States of matter and forces of attraction

Learning outcomes

States of matter and melting point

On completion of this section, you

should be able to:

Substances with high melting points have strong forces of attraction

between their atoms (or ions). Substances with low melting points have
weak forces of attraction between their molecules.

understand the relationship

between forces of attraction and
states of matter

know that single covalent bonds

are formed by sharing a pair of
electrons between the atoms

understand covalent bonding in

terms of overlap of atomic
orbitals

xxxystrong
attractive
forces

weakforces
between molecules

dl'Loll'""'' '...
J

strong bonding
withinmolecules
Figure 2. 1. 1 The strength of forces and arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gases

understand sigma and pi

bonding.

Giant structures with ionic or covalent bonds are solids

with high melting points: It takes a lot of energy to
break the many strong forces between the particles.
solidwith a
giant structure

Particles are in fixed arrangement

They only vibrate.

and do not move.

Molecular solids have low melting points: The forces

within the molecules are strong. But the forces between
the molecules are fairly weak so it does not take much
energy to overcome these.
molecularsolid

Particles are in fixed arrangement

not move. They only vibrate.

close together and do

Liquids have low melting points. The forces within the

molecules are strong. But the forces between the
molecules are weak so it does not take much energy to
overcome these.
liquid
attractive forcesbetween the
electronsof one atom and
the protons of another

Particles are close together but are more or less

randomly arranged. They slide over each other.

::0 : 1/\
\\ :::::.
::0

O~

O~

Gases have very low melting points and boiling points.

The forces between the molecules are very weak so it
does not take much energy to overcome these.

\\"'- <,

-===0 Particles

are far apart and move randomly.

gas
Figure 2.1.2
a The formation of a covalent bond

H-H
->

H ;H

electron pair
in covalent bond

b Two ways of showing the covalent bond

in hydrogen

Covalent bonding
A covalent bond is formed by the force of attraction between the nuclei
of two neighbouring atoms and a pair of electrons between them. The
attractive forces are in balance with the repulsive forces between the
electron clouds when the nuclei are a certain distance apart. Covalent
bonds arc usually strong. It needs a lot of energy to break them.

Chapter 2 Structure and bonding

Sigma bonds and pi bonds

Didyou know?

A covalent bond is formed when atomic orbitals (Section 1.4) overlap.

Each orbital which combines contributes one unpaired electron to the
bond. The 'joined' orbital is called a molecular orbital. The greater the
overlap of the atomic orbitals, the stronger is the covalent bond.

The combining power of an atom

is called its vaLency (from the
Latin valentia - meaning powerful).
So covalent means 'the power
of (atoms) joining together'. The
concept of valency is based on how
many hydrogen atoms combine
together with a given atom, e.g. the
valency of oxygen is two because
one oxygen can combine with two
hydrogen atoms in water.

Sigma bonds (a bonds)

Sigma bonds (a bonds) are formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals along
a line drawn between the two nuclei. The electron density of the bond
formed is symmetrical about a line joining the two nuclei.
nucleus

~}8-G

s atomic
orbitals

molecular orbital

Figure 2.1.3 Two s-type atomic orbitals overlap to form a molecular orbital

When a p orbital combines with an s orbital, the molecular orbital is

modified to include some s and some p character. The p orbital becomes
slightly altered in shape so that, on combining to form a molecular
orbital, one of the 'lobes' of the hour-glass shape becomes smaller. A
similar thing happens when two p orbitals combine 'end-on'. In each case
a a bond is formed.
molecular orbital

~
modified P
orbital

s orbital

a bond
molecular orbital
/

li1 Exam

tips

Although a rt bond has two areas

of electron density, you must
remember that these two areas
of electron density represent only
one bond. Do not confuse it with a
double bond, which contains one a
bond and one rt bond.

Key

points

modified P
modified P
a bond
orbital
orbital
Figure 2.1.4 The formation of sigma bonds by 'end-on' overlap of atomic orbitals

Solids with high melting points

have strong forces of attraction
between their atoms or ions.

Pi bonds (n bonds)

Pi bonds (n bonds) are formed by the sideways overlap of p atomic

orbitals. The electron density of the bond formed is not symmetrical
about a line joining the two nuclei. Figure 2.1.5 shows 2 p atomic orbitals
overlapping to form a n bond (see also Section 2.9).

Liquids and gases have low

melting points because of the
weak forces between their
molecules.

A covalent bond is formed by

the force of attraction between
the nuclei of two atoms and the
pair of electrons which forms the
bond.

Sigma bonds are formed by 'endon' overlap of atomic orbitals.

Pi bonds are formed by 'sideways'

overlap of atomic orbitals.

\Tt!
~J )J
p, orbital

-,

VJ
(

Jy~bO"d

,-~0

P, orbital

Figure 2. 1.5 The formation of a pi bond by 'sideways' overlap of pz atomic orbitals

Covalent bonding - dot and cross diagrams

Learning outcomes

SimpLe dot and cross diagrams

On completion of this section, you

should be able to:

A shared pair of electrons in a single bond is represented by a single line.

r>, r">. rT~

know that a single covalent bond

is formed when two atoms share
a pair of electrons

,-----

draw dot and cross diagrams for

electron deficient compounds
and compounds with an
expanded octet of electrons.

