based on the preparation of a new
kind of nucleoside-acridine solid support 80 or 81
(Fig. 15). They showed that the CD and UV melting
data indicate that the acridine moiety, linked through
a seven-atom spacer arm to the N-3 of a thymidine,
does not hamper the formation of a triplex structure.
Furthermore, the stabilization effect observed for triplexes A and B (Fig. 15) strongly suggests an intercalation of the acridine residue into the triplex structure.

Acridine/acridone alkaloids. Their

synthesis and structural modifications
Promising anticancer drugs are based on acridine alkaloids and their derivatives. According to the cytotoxicity, some acridine alkaloids were tested with various
cancer lines. They showed promising activity, and
some efforts were taken to modify the natural molecules to meet requirements needed for clinical evaluation [66, 67].
Acronycine

Acronycine 82 (Fig. 16) is a natural alkaloid, isolated

in 1948 from the bark of the Australian Rutaceous
tree. The molecule, which shows interesting cytotoxic
properties, includes a dimethyl-2H-pyran ring fused
onto an acridone skeleton [20].
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In 1966, Eli-Lilly Laboratories demonstrated its

high activity against murine solid tumor models, such
as S-180 and AKR sarcomas, X-5563 myeloma, S115 carcinoma and S-91 melanoma. In contrast, its activity toward leukemias was slight [20]. In 1983,
Scarff performed phase I-II clinical evaluations of acronycine for human patients with refractory multiple
myeloma [20]. Orally administrated acronycine capsules resulted in disease remission for 72 weeks. The
limited success of this experiment was probably due
to the moderate potency of acronycine and its poor
solubility in water (23 mg/l water) [20]. However,
these results indicated significant antitumor properties
of the agent and encouraged subsequent studies concerning the mechanism of and the design and synthesis of more efficient acronycine derivatives.
Results concerning the mechanism of action at the
cellular and molecular levels are not unanimous. It
was reported that the drug did not interact with DNA
but acted primarily by the alteration of subcellular organelle membranes [20]. Alternatively, further experiments suggested an interaction of acronycine with DNA
by non-covalent binding to the double helix. The investigations related to structure-activity relationships
revealed that the 1,2-double bond in the pyran ring
was essential for its antitumor activity. For example,
1,2-dihydroacronycine was not active in the experiments performed by Eli-Lilly Laboratories [20]. Isolation of the unstable acronycine epoxide 83 (Fig. 16)
from several New Caledonian Sarcomelicope species
suggests that oxirane 83 is an intermediate in the
course of the bioactivation of acronycine in vivo [20].
The epoxide 83 in reaction with water gave a respec-

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

O
8
Fig. 16. Acronycine 82 and its derivatives

7
12
N

10
11

OCH3
6
5
O4
3

OCH3

82

O
83
O

OCH3

R1

OCH3

R2

H3COCO
84

tive diol, which after activation, became an alkylating

agent toward some nucleophilic targets in tumor cells
[20]. Some cis- and trans-1,2-dihydroxy-1,2-dihydroacrynocine diesters exhibited significant antitumor
properties. Finally, cis-1,2-diacetoxy-1,2-dihydroacronycine 84 was selected for further examination.
However, its preclinical development failed because
of high toxicity [20].
Other acronycine derivatives

Other alkaloids that are structurally related to acronycine were also found. For example, compound 85a
was isolated from the bark of Citrus maxima. It holds
a hydroxymethyl group in the pyran ring (Fig. 16). More
similar analogs turned out to be potent against HepG2
hepatoma and KB epidermoid cancer lines. Derivative
85a was most active against KB cells (IC50 = 19.5 M),
while citracridone III 85b was the strongest agent
against the HepG2 cell line (IC50 = 17.0 M) [66].
Benzo[b]acronycine

Interaction with DNA is known to occur mainly for

coplanar aromatic chromophores, such as acridines,
anthracenes, and pirydocarbazoles. Taking this into
account, acronycines with an extended system of
fused aromatic rings were developed. Benzo[b]acro-

OCOCH3

85a: R1 = H, R2 = CH2OH
85b: Citracridone-III R1 = OH, R2 = Me

nycine 86 was synthesized in a reaction of 3-amino2-naphthalene-carboxylic acid 87 and phloroglucinol