F)

~_.._

draw dot and cross diagrams for

a variety of compounds with
single bonds only

+ \

fluorine

,,--J

~ --

atoms

(:)

a shared pair
of electrons is a
covalent

,,_-.._5(*/.
fluorine

bond

F-F

molecule

Figure 2.2.1 The electron pairs in a fluorine molecule

It is usually only the outer electrons which are used in covalent bonding.
Electron pairs in the outer shell which are not used in bonding are called
lone pairs.
Dot and cross diagrams can be used to show the arrangement of outer
shell electrons in covalently bonded molecules. The main points are:
II'J

III

Example: Methane

Use a dot to represent the outer shell electrons from one atom and a
cross to represent the outer shell electrons from another atom.
Draw the outer electrons in pairs to emphasise the number of bond
pairs and the number of lone pairs. It also reflects the fact that each
orbital contains a maximum of two pairs of electrons.
If possible, electrons are arranged so that each atom has four pairs of
electrons around it (an octet of electrons/ the noble gas electron
configuration). Hydrogen is an exception - it can only have two
electrons around its nucleus when forming covalent bonds.
When pairing electrons, a covalent bond is formed between an
electron from one atom (dot) and an electron from another atom
(cross).

Figure 2.2.2 Drawing a dot and cross

diagram for methane

ExampLes of dot and cross diagrams

a

Didyou know?

@+G)-e
hydrogen
chloride

When we draw dot and cross

diagrams, there is no difference in
the electrons within each electron
pair. The dots and crosses are just a
book-keeping exercise to keep track
of the electrons. The electron density
in lone pairs of electrons is, however,
greater than that of bonding pairs of
electrons. For more information see
Section 2.8.

"\J

~
ammonia,

NH3

-(the
0

from a metal
atom when it

\~
hydroxide

extra electron,
comes

c:

ion

forms an ion)

Figure 2.2.3 Dot and cross diagrams for: a hydrogen chloride; b water; c ammonia; d the
hydroxide ion

Note that we can draw dot and cross structures for ions such as OH- and
NH4 + by applying the same rules. The square brackets around the ion
show that the charge is spread evenly over the ion.

Chapter 2 Structure and bonding.

Electron deficient

moLecuLes

Some molecules are unable to complete the octet of electrons when they
form covalent bonds. These molecules are said to be electron deficient.
An example is boron trichloride, BC13. This only has six electrons around
the boron atom.

Figure 2.2.4 Dot and cross diagrams for boron trichloride, Bet]

MoLecuLes with an expanded octet

Some molecules can increase the number of electrons in their outer shell
to more than 8. These molecules are said to have an expanded octet of
electrons. An example is sulphur hexafluoride, SF6. This has 12 electrons
around the sulphur atom.

Figure 2.2.5 Dot and cross diagrams for sulphur hexafluoride, SF6

Key points

A single covalent bond is formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons.

When atoms form covalent bonds each atom usually has a full outer shell
of electrons.

Electron deficient atoms in a compound have fewer than 8 electrons in

their outer shell.

Atoms with an expanded octet have more than 8 electrons in their outer
shell.

Dot and cross diagrams show how the electrons pair together in a
molecule or ion.

Exam tips

It is a common error to try and write

dot and cross diagrams for ionic
compounds as if they were covalent
molecules. If you have a compound
of a metal and non-metal then it is
likely to be ionic unless the metal
ion is very small and highly charged
compared with the non-metal ion.
To see how to write dot and cross
diagrams for ionic compounds see
Section 2.4.

More dot and cross diagrams

Learning outcomes

Molecules with multiple bonds

On completion of this section, you

should be able to:

Some atoms form bonds by sharing two pairs of electrons. A double bond is
formed. The double bond is shown by a double line, e.g. for oxygen, 0=0.

construct dot and cross diagrams

for molecules with double and
triple bonds

describe co-ordinate bonding

(dative covalent bonding)

two oxygen atoms

construct dot and cross diagrams

involving co-ordinate bonds.

oxygen molecule
0=0

2C~}O2 0 atoms

( atom

carbon dioxide
0=(=0

c
4

+0-

4 H atoms

ethene

2 C atoms

Figure 2.3.1 Dot and cross diagrams for: a oxygen; b carbon dioxide; c ethene

When atoms share three pairs of electrons, a triple bond is formed.

The triple bond is shown by a triple line, e.g. for nitrogen N=N.

Figure 2.3.2 A dot and cross diagram for nitrogen

Co-ordinate bonding
A co-ordinate bond (dative covalent bond) is formed when one atom
provides both the electrons for the covalent bond. For co-ordinate
bonding to occur we need:

one atom with a lone pair of electrons

a second atom with an unfilled orbital.