88, followed by a reaction with 3-chloro-3-methylbut1-yne via Claisen rearrangement of each respective
ether 89 (Scheme 3).
Finally, methylation of 90 with dimethyl sulfate
gave benzo[b]acronycine 86 [36, 89], which was converted into corresponding diols 91 and 93 (Scheme 4).
The racemic cis diol 91 was obtained in OsO4 oxidation. The racemic trans diol 93 was prepared in two
stages. Benzo[b]acronycine 86 after oxidation with
potassium permanganate to 2-hydroxy-1-oxo-1,2-dihydrobenzo[b]acronycine 92 was reduced with sodium borohydride [36, 89]. Acylation of both cis and
trans diols 91, 93 with an excess of acyl chloride or
anhydride in the presence of pyridine yielded respective diesters 94, 95 (Fig. 17).
Reaction with one equivalent of acylating agent led
to monoesters at the less hindered 2 position, received
in good yield and with high regioselectivity. The racemic cis diol 91 was also converted to cyclic carbonate
96 with CDI [20, 36, 68, 89].
Some dialkyl esters 94, 95 were studied in vitro on
L1210 leukemia cells. In comparison with acronycine
82 (IC50 = 23 M) or benzo[b]acronycine 86 (IC50 =
14.9 M) [20], both diesters 94, 95 were more cytotoxic (IC50 = 0.22.1 M), whereas cyclic carbonate
96 was 1000-fold more potent (IC50 = 0.014 M) than

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

319

the esters. Finally, cis-diacetate 94 R1, R2 = Ac (IC50 =

0.8 M) was selected by Servier Laboratories for further evaluation as a drug candidate [20]. The high potencies of diesters 9496 is correlated with their alky-

lating activity toward the exocyclic -NH2 group in

guanine [20, 89]. In other words, these compounds
can bind covalently to DNA. In contrast, derivatives
without a good leaving group at the benzylic position

OH

COOH

OH

Cl

PTSA
+

NH
HO
87

OH

heptan-1-ol
48 h

OH

K CO , KI, DMF
24 h, 65 C

88

OH

OH

OMe

NaH, (CH ) SO
N

heating 3 h
130 C

89

DMF

90

86

Scheme 3. Synthesis of benzo[b]acronycine 86 by Tillequin [36, 89]

OMe

OMe

OsO4
N

O
HO

86

91

OH

KMnO4
O
O

OMe

OMe

NaBH4
N

HO

O
92

OH

Scheme 4. Oxidation of benzo[b]acronycine 86 [36, 89]

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OH

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

OMe

OMe

R1O

R1 O

OMe

O
O
O

OR2

OR2
95

94
O

OMe

96

OMe

MeO
H3COCO

97
O

OCOCH3

98
O

OCH3

OCH3

OH

108

107

OR2

109

OMe

OMe

112

O
O

R1O

HO

OCH3

AcO

113

OAc

Fig. 17. Some derivatives of benzo[b]acronycine 9498 and benzo[c]acronycine 107109, 112, 113

OMe

OMe

RC(O)Cl / AlCl3
N

CH2Cl2

86

99

R = methyl, propyl, phenyl

O

OMe

OMe

HCl aq
N

CH2Cl2

R1 O
94

OR2

100

OR2

R1, R2 = acetyl, butyryl

Scheme 5. Synthesis of benzo[b]acronycine derivatives [90]

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321

1, like 2-acetoxy-1,2-dihydroacronycine 97 (IC50 = 17 M)

[20, 89] or cis-2-acetoxy-1-metoxy-1,2-dihydrobenzo[b]acronycine 98 (IC50 = 45 M) [7, 41] are considerably less active (Fig. 17). The influence of electron
density at the benzylic carbon at the 1 position was
also investigated. Michael acceptors 99 in the benzo[b]acronycine were prepared in the Friedel-Crafts
acylation of benzo[b]acronycine 86 with acyl chloride
in dichloromethane (Scheme 5). Finally, some enolic
esters 100 were synthesized upon acidic dehydration
of diesters 94 [89].
Michael acceptors 99 have lower cytotoxity (IC50 =
20, 30, 50 M, respectively) compared to benzo[b]
acronycine 86 (IC50 = 15 M) [90], despite the fact
that position 1 should be highly reactive toward nucleophiles upon alkylation. This unexpected effect
was explained by the high delocalization of the electrons in the structure of the benzo[b]acronycine chromophore. Thus, both enol esters 100 turned out to be
highly potent agents with IC50 = 0.75 and 1.8 M, respectively [90]. Moreover, no alkylation of purified
DNA was observed in the case of enol esters 100,
which indicates an unknown mechanism of action of
these derivatives, in contrast to alkylation [90].

Dimeric derivatives of benzo[b]acronycine

Tillequin et al. [49] published results concerning dimeric analogs of acronycine 102. A synthesis of the desired products was based on the reaction of 101 with
respective linkers diiodoalkanes (Scheme 6) [49].