The atom with the unfilled orbital (an electron deficient atom) accepts
the lone pair of electrons to complete the outer shell of both atoms.
Example 1: Ammonium ion, NH4 +

t
1+
(;j+[r-Q
(H\

~../

Figure 2.3.3 A dot and cross diagram for an ammonium ion, NH 4 +

Chapter 2 Structure and bonding

In this example:
The H+ ion has space for two more electrons in its outer shell.
The nitrogen atom has a lone pair of electrons.
The lone pair on the nitrogen provides both electrons for the bond.
Each atom now has a noble gas electron configuration.
(H = 2; N = 2, 8).
The displayed formula (formula showing all atoms and bonds) shows the
co-ordinate bond as an ~. The head of the ~ points away from the atom
which donates the lone pair.
Example 2: Compound

Figure 2.3.4 The displayed formula for an

ammonium ion, NH/

formed between BF3 and NH3

Figure 2.3.5 A dot and cross diagram for the co-ordination compound, BF3NH3

In this example:

B has the simple electronic configuration 2, 6 when bonded to three

fluorine atoms. There is still room for 2 more electrons to be added to
its outer shell to form the nearest noble gas configuration.
N has a lone pair of electrons.

The nitrogen donates its lone pair to the unfilled orbital of boron.
Both boron and nitrogen have the simple electronic configuration 2, 8.

Example 3: Aluminium

chloride, AlCl3

Aluminium chloride is an electron deficient molecule - the aluminium

atom is 2 electrons short of the 8 electrons required for the nearest noble
gas configuration.
At room temperature, aluminium chloride exists as Al2Cl6 molecules.
This is because the lone pairs of electrons on two of the chlorine atoms
can form co-ordinate bonds with the aluminium atoms.

Figure 2.3.6 A dot and cross diagram for the AlzCi6 molecule

Key points

A double bond contains two pairs of electrons and a triple bond contains
three pairs of electrons.

Inco-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding one atom provides both electrons

for the bond.

Didyou know?
Hydrated aluminium chloride,
AICl36HzOis an ionic compound,
but anhydrous aluminium chloride is
a molecule with the formula AlzCl6
which has co-ordinate bonding
between two of the Cl and Al
atoms. The hydrated compound is
ionic because the water molecules
stabilise the A13+
ions. They do this by
co-ordinate bonding between water
molecules and the highly charged
A13+
ion.

Ionic and metallic bonding

Learning outcomes

The formation

On completion of this section, you

should be able to:

III

When electrons are transferred from metal atoms to non-metal atoms,

ions are formed.

III

The outer shell of both ions formed have the noble gas electron
configuration:
K
~
K+ + e:
0 + 2e- ~ 022, 8, 8,1
[2,8,8J+
2,6
[2,8)2-

III

Positive ions are formed by loss of electrons and negative ions are
formed by gain of electrons.

&I

In an ionic compound the number of positive and negative charges

must balance, e.g. for calcium chloride the ions present are Ca2+and
Cl. So the formula for calcium chloride is [Ca2+J2[Cl-], or more
simply, CaC12.

know that ions are formed when

atoms gain or lose electrons

write dot and cross diagrams for

ionic structures

describe the structure of metals.

~
1

Exam tips
Remember that for metal atoms
in Groups I to Ill, the charge
on the ion formed is the same
as the group number. For nonmetal atoms in Groups V to VII,
the charge on the ion is group
number -8. For example, 5 forms
the sulphide ion, 52- (6 - 8 = -2).
Remember that some positive
ions do not contain metals,
e.g. H+ and NH/ ions.

of ionic compounds

Dot and cross diagrams for ionic structures

When writing dot and cross diagrams for ionic structures we usually
show only the outer electron shells because these are the ones involved in
electron transfer. Figure 2.4.1 shows how to construct a dot and cross
diagram for magnesium oxide. Note:
11

The ions formed have a full outer shell of electrons (electron

configuration of the nearest noble gas).

IiI

The charge on the ion is placed at the top right.

III

The square brackets indicate that the charge is spread throughout the
ion.

2,8,2

2,6

[2,8]2+

[2,BF-

Figure 2.4.7 Constructing a dot and cross diagram for magnesium oxide
b

[NoT"
[2,8J

[NaJ

[2,8,8]2+

~
(2,BF-

[2,8]+
[2,8,8]-

Figure 2.4.2 Dot and cross diagrams for: a calcium chloride; b sodium oxide

Chapter 2 Structure and bonding

Ionic bonding

I
.

I
.

The ionic bond is an electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely

charged ions. The net attractive forces between these ions results in the
formation of a giant ionic structure. In this structure the ions are
regularly arranged in a three-dimensional lattice (see also Section 2.6).
The electrostatic attractive forces between the ions act in all directions
and the bonding is very strong .

0-

Metallic bonding
Most metals exist in a lattice of ions surrounded a 'sea' of delocalised
electrons. Delocalised electrons are those which are not associated with
any particular atom or ion. They are free to move between the metal
ions.

Figure 2.4.3 Part of a giant ionic lattice

of sodium chloride

outer electrons of metal become delocalised

..

,..-- .. ,

.
." ..

,.--"',

f'

'--"

..

...

:+~:+::+::+:

..

'"

-"'...

..

.. --"',-

I'

..'" -"..

...

..

..

,'.',

..

"

' ..

....

:+::+::+::+::+:
',--,'

,\,--,'

...

',--,'

"

"

"

:, + ,:
.'--"
..

.' + : " + : .' + : " + :

"

strong ionic bonds

between oppositely
charged ions

"

....

',--,'

..