Compounds 102 (IC50 = 0.97.2 M) and benzo[b]acronycines holding iodoalkylether side chain at
position 6 103 (IC50 = 2.04.1 M) turned out to be
more potent than acronycine 82 (IC50 = 23.2 M) and
benzo[b]acronycine 86 (IC50 = 14.9 M). Among the
dimers 102, the length of the linker significantly influences the activity, and the highest cytotoxicity is
provided by the alkyl chain with n = 5. It inhibited
L1210 cell proliferation in the same range of IC50 values as cis-benzo[b]acronycine diacetate 94 (article
analog containing R1, R2 = Ac is under clinical development) [49].
Benzo[c]acronycine

Seguin et al. [22] developed the synthesis of an acronycine derivative with an angularly fused benzene
ring: benzo[c]pyrano[3,2-h]acridine-7-one 105. They
used 1-bromo-2-methylnaphthalene 104 as a starting
material (Scheme 7).
Finally, alkylation with iodomethane in the presence
of potassium carbonate in acetone gave the desired
N-methylated product 106a (IC50 = 12.1 M), which is
considerably more active than its O-methylated counterpart 106b (IC50 = 58 M) [22]. Diol 107, diesters
108 and cyclic carbonate 109 (Fig. 17) derived from
benzo[c]pyrano[3,2-h]acridin-7-one were prepared from
corresponding acridone 106a by simple modifications
of the synthesis presented above. The activities of
these compounds were in the range of IC50 = 26.2 M
to 6.7 M for the cis-diol 107, meaning that they are
less active than benzo[b]acronycine 86 (IC50 = 1.9 M)

(CH2)n
O

OH

I(CH2)nI
N

NaOH aq / THF

101

102
O

O(CH2)nI

+
N

H
103

Scheme 6. Preparation of dimeric benzo[b]acronycines 102 [49]

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

N
H

322

n=3-6

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

Acr

Acr
N

N R
Acr
N

37a,b
37a: R = CN
37b: R = C3H7

N
Acr =

Acr

38a-g

38a: n = 1; 9 = H; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 4

38b: n = 3; 9 = H; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 4
38c: n = 5; 9 = H; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 4
38d: n = 7; 9 = H; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 4
38e: n = 1; 9 = NH2; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 4
38f: n = 3; 9 = Cl; 7 = Br; Linkage position on the Acr = 4
38g: n = 7; 9 = H; 7 = H; Linkage position on the Acr = 2

Scheme 7. Synthetic route toward benzo[c]acronycines 105 [22]

OCH3
Cu(OAc)2
H2O

COOH
Br

H2N
N

110a

AcOK, Et3N
2-propanol

COOH

OCH3
H2SO4

N
H

100oC, 5 h
N

110

110b
O
ICH3, 50% NaOH aq
benzyltrimethylammonium
chloride

OCH3

OCH3

N
N

2-butanone, 70oC, 3 h
111

Scheme 8. Synthetic pathway to naphtho[1,2-b][1,10]-phenanthrolin-7(14H)-ones 110, 111 [22]

and more active than acronycine 82 (IC50 = 23 M)

[22]. Seguin et al. [22] reported the synthesis and
pharmacological evaluation of the benzo[c]acronycine 110 and 111 series, in which the dimethylpyran
ring is replaced by pyridine (Scheme 8).
In a similar pathway, 1-bromonaphthalene-2-carboxylic
acid 110a reacted with the corresponding quinoline
derivative 110b in the Ullmann condensation, followed by acidic cyclization and N-methylation [22]. It
is noteworthy that the N-unmethylated derivative 110
(IC50 = 37 M) is more cytotoxic than N-methylated
111 (IC50 100 M) [22], that is in contrast to benzo[c]pyrano[3,2-h]acridine-7-compounds 105 and 106a.
Moreover, compounds of the benzo[c] acronycine series
with an angular ring system are less active in comparison with their benzo[b]acronycine analogs [22].

Benzo[a]acronycine

Benzo[a]acronycine 112 (Fig. 17), in contrast to

benzo[c]acronycine, exhibited submicromolar toxicity
on alkylation properties [74]. One of the most active
compounds of this type was a cis-diacetoxy derivative
113 (IC50 = 0.7 M against L1210 leukemia and 0.15 M
against human epidermoid carcinoma KB-3-1) [74].
Synthesis of benzo[a]acronycine 112 consisted of several steps (Scheme 9).
First, 3,5-dimethoxyacetanilide 115 took part in
Friedel-Crafts acylation with 2-methoxy-1-naphthoyl
chloride 114. Subsequently, cyclization of 2-methoxy1-naphthyl (6-acetamido-2,4-dimethoxy)phenyl ketone
116 in the presence of NaH in DMF gave 9,11dimethoxybenzo[a]acridine-12(7H)-one 117, followed
by acidic treatment to produce 9,11-dihydroxy-benPharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

323

OCH3

COCl
+

AlCl3
HN

OCH3

OCH3

NaH

CH2Cl2
H3CO

O
114

115
O

OCH3

116

OCH3

OCH3

NH

DMF, r.t.