',--,'

'sea' of delocalised electrons

Figure 2.4.4 The structure of a typical metal. (Note: the diagram shows only one layer of
atoms for clarity. In reality there would be other layers on top of and beneath the layer
shown.)

In this structure:

The positive charges are held together by their strong electrostatic

attraction to the delocalised electrons.

[ill'

This strong electrostatic attraction acts in all directions.

So metallic bonding is usually strong.

Remember that the big difference

between metallic and ionic bonding
is:

I
I
I

The number of delocalised electrons depends on the number of

electrons lost by each metal atom.

11

The strength of metallic bonding increases with:

increasing positive charge on the ions

decreasing size of the metal ions

increasing number of delocalised electrons.

I
I
I

Key points

Ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons.

Ions generally have a full outer shell of electrons (noble gas structure).

Ionic bonding is the net attractive force between positively and negatively
charged ions.

Metallic bonding is a lattice of positive ions in a 'sea' of delocalised

electrons.

Exam tips

Ionic: the negative charges are ions.

M~taLlic: the negative charges are
electrons.

ELectronegativity and intermoLecuLar forces

Learning outcomes

Electronegativity

On completion of this section, you

should be able to:

Electronegativity is the ability of a particular atom involved in covalent

bond formation to attract the bonding pair of electrons to itself.

Electronegativity increases across a period from Group I to Group VII.

Electronegativity decreases down any group.

The order of electronegativity is: F > 0 > N > Cl > Br. .. > C > H.

understand the meaning of the

terms 'electronegativity' and
'bond polarity'
describe the three types of weak
intermolecular forces: permanent
dipole-dipole, van der Waals,
hydrogen bonding.
b

r:--:~

centre of ion charge the same

centre of
+ charge

Polarity in molecules: bond polarisation

If the electronegativity values of the two atoms in a covalent bond are

the same, we say that the bond is non-polar.

If the electronegativity values of the two atoms in a covalent bond are

different, we say that the bond is polar.

We can also apply the idea of polarity to molecules:

f

centre of
- charge

Figure 2.5. 1 a Hydrogen is a non-polar

molecule because the centres of + and
- charge coincide. b Hydrogen fluoride is
polar because the centres of + andcharge do not coincide.

In a non-polar molecule the centres of positive and negative charge

coincide.

In a polar molecule the centres of positive and negative charge do not

coincide. This means that one end of the molecule is slightly negatively
charged, (5-, and the other end is slightly positively charged, (5+.

The degree of polarity is measured by a dipole moment. This is shown by

the sign -1---7. The ~ points to the partially negatively charged end of the
molecule.
Examples:

(5+ (5-1---7

H-Cl

(5-

(5+

~
Cl- Br

If we kn.ow the shape of a molecule and the polarity of each bond, we can
tell if the molecule as a whole is polar or non-polar. If the polarities of the
bonds act so that they oppose each other, they may cancel each other out.
The molecule is then non-polar (see Figure 2.5.2) because the centre of
positive and negative charge is the same.
a

Exam tips

We often talk about bonding in

general terms as being strong or
weak. Many chemists however
reserve the term 'bonding' for
stronger bonding, especially covalent
bonding. When we are talking about
weak bonding between molecules,
it is more accurate to refer to them
as forces between molecules. It
may help to make the distinction
between forces within molecules
(strong bonding) and forces between
molecules (weak).

dipoles add so
molecule polar

dipoles add so
molecule polar

dipoles cancel
each other so
molecule non-polar

Figure 2.5.2 The polarity in: a water; b trichloromethane; c tetra chloromethane

Weak intermolecular

forces

Intermolecular forces arise because of the attraction between the dipoles

in neighbouring molecules. There are three types of intermolecular force:
permanent dipole-dipole forces
van der Waals forces
hydrogen bonding.

Chapter 2 Structure and bonding

Intermolecular forces are weak compared with covalent, ionic and
metallic bonding. The comparative strength of these intermolecular
forces are generally in the order: hydrogen bonding> permanent dipoledipole> van der Waals.

Permanent dipole-dipole

CH3-,.

forces

,8+

Permanent dipole-dipole forces are the weak attractive forces between

the 8+ of the dipole of one molecule and the 8- of the dipole of a
neighbouring molecule (see Figure 2.5.3).

CH3

f>-

C= 0

"8+

11111111111111111111

CH3/

8-

C= 0

CH3/

Figure 2.5.3 Permanent dipole-dipole

forces between two propanone molecules

van der Waals forces

van der Waals forces of attraction are not permanent. All atoms and
molecules, including noble gas atoms, have van der Waals forces.
Electrons in atom.s are always in motion.

So the electron density may be greater in one part of the molecule

than another.

So an instantaneous dipole is formed.

This dipole can induce the formation of a dipole in a neighbouring
molecule.

The two neighbouring molecules attract each other because of their

dipoles.
electron density greater
here temporarily
g.,

Didyou know?
The peculiar properties of water,
e.g. lower density of ice than water
and high surface tension, are due to
more extensive hydrogen bonding
than in many other molecules. Water
molecules have two hydrogen atoms
and two lone pairs of electrons. So
water can form an average of two
hydrogen bonds per molecule.

temporary attraction
between 0+and 0-

single atom

Figure 2.5.4 van der Waals forces are only temporary because the electrons in the
molecules of atoms are in constant movement

Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bonding is a special form of permanent dipole bonding. It
requires:

one molecule with an H atom covalently bonded to an F, 0 or N

atom. These are the most electronegative atoms

a second molecule having a ~ 0 or N atom with a lone pair of

electrons.
a

8+

O-H---:O
8+ /

Electronegativity is the ability of

an atom in a covalent bond to
attract electrons in the bond to
itself.