COCH3

Cl

OH

HBr/H2O/AcOH
N
H

OCH3

reflux
N
H

117

OH

118
O

OH

OH

DMF

OCH3

NaH, (CH3)2SO4

130oC
N
H

K2CO3/KI, DMF
65oC

N
H

119

DMF, r.t.

120

112

Scheme 9. Synthesis of benzo[a]acronycine 112 [74]

Cl

Cl
COOH

H2N
R
127

126

128

NH(CH2)2N(CH3)2

H2N(CH2)2N(CH3)2
N

N
H
124

Scheme 10. Synthesis of thioacridone derivative 121 [43]

324

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NaHS
N

Cl

Cl

POCl3

K2CO3

+
X

Cl

COOH

H
121

R
R = H, Cl, CH3

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Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

zo[a]acridine-12(7H)-one 118. Then, the reaction with

3-chloro-3-methylbut-1-yne led to 11-hydroxy-9-(1,1dimethylpropyn-1-oxy)benzo[a]acridine-12(7H)-one
119. The resulting ether 119, heated in DMF, was converted into 6-hydroxy-3,3-dimethyl-3,14-dihydro-7Hbenzo[a]pyrano[3,2-h]acridine-7-one 120 via Claisen
rearrangement. Finally, methylation in DMF with dimethyl sulfate in the presence of sodium hydride gave
rise to 112 [74]. Benzo[a]acronycine 112 was more cytotoxic compared to acronycine 82 (Fig. 16) against the
L1210 cell line (2.5 M and 23 M, respectively), but
it was less cytotoxic against the KB-3-1 cell line
(8.6 M and 3.7 M, respectively).

1-Aminothioacridones 121123 and 1-chlorothioacridones 124, 125 exhibited cytotoxicity in vitro

(IC50 = 2.315 M and IC50 = 6 to 26 M, respectively) against HL-60 human promyelocytic leukemia
cells. It is noteworthy that compounds 121 carrying
the article NH(CH2)2N(CH3)2 group are more potent
than derivatives 122 having article nitrogen mustard
moiety, despite the fact that the latter seems to be
a more reactive alkylating agent. The most active
1-(2-dimethyl-aminoethyl-amino)-9(10H)-thioacridone
121 R = H was obtained by an Ullmann reaction from
2-chlorobenzoic acid 126 (Scheme 10).
A condensation of 126 with an excess of aromatic
amine 127, followed by cyclization with phosphoryl
chloride, gave dichloroacridine 128. The reaction
with sodium hydrogen sulfide provided 1-chlorothioacridones 124, which, with an excess of dimethylaminoethylamine, gave rise to product 121 [43]. Studies concerning the DNA binding properties of these
compounds indicated that the most active derivative
121 R = H, (IC50 2.3 g/mL) exhibited the lowest C50
(8.7 M) value [43]. The latter factor correlates with
the concentration of the drug necessary to reduce the
fluorescence of initially DNA-bound ethidium by
50 % under standard assay conditions [43].
Additionally, thioacridones are promising antimalarial drugs; their antiplasmodial activity is in the
range of IC50 from 0.4 to 27 g/mL. The best result

Thioacridone

The Van der Schyf [43] group worked out the synthesis and examination of thioacridone (Fig. 18), which
is a derivative of acridone in which the C=O bond was
replaced by C=S.
Thiocarbonyl compounds with different electronic
configurations than carbonyl have other physicochemical and chemical properties, including molecular dipole and electrical charge distribution. Moreover, the larger atomic radius of sulfur and the longer
C=S bond alters the geometry of the molecule in comparison with carbonyl analogues [43]. These molecular properties are interesting for the investigation of
structure-activity relationships.