Electronegativity differences
together with the structure
of molecules can be used to
determine whether a molecule is
polar or non-polar.

van der Waals forces are based on

temporarily induced dipoles.

Hydrogen bonding occurs

between molecules having a lone
pair of electrons on F,0 or Nand
a hydrogen atom attached by a
covalent bond to F,Oor N.

8+

f>-/H

8+\

H-band shown by
3 dashes or 3 dots
~-..

Key points

..

<,

f>-..

8+

:O-H---:N-

8+

8+ /

8-,/

8+

"8+

lone pair
Figure 2.5.5 Hydrogen bonding: a in pure water; b between water and ammonia
molecules

Properties of giant structures

Learning outcomes

lattices

On completion of this section, you

should be able to:

A lattice is a regular three-dimensional arrangement of particles. Lattice

with strong bonding between the particles are called giant structures.
The three types of giant structures are:

describe giant structures in terms

of their lattices

11

giant ionic, e.g. sodium chloride, magnesium oxide (see Section 2.4
for diagram)

understand how the properties of

giant ionic structures, giant
covalent structures and metals
are related to their structure.

11

giant covalent (sometimes called giant molecular), e.g. diamond,

silicon dioxide

1\1

metallic, e.g. copper, iron (see Section 2.4 for diagram).

Properties of giant ionic structures

III

Melting and boiling points are high: it takes a lot of energy to break
the large number of strong bonds between the oppositely charged ion!
(see Section 2.4).

11

Soluble in water: the ions can form ion-dipole bonds with water
molecules.

Figure 2.6.7 Water molecules forming ion-dipole bonds around + and - ions

Conduct electricity only when molten or dissolved in water: the ions

can only move when molten or dissolved in water. They cannot move
in the solid.

!II

solid

Sfu&0-~

"th~d~H?~n~e ~
cathode

~~

--c:!) -

+
anode

Figure 2.6.2 a The ions cannot move in the solid state. b The ions are free to move in the
liquid state.
11

Exam tips

A common error in exams is to

suggest that electrons are involved
when substances such as molten
sodium chloride conduct electricity.
First ask yourself if the structure
is ionic (compound of reactive
metal with non metal). If it is ionic,
remember the 'ion' in ionic.

Brittle: when a force is applied, the layers of ions slide. When many
ions of the same charge are next to each other, there are many
repulsive forces. So the lattice breaks easily.
a

Figure 2. 6.3 a A small force is applied. b The ions move out of position and ions with the
same charge are next to each other so the lattice breaks along this plane.

Chapter 2 Structure and bonding

Properties of giant covalent

structures

Melting and boiling points are high: it takes a lot of energy to break
the large number of strong covalent bonds in the network of atoms.
b

..

silicon atom

weak forces ~
between ~~
layers
~ .

~
Figure 2.6.4 The structures 0[- a diamond; b graphite; c silicon dioxide

Insoluble in water: the atoms are too strongly bonded to form bonds
with water.

Apart from graphite they do not conduct electricity: there are no

electrons or ions that are free to move. Graphite conducts because it
has some delocalised electrons. These electrons move anywhere along
the layers when a voltage is applied.

l!l

Apart from graphite they are hard: the three-dimensional network of

strong bonds in different directions is too difficult to break. Graphite
is soft because there are weak van der Waals forces between the layers.
So the layers can slide over each other when a force is applied.

Didyou know?
Each carbon atom in graphite is
bonded to three others. This leaves a
'spare' electron in a p orbital in each
carbon atom. These electrons form a
huge delocalised system around all
the rings in the graphite structure by
re bonding. So the graphite conducts
along the layers, but not between
the layers.

Properties of metals

Melting and boiling points are high: it takes a lot of energy to break
the large number of strong forces of attraction between the ions and
the delocalised electrons (see Section 2.4).

Insoluble in water (although some react with water): the force of

attraction between the ions and the delocalised electrons is too strong
to form bonds with water. Some metals react with water because they
lose electrons.

Conduct electricity when solid or molten: the delocalised electrons are

free to move when a voltage is applied.

Malleable (can be beaten into shape) and ductile (can be drawn into
wires): when a force is applied, the layers of metal ions can slide over
each other. The attractive forces between the metal ions and the
electrons can still act in all directions. So when the layers slide, new
bonds can easily form. This leaves the metal in a different shape but
still strong.

Key points

Giant ionic structures have a

regularly repeating lattice of ions.

Giant structures have high

melting and boiling points
because they have many strong
bonds in many directions.

Giant ionic structures are

generally soluble in water. They
only conduct electricity when
molten or dissolved in water
because the ions are free to
move.

Metals conduct electricity

because some of the electrons
are free to move throughout the
structure.

Giant covalent structures do

not conduct electricity because
they do not have free moving
electrons or ions.