NH(CH2)2N(CH3)2

N
H

N(CH2CH2Cl)2

N
R

122

121

NH(CH2)2N(CH3)2

123
2

Cl

Cl

11

1N

3
4

10
N
H
124

N
R

R
125

N
H
7

5
6

129

R = H, Cl, CH3
Fig. 18. Thioacridones 121125 synthesized by Van der Schyf [43] and pyrido[4,3,2-kl]acridine 129 developed by Demeunynck [25]

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

325

CH(OMe)2

Cl
OMe
Cl

N
130

H2N-CH2-CH(OMe)2
PhOH, 80oC
75%
Cl

HN
OMe
N

OMe
MsOH, r.t.
79%
Cl

N
H
131

DMF/POCl3

CAN
CH3CN/H2O

CH2Cl2
84%

61%

N
OMe

N
O

Cl

N
H
O

132

Cl

N
133

Scheme 11. Preparation of 9-chloro-4-metoxypyrido[4,3,2-kl]acridine 131, 132 and 133 [25]

was obtained for 1-(2-dimethyl-aminoethylamino)9(10H)-thioacridone 121 R = H [67].

Pyrido[4,3,2-kl]acridine

Demeunynck and co-workers [25] investigated the

synthesis and therapeutic properties of pyrido[4,3,2-kl]acridine 129 (Fig. 18), which refers to skeletons of marine acridine alkaloids. The starting material, 6,9-dichloro-2-methoxyacridine 130 (Scheme 11),
was converted in a two step sequence reaction into
9-chloro-4-methoxypyrido[4,3,2-kl]acridine 131 [25].
Further modification was performed in two pathways
(Scheme 11). The Vilsmeier-Haack reaction (DMFPOCl3) led to the formyl derivative at the 6 position
132. Oxidation with CAN produced a type of Michael
acceptor 133 [25]. The first key intermediate 132 was
used to obtain glycoconjugates 134, 135 in a reaction
with adequate pyranosyl-oxyamine (Scheme 12).
The second compound 133 under treatment with
amines produced amino conjugates 136. 1,4-Michael
addition products undergo reoxidation to quinone and
spontaneously forms 136 [25]. The glycoconjugates
134, 135 showed low cytotoxity in vitro against HT29
cell lines (IC50 from 50 to 128 M), but some of the
amino conjugates 136 were much more cytotoxic
(IC50 = 1.8 to 21 M and 100 for R = C6H5). The activity correlated with DNA-binding measurements

326

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

was displayed in melting temperature experiments

[25]. This binding seems to be reinforced by the interaction of protonated aliphatic amino groups with the
phosphate backbone of DNA. In contrast to the generally observed results for acridine or pyridoacridine alkaloids, no inhibition of topoisomerase activity was
observed [25].
3-Amino-4-hydroxymethylacridine

The next series of cytotoxic acridine analogues consists

of derivatives of 3-amino-4-hydroxymethylacridine
138 (Scheme 13), which is very active against the
HT29 cell line (IC50 = 0.025 M) and can be obtained
from 3-aminoacridine 137 in three steps [31].
The proposed mechanism of action of this compound (Scheme 14) assumes the formation of a noncovalent complex with DNA by intercalation, then
slow alkylation of nucleophilic centers in the DNA.
Strong electrophilic properties of 3-amino-4-hydroxymethylacridine 138 are explained by the formation of
quinone-imine-methide intermediates 138a upon intramolecular acid-base catalysis [31].
Such a high reactivity causes toxicity in vivo and
requires modification to obtain analogs with better
pharmacological properties [12]. Demeunynck et al.
[12] developed p-nitrobenzyl-carbamate prodrugs of
3-amino-4-hydroxymethylacridine 139, 140 (Fig. 19),

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

N
OMe
Cl

N
H
132

O
CAN

Cl

70oC
O

N
OMe

RONH2
MeOH, HCl aq, pH 4
N
H

CH3CN-H2O Cl
N

134 R

135

R = sugar residue with 1, 2 or 3 pyranose units

O R'NH2 large excess

EtOH-H2O, 60oC
Cl

R' = NH-(CH2)2-NMe2
NH-(CH2)3-NMe2
NH-(CH2)3-NH2
NH-(CH2)8-NH2
NH-(CH2)3-NH-(CH2)3-NH2
NH-(CH2)-OH
NH-C6H5

O
Cl

N
136

133

NHR'

Scheme 12. Preparation of glyco- and amino-conjugates 134136 from pyrido[4,3,2-kl]acridines 132, 133 [25]

EtOC(O)Cl
N

Py

NH

HCOH aq

O
N
H

OEt

137

NH

MsOH, 80 C
74 %

1 M NaOH
NH

N
THF

OH

138

Scheme 13. Synthesis of 3-amino-4-hydroxymethylacridine 138 [31]

H+
N

- H2O

NH2

N
H

OH
138

NH2

+ H2 O

OH

NuH
N

NH2

NH2

NH2
Nu

138a
NO2

NHOH

NOH

NTR

R1
+

CO2

HN
R2

NAD(P)H

O
O

R1
R2

NAD(P)+

O
O

R1

H2 O

R2
NHOH

OH

Scheme 14. The proposed mechanism of action of 3-amino-4-hydroxymethylacridine 138 [31]