Metallic structures are malleable

and ductile becausethe layers of
atoms can slide over each other.

Figure 2.6.5 a A small force is applied to a metal. b The metal ions slide out of position,
but there are still strong forces between the ions and the delocalised electrons.

Properties of simple molecular compounds

Learning outcomes

Molecular

On completion of this section, you

should be able to:

Substances with a simple molecular structure such as iodine, 12, can form
crystals. This reflects a regular packing of the molecules in a lattice. The
forces between the molecules are the weak van der Waals forces. So,
simple molecular structures which are solids at room temperature are
brittle. They do not conduct electricity because they have neither
delocalised electrons nor ions.

understand how the properties of

simple molecular compounds are
related to their structures

know that simple molecular

solids often have a lattice
structure

understand how hydrogen

bonding influences the properties
of molecules

describe the solubility of

molecular compounds in polar
and non-polar solvents.

lattices

Figure 2. 7. 7 The lattice structure of iodine (only shown in two dimensions)

Melting and boiling points of simple molecular

structures
Many simple molecular substances are liquids or gases. They have low
melting and boiling points because it does not take much energy to
overcome the weak intermolecular forces between the molecules. Solids
with molecular lattices, such as iodine or sulphur, are also easily broken
down when heated. It does not take much energy to overcome the weak
van der Waals forces keeping the lattice together.
van der Waals forces increase with:

/CHl"

/CHl"

CH3

CHl

CH3

/CHl"
CH3

/CHl".
CHl

CH3

Figure 2.7.2 2,2-dimethylpropane,

a has
a lower boiling point than pentane; b
because there are more contact points for
van der Waals forces to act over

III

increasing number of electrons in the molecule

increasing number of contact points in the molecule (contact points

are places where the molecules come close together).

So the melting points and boiling points of the noble gases and the
halogens increase down each group as the number of electrons (and the
relative mass) increases.
Pentane and 2,2-dimethylpropane have the same number of electrons,
but the boiling point of pentane is higher. This is because there are more
contact points for van der Waals forces to act over. The total van der
Waals forces per molecule are therefore greater. So the boiling point is
higher.
Large molecules, such as straight chained polymers, are solids at room
temperature because they have very high relative molecular masses (large
number of electrons). Also there are many contact points for the van der
Waals forces to act over.

Chapter 2 Structure and bonding

The anomalous properties of water

Ii1 Exam

Water has a much higher boiling point than expected by comparison with
other Group VI hydrides. The boiling points of the hydrides from H2S to
H2Teincrease gradually due to increased van der Waals forces. Water has
a much higher boiling point than the other hydrides because it is
extensively hydrogen-bonded. Since hydrogen-bonding is stronger
compared with other intermolecular forces, it takes a lot more energy to
vaporise water than the other Group VI hydrides.
400
g300

....
c

.~ 200
O<J

tips

It is not always safe to assume

that compounds with hydrogen
bonding or dipole-dipole bonding
always have a higher boiling point
than those with van der Waals
intermolecular forces. For example,
the boiling point of SbH3 (not
H-bonded) is higher than that of
NH3 (H-bonded). This is because we
are comparing molecules with very
different masses, SbH3 being more
than 10x the mass of NH3.

.2

100

Figure 2.7.3 The boiling

points of the Group VI
hydrides

0+------.------,------.------,--

period

Most solids are denser than their corresponding liquids. Ice, however, is
less dense than (liquid) water. This is because the molecules in ice are
arranged in an 'open' lattice structure stabilised by hydrogen bonding.
The molecules are not as close together as in liquid water.
Water also has a high surface tension due to hydrogen bonding.

Solubility of simple molecular substances

In order to dissolve, the strength of the attractive forces between solute
and solvent is usually greater than between the solute molecules
themselves. Most covalently-bonded molecules such as iodine, sulphur
and butane, are insoluble in water. Many are non-polar and so water
molecules are not attracted to them. They will, however, dissolve in
non-polar solvents such as hexane if the new intermolecular forces
formed between the solvent and solute are stronger than those between
the solute molecules themselves. Some simple molecules are soluble in
water, e.g. ethanol, C2HsOH and ammonia, NH3. This is because they
can form hydrogen bonds with water.
0+

13+

H
0-..

0+

0-/'

:O-H---:N-H

0+ /

"

0+

8-/
:O-H---:O

0-..
8+ /

ClHS

0+

.. "

0+

Figure 2.7.5 Hydrogen bonding between: a ammonia and water; b ethanol and water

Key poin ts

Simple molecular solids can form lattices with weak forces between the
molecules.

Simple molecular solids have low melting and boiling points because there
are weak forces between the molecules.

Hydrogen-bonded molecules have relatively higher melting and boiling

points than expected and many are soluble in water.

The total van der Waals forces between molecules may determine the state
of a simple molecular compound at room temperature.

Figure 2.7.4 The structure of ice

Didyou know?
You can float a needle on water
because of the strong hydrogen
bonding in the water. Place a needle
on a piece of filter paper. Put the
paper and needle on the surface
of some very still water. When the
filter paper sinks, the needle should
remain on the surface of the water.

Shapes of molecules (1)

Learning outcomes

VSEPR theory

On completion of this section, you

should be able to:

The valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) can be
used to work out the shapes of molecules. It uses the following rules:

Pairs of electrons in the outer shells of the atoms in a molecule repel

each other and move as far apart as possible. This minimises
repulsive forces in the molecule.

predict the shapes and bond

angles in simple molecules and
ions.

Repulsion between
than the repulsion
Repulsion between
than the repulsion

III

lone-pairs and lone-pairs (of electrons) is greater

between lone-pairs and bond-pairs of electrons.
lone-pairs and bond-pairs (of electrons) is greater
between bond-pairs and bond-pairs of electrons.

Shapes of moLecuLes with onLy singLe bonds

The information below shows how VSEPR theory is used to work out the
shapes of various molecules.
b

Four bond pairs. No lone pairs around C.

Equal repulsion. So bond angles all 109S.
Shape: tetrahedral.
(NH4 + ion is also this shape)

H
x.
H;C~H
.x
H

..

d
F

: F:
.x

B+.

.. ..

:F::F:

:ci;. Be;ci:
..

F
F...

greater repu

4..I

H;N~H
.x
H

'Octa-' means eight. So an

octahedron has eight faces.
m

..

:0:
H+ H

SI on

H/ L ~H
H less
repulsion

Three bond pairs. One lone pair around N.

.
Greater repulsion between lone and
bonding pairs. So bond angles close up to
107.
Shape: pyramidal.
Three bond pairs. One lone pair around o.
Greater repulsion between lone and bonding
pairs. So bond angles close up to l O?".
Shape: pyramidal. (The CH3 - ion also has
this shape.)

Two bond pairs. Two lone pairs around o.

Greatest repulsion between lone pairs, less
repulsion between lone pairs and bond pairs
medium and least repulsion between bonding pairs.
repulsion So bond angles close up to 104.5.
Shape: non-linear, V-shaped.

greatest
.~repulsion
0

H<>~

/ t

104.5

Figure 2.8.2 An octahedron

I.

C;~~J

k ~

Six bond pairs. No lone pairs around S.

Equal repulsion. So bond angles all 90.
Shape: octahedral.

1070

Figure 2.8.1 A tetrahedron

I .. F

F~I~~o

Remember that 'tetra-' means four.

So a tetrahedron has four faces.

Two bond pairs. No lone pairs around Be.

Equal repulsion. So bond angles both 180.
Shape: linear .

Cl-~-Cl

F
F .. x. F
~ S ~
F .x ..F
F

Exam tips

I
1800

Three bond pairs. No lone pairs around B.

Equal repulsion. So bond angles all 120.
Shape: trigonal planar.

1200
~F

least
repulsion

Chapter 2 Structure

Shapes of moLecuLes and compound

ions with

muLtipLe bonds
The information below shows how VSEPR theory is used to work out the
shapes of carbon dioxide as well as oxo ions (those containing oxygen and
another non-metal).
a

.. ..

l l2l..
..
~O:

000
d

:o:!o:
.. .

~O:
+ +.~2-

:O~SO:

x.

..

:0:

2-

Three groups of bond pairs. No

lone pairs. Equal repulsion. So
bond angles 120.
Shape: trigonal planar.
(The nitrate ion is also trigonal
planar.)

2-

Four groups of bond pairs. No

lone pairs. Equal repulsion. So
bond angles 109.5.
Shape: tetrahedral.

o
~200

.+

Two groups of two bonding pairs.

No lone pairs. Equal repulsion.
So bond angles both 180.
Shape: linear.

1800

:0;(;0:

1200 0

o
11

~+.'"

0_:-1 "'0
109.5 0

Key points

The shapes and bond angles in molecules can be predicted using VSEPR
theory which depends on the number of lone pairs and bonding pairs of
electrons around a particular atom.

In VSEPR theory. lone-pair: lone-pair repulsion>

repulsion>
bond-pair:
bond-pair repulsion.

lone-pair:

bond-pair

and bonding

Didyou know?
Experimental data shows that all
the carbon-oxygen
bond lengths in
(0/ions are the same. Similarly all
the sulphur-oxygen
bond lengths in
the SO/- ion are the same. This is
due to hybridisation of the orbitals .
Each bond has a bond length
between that of a double and single
bond between the relevant atoms.

Shapes of molecules (2)

Learning outcomes

Hybridisation of orbitaLs

On completion of this section, you

should be able to:

Methane has four C-H bonds of equal length. The four unfilled C atomic
orbitals can be thought of as being mixed so that each has {s character
and
character. This process of mixing atomic orbitals is called
hybridisation. These mixed orbitals are called Sp3orbitals. Hybridisation
allows a greater overlap of atomic orbitals when a molecular orbital is
formed and also allows each bond to be the same. They are all (J bonds
with equal repulsion between them.

predict the shapes and bond

angles in simple organic
compounds

understand the shapes of

molecules using the idea of
hybridisation of atomic orbitals

use ideas of hybridisation to

describe the shape of benzene.

tP

----~

ex::,---~ '
Sp3

orbital

from C

Is orbital
from H

C-H molecular
orbital

Figure 2. 9. 7 a An Sp3orbital from carbon combines with a Is orbital from H to form a

molecular orbital making up a C-H bond; b Methane has 4 directional hybrid orbitals

Other hydrocarbons with single bonds also form molecular orbitals from
hybridised Sp3orbitals.

r>. >er-bonds

(\. x . L-

~C:/}~--.'--\:)
o
\-

I.