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

327

O
N

O
N

N
H

N
H
O

OH

141

NO2

140

NH
O

NO2

NO2

139

NH

N
R
O

OH

141a

Fig. 19. Acridine derivatives investigated by Demeunynck et al. [12]

which could gradually release the cytotoxic substance

138. These derivatives undergo bioactivation by the
aerobic nitroreductase (NTR) from Escherichia coli
in the presence of NADH as a cofactor (Scheme 14)
[12]. The in vitro cytostatic activity against the HT29
cell line was IC50 = 2.5 M and 9 M for di(p-nitrobenzyl) derivative [12]. Another structural modification
of 3-amino-4-hydroxymethylacridine 138 is based on
[1,3]-oxazines 141 (Fig. 19), which are used in a reaction with an article-appropriate aldehyde under acidic
conditions [75]. The 1,3-oxazines 141 are considered
cyclic precursors of the potential drug because of
ring-chain equilibrium (Fig. 19). Moreover, the stability of the ring form depends on the R substituent at
position 2 [75].

Recent achievements in the synthesis of

acridine/acridone analogs
In 2004, Chiron and Galy [32] studied the reactivity of
the acridine ring, which is very important for the design of acridine analogs of high anticancer activity.
Recently, Belmont et al. [20] described acridine and
acridone derivatives, their anticancer properties and
their synthetic methodologies. The previous routes
leading to acridine/acridone ring formation and primarily the preparation of their analogs were based on
the Ullman-Jourdan reaction [4]. This method is still
widely used for this purpose. The reaction involves
the condensation of respectively functionalized ani328

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

lines with o-halogenobenzoic acid derivatives or halogenobenzene and o-aminobenzoic acid to give
diphenylamino-2-carboxylic acids, which occurs
when strong acids cyclize to corresponding acridones.
Next, reductive conditions and harsh oxidative media
are needed for the transformation of acridone to acridine
[20]. This methodology makes possible the preparation
of pyrimidoacridones 47, 48 (Fig. 9) [8], pyridoacridines
[38], DACA 17 and their derivatives [16], pyrazoloacridines 19 (Fig. 2) [61], C-857 75, C-1748 76 [57] (Fig.
13) and 9-(w-amino-alkyl)-amino-1-nitroacridine, e.g.,
142, 1-(w-aminoalkyl)-amino-4-nitro-9(10H)acridone, e.g.,
143, N-(9-acridyl/1-acridone) amino acids, e.g., 144,
145 or 4-carboxamide-hydroxyalkyl-acridine/9-acridone
analogs 146 (Fig. 20) [29, 44, 45, 101], which were used
to synthesize their conjugates with muramyl dipeptide
(MDP) or nor-muramyl dipeptide (nor-MDP) [44, 45].
Recently, Belmont et al. [19] described a new
methodology for the synthesis of acridine derivatives
151ad (Scheme 15). Quinolines, which are commercially available starting materials, can be converted
via five high-yielding steps to TBS-protected-alkyne
150. The last step is a rhodium-catalyzed benzannulation of the quinoline intermediate yielding the desired
poly-substituted acridine derivatives.
Patin and Belmont [77] presented another route toward acridines via the Pauson-Khand reaction on alkynes 153 or 155, leading to tetrahydrocyclopenta[c]acridine-2,5-diones 154ae and 1-aminoacridine
156 (Scheme 16). Zeghida and Demeunynck [104]
recommended the article 2,2,2-trichloro-ethoxycarbonyl
(Troc) group, which has been successfully used as
a protective group for aminoacridines.

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

NH(CH2)nNH2

NH(CH2)nNH2

NO2

N
H

N
H

NO2

142

NH(CH2)2COOH

NO2

143

144
Acr

NH(CH2)2COOH
H3CO

CONH(CH2)nOH
146

Cl

145

Acr =

or
N

N
H

n = 2, 3, 4, 5

Fig. 20. Acridine/acridone derivatives prepared by Dzierzbicka et al. 142146

H3CO

H3CO
H
N

CH3

a-c
N

Cl

CH2
N

149

TBS
O

H3CO

TBS

H3CO

CH2

N
150a-d

H3CO
d

148

147

TBS

151a-d

150a, 151a: R = -C4H9

150b, 151b: R = -Ph
150c, 151c: R = -CH2-O-THP
150d, 151d: R = -CH(OEt)2
a. MeMgBr, THF, 40oC; b. MnO2, toluene, 80oC; c. NaI, CH3CN, 4 M HCl, reflux; d. TBSOTf, Et3N, CH2Cl2; e. 1alkyne, PdCl2(PPh3)2, CuI, Et3N, toluene, r.t.; f. 10 mol % [Rh(CO)2Cl2], toluene, 120oC.

Scheme 15. New methodology for acridine synthesis using a rhodium-catalyzed benzannulation [19]

OH
H

a, b

c, d, e

Cl

152

N
R
R

153a-d

154a-e
153a: R = TMS
153b: R = C4H9
153c: R = Ph
153d: R = CH2OTHP
153e: R = CH3

3 steps

154a: R = TMS
154b: R = C4H9
154c: R = Ph
154d: R = CH2OTHP
154e: R = CH3

O
CH3

Aminobenzannulation

N
N
H

N
155

N
156

a. 1-alkyne, PdCl2(PPh3)2, CuI, Et3N, DMF, r.t.

b. AllylMgBr, THF, -78oC
c. Enynes 153a-d, Co2(CO)8, CH2Cl2, r.t., 2 h; NMO, r.t., overnight
d. DMP, CH2Cl2, r.t.,
e. Enyne 153a, Co2(CO)8, CH2Cl2, r.t., 2 h; NMO, r.t., overnight; TPAP and MS

Scheme 16. A new route to acridine derivatives [20, 78]

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

329

Acridone analogues are promising antiviral agents

[3, 48] and fluorescent labels in biodiagnostics [18,
46]. These compounds are important precursors for
the creation of acridine derivatives with potential anticancer activities [20, 38, 40, 44, 45]. Acridones are
usually prepared by Ullman condensation of anilines
with 2-bromobenzoic acids to give N-phenylanthranilic acids, which undergo ring closure with sulfuric
acid. Recently, Nishio et al. [75] presented a convenient method for the preparation of acridone derivatives
(Scheme 17). The method is based on the combined

Br

PIPd, ligand A,
toluene/H2O/EtOH (4:2:1)

H2N
+

K2CO3, 90oC, 18 h

CO2Me

R1

use of polymer-supported palladium and scandium

catalysts in arylic amination and intramolecular
Friedel-Crafts acylation reactions, respectively. The
approach uses several polymer-supported catalysts in
multistep synthesis and would be useful for the construction of some compound libraries.
Wang et al. [97] reported the synthesis of 10,10dimethyl-7-aryl-7,9,10,11-tetrahydro-9H-benzo[c]acridin-8-one derivatives 164ak via a reaction of Narylidene-naphthalen-1-amine 162 with 5,5-dimethyl-

157

158

R2

dioxane/H2O (2:1)
90oC, 24 h

R2

H
N

Lewis acid B
TFAA (1.1 equiv)

CO2H

R1

CO2Me

R1

159
NH

Amberlite IRA 400

NH

R2

MeNO2, LiClO4 (6 M)
R1
55oC, 24 h

160
161

NMe2
SO3Sc(OTf)2
Cy2P

B (Sc: 0.49 mmol/g)

A
Scheme 17. Synthesis of acridine derivatives using polymer-supported palladium and scandium catalysts [75]

N=CH-Ar

Ar

O
TEBAC, H2O

+
N
H
162

163

164a-k
164a: Ar = 3-NO2C6H4
164b: Ar = 4-(CH3)2NC6H4
164c: Ar = 3,4-(CH3O)2C6H3
164d: Ar = 4-BrC6H4
164e: Ar = 2,4-Cl2C6H3
164f: Ar = 3,4-OCH2OC6H3
164g: Ar = 4-CH3OC6H3
164h: Ar = 4-OHC6H4
164i: Ar = 3,4-Cl2C6H4
164j: Ar = 4-ClC6H4
164k: Ar = 2-ClC6H4

Scheme 18. Synthesis of benzo[c]acridine derivatives in aqueous medium catalyzed by TEBAC [97]

330

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

R2

Natural and synthetic acridines/acridones as antitumor agents

Grzegorz Cholewiski et al.

O
O

NH
N
H

NH

HN
O
N

165

HO

O
H2N

OH

NH

+
N
HO

166

167

O
BocHN
N
H
HO

O
OBn
O

H2 N

BocHN
OH

OBn

EDCI, HOBt, DIPEA

HO

168

169

Scheme 19. Synthetic design of fluorenylaminoserine acridine

conjugate [37]