Figure 2.9.2 The structure of ethane. The molecular orbitals formed from Sp3hybrids
allow each bond to be a ss-bond.

The structure of ethene

The dot and cross diagram and shape of ethene are shown below.
a

Figure 2.9.3 a Dot and cross diagram for ethene; b Shape of an ethene molecule

In ethene, one singly occupied 2s orbital and two of the three singly
occupied 2p orbitals in each carbon atom hybridise to make three Sp2
orbitals. These have similar shapes to Sp3orbitals. These sp- orbitals
form (J bonds which are arranged in a plane making a bond angle of
approximately 120 with each other since there is equal repulsion of the
electrons.
The remaining 2p orbitals from each carbon atom. overlap sideways to
form a rr. bond.
TI-bond
u-bonds
Figure 2.9.4 Ethene has three Sp2orbitals
in one plane and a ti-bond above and
below this plane

The H-C-H bond angle in ethene is 117.3, rather than the 120
expected, because of the influence of the re-bond whose. electron density is
at right angles to that of the plane of the carbon and hydrogen atoms,
This bond angle allows the maximum overlap of the orbitals.

Chapter 2 Structure and bonding

Resonance
In methane and ethene the electrons are localised, i.e. they are in
particular positions. In some substances, the molecular orbitals extend
over three or more atoms, allowing some of the electrons free movement
over these atoms. These electrons are said to be delocalised.
Benzene, C6H6, has six carbon atoms arranged in a ring. Figure 2.9.S(a)
shows a representation of benzene. The H means that the actual
structure is a single (composite) form which lies between these two
structures. The bonds between the carbon atoms are neither double nor
single bonds. They are somewhere in-between. The composite structure
is called a resonance hybrid.
a

0-0

_-

0
,r

,,

...

-'"

.
'

'"

Figure 2. 9.5 a Two possible ways of representing benzene; b A modem representation of

benzene

In benzene, the six carbon atoms form a hexagon with three localised Sp2
hybrid orbitals (one to each hydrogen atom and two to other carbon
atoms). The 3 Sp2orbitals are arranged in a plane. So the bond angles are
120. This leaves a single p orbital on each of the six carbon atoms.
These orbitals overlap sideways to form a delocalised system of re bonds.
The six electrons involved can move freely around the ring.

Figure 2.9.6 The structure of benzene: a The p orbitals before overlap (the Sp2hybrids are
shown by the straight lines); b The delocalised system of re bonds

In graphite, each carbon atom forms three localised Sp2hybrid orbitals to

the other carbon atoms. The remaining p orbitals overlap sideways on to
form an extensive system of delocalised electrons. These electrons can
move along the layers when a voltage is applied. This is why graphite
conducts electricity.

Key points

Hybridisation of sand p atomic orbitals results in the formation

orbital with mixed character.

of an

The shapes of simple organic molecules can be predicted using VSEPR

theory and the idea of hybridisation.

Benzene is a resonance hybrid with a planar ring.

[i1 Exam tips

It is a common error to think that
resonance hybrids are mixtures of
two or more forms of a structure.
They are single structures. We can
represent the 'in-between' structure
in many cases by the use of dashed
lines (see Figure 2.9.5(b))

b
2

Draw dot and cross diagrams for the following

molecules:
a HzS
b PCl3
C

3 a
b
4

Using the concept of atomic orbitals, explain

how:
sigma and
ii pi bonds are formed.
Which of these two bonds is stronger? Explain
your answer.

COz

How is a co-ordinate bond formed?

H30+ has a co-ordinate bond. Draw a dot and
cross diagram to show the bonding in this ion.

Use dot and cross diagrams to illustrate the bonding

in the following ionic compounds:
a potassium sulphide
b aluminium oxide
a

b
c

An element has one electron in its outer shell

and has filled inner shells. Describe the type of
bonding in this element.
Would the melting point of this element be
relatively high or low? Explain your answer.
Place the following Period 3 metals in order of
increasing melting point:
aluminium

a
b
c

sodium

magnesium

Define 'electronegativity'.
What is the trend in electronegativity
down Group VII?
Explain your answer to part (b).

as you go

Identify the following molecules as polar or nonpolar:

a BF3
b CH3Cl
C

COz

NH3

a
b

State the three types of intermolecular forces of

attraction.
Identify the type of intermolecular force of
attraction in the following molecules:
CO
ii

NH3

iii HF

iv ICl
9

Magnesium oxide, diamond and aluminium are

all solids. Using structure and bonding explain the
differences, if any, among these three solids in terms
of the following properties:
a melting point
b electrical conductivity
c solubility in water.

10 Using structure

a
b
c

and bonding explain why iodine:

is brittle
does not conduct electricity
iodine vaporises very easily.

11 Explain why water has a much higher boiling point

than the other Group VI hydrides.

12 Which of the following molecules would have a

higher melting point, BCl3or Pcl3? Explain your

answer.
13 Using VSEPR theory, state and explain the shapes of

the following molecules and ions:

a H30+
b HzS
C
BCl3
d

CCl4

PH3