1,3-cyclohexadione 163 in aqueous medium catalyzed

by TEBAC (Scheme 18).
In comparison to other methods, this pathway has
the advantage of high yields, mild reaction conditions,
inexpensive reagents and an environmentally friendly
procedure [97]. In 2007, Dai and Zhou [37] reported
the synthesis of an N-(1-alkoxyl-9-fluorenyl)serine
acridine conjugate 165 (Scheme 19), which was
achieved by a tree-component (serine derivatives,

fluorenone, aminoacridine) assembly approach via an

intramolecular reductive amination process.
Some acridine derivatives have recently been synthesized from dimedone, 1,3-cyclohexanedione, cyclohexanone and phenols by reacting each of them
with vinyl acetate in 2% sodium hydroxide, followed
by treatment with ammonia [71]. In 2007, Tu et al. [92]
reported a new reaction of Schiffs base with dimedone
to produce acridine derivatives under microwave irradiation. Recently, Ma et al. [60] presented the reactivity of the 9-aminoacridine chromophore in guanidylation reactions. They developed new methodologies that
allow the formation of two novel structural acridines of
potential biological interest: incorporation of N9 atom
into a five-membered cyclic guanidinium group and
transformation of C9 atom into a spiro carbon as part
of a triazine-type heterocycle [60].
Ishihara et al. [55] described article reaction of
acridine with pyrazolone derivatives in the solid state
(without solvent). Murugans group [70] reported the
synthesis of acridine derivatives fused with quinoline,
pyran, pyridine, and benzene ring systems using
a simple and convenient methodology. Condensation
of cyclohexane-1,3-dione or dimedone with o-nitrobenzaldehyde and ammonium acetate/acetic anhydride furnished the corresponding acridinedione derivatives. Middle ring aromatization, followed by reductive cyclization, led to the respective condensed
acridine systems 170172 (Fig. 21).

Conclusions
Neoplastic diseases and bacterial and parasitic infections are still a serious challenge for many researchers

N
COOCH3

N
H
170

O
171

N
172

Fig. 21. Derivatives reported by Murugans group [70]

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

331

O HN

NH O

N
N

173 WMC-26

O
NH
N

NH

N
O

174 LU 79553

Fig. 22. Example of symmetric bifunctional intercalators 173 and 174

in various disciplines, including medicine, pharmacology, chemistry and biology. The clinical usefulness
of acridine/acridone compounds is limited due to
some of their drawbacks, such as high toxicity and tumor resistance. Borowskis group [23] described
strategies for overcoming ABC-transporter-mediated
MDR of tumor cells. Until now, numerous derivatives
and analogs of acridines/acridones synthesized as potential anticancer agents showed a positive effect on
overcoming multidrug resistance. Among them are
imidazoacridones, triazoloacridones, pyrimido[5,6,1de]acridines, pyrimido[4,5,6-de]acridines, pyrazoloacridones, pyrazolopyrimidoacridones, and pyridazinoacridones [23]. For several years, interest in symmetric bifunctional intercalators has been growing.
A number of such derivatives employing different
chromophores were synthesized [11], and their anticancer activities have been studied, e.g., WMC-26
173 [33] similar to bis-naphthalimide LU 79553 174
[27] (Fig. 22). These compounds show high effectiveness against tumors in xenograft tests in vivo.
Several acridine/acridone analogs are in use in clinics due to their anti-bacterial properties (acriflavine,
aminacrine, ethacridine), their effectiveness against
parasite infections (quinacrine, acranil) and as anticancer drugs (nitracrine, amsacrine). Others are under
clinical trials, e.g., DACA 17 (phase II clinical trial),
pyrazoloacridine 19 (phase I and II clinical trials),
compound 20 (Fig. 2) and elacridal (GF 120918) 67
(Fig. 11) exhibited multidrug resistance (phase I clinical trials in combination with doxorubicin, in patients
with solid tumors) [23]. Analogs of 9-alkyl-amino-1nitroacridine one of the most promising acridine derivatives showing anticancer activity were patented

332

Pharmacological Reports, 2011, 63, 305336

by Konopa et al. in 2003 [57]. Among the 1-nitroacridine derivatives, 9-(2-hydroxyethylamino)-4-methyl-1-nitroacridine (C-1748) 76 demonstrates high
antitumor efficacy against human prostate cancer
(Fig. 13) [13, 14, 72, 88].
The anticancer mechanism of acridine derivatives
still remains largely unknown. It has been proposed
that they may play a role in interrupting DNA synthesis by intercalating into the DNA and therefore inhibiting topo II or I [28, 47]. Wangs studies [96] provide
novel insights into the anticancer effect of acridine
derivatives and their effects on p53 signaling. The tumor suppressor protein p53 plays an important role in
tumorigenesis and cancer therapy [95, 96].

Acknowledgment:
This work was supported by the Gdansk University of Technology
(DS 014668 t.008).

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Received: March 15, 2010; in the revised form: August 13, 2010;
accepted: September 30, 2010.

336

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