3.
G RAPHS
basic definitions and applications
graph connectivity and graph traversal
testing bipartiteness
connectivity in directed graphs
DAGs and topological ordering
Lecture slides by Kevin Wayne
Copyright 2005 Pearson-Addison Wesley
http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~wayne/kleinberg-tardos
Last updated on 1/10/17 10:58 AM
3. G RAPHS
basic definitions and applications
graph connectivity and graph traversal
testing bipartiteness
connectivity in directed graphs
DAGs and topological ordering
Undirected graphs
Notation. G = (V, E)
V = nodes.
E = edges between pairs of nodes.
Captures pairwise relationship between objects.
Graph size parameters: n = | V |, m = | E |.
V = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }
E = { 1-2, 1-3, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 3-5, 3-7, 3-8, 4-5, 5-6, 7-8 }
m = 11, n = 8
3
One week of Enron emails
4
The evolution of FCC lobbying coalitions
The Evolution of FCC Lobbying Coalitions by Pierre de Vries in JoSS Visualization Symposium 2010 5
key variable of interest was an alters obesity at t + 1 to the foregoing models. We also analyzed
time t + 1. A significant coefficient for this vari- the role of geographic distance between egos
Framingham heart study
able would suggest either that an alters weight
affected an egos weight or that an ego and an
and alters by adding such a variable.
We calculated 95% confidence intervals by sim-
alter experienced contemporaneous events affect- ulating the first difference in the alters contem-
Figure 1. Largest Connected Subcomponent of the Social Network in the Framingham Heart Study in the Year 2000.
Each circle (node) represents one person in the data set. There are 2200 persons in this subcomponent of the social
network. Circles with red borders denote women, and circles with blue borders denote men. The size of each circle
is proportional to the persons body-mass index. The interior color of the circles indicates the persons obesity status:
yellow denotes an obese person (body-mass index, 30) and green denotes a nonobese person. The colors of the
ties between the nodes indicate the relationship between them: purple denotes a friendship or marital tie and orange
denotes a familial tie.
The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32 Years by Christakis and Fowler in New England Journal of Medicine, 2007 6
Some graph applications
graph node edge
communication telephone, computer fiber optic cable
circuit gate, register, processor wire
mechanical joint rod, beam, spring
financial stock, currency transactions
transportation street intersection, airport highway, airway route
internet class C network connection
game board position legal move
social relationship person, actor friendship, movie cast
neural network neuron synapse
protein network protein protein-protein interaction
molecule atom bond
7
Graph representation: adjacency matrix
Adjacency matrix. n-by-n matrix with Auv = 1 if (u, v) is an edge.
Two representations of each edge.
Space proportional to n2.
Checking if (u, v) is an edge takes (1) time.
Identifying all edges takes (n2) time.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
3 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
5 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
7 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
8 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
8
Graph representation: adjacency lists
Adjacency lists. Node indexed array of lists.
Two representations of each edge. degree = number of neighbors of u
Space is (m + n).
Checking if (u, v) is an edge takes O(degree(u)) time.
Identifying all edges takes (m + n) time.
1 2 3
2 1 3 4 5
3 1 2 5 7 8
4 2 5
5 2 3 4 6
6 5
7 3 8
8 3 7
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Paths and connectivity
Def. A path in an undirected graph G = (V, E) is a sequence of nodes
v1, v2, , vk with the property that each consecutive pair vi1, vi is joined
by an edge in E.
Def. A path is simple if all nodes are distinct.
Def. An undirected graph is connected if for every pair of nodes u and v,
there is a path between u and v.
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Cycles
Def. A cycle is a path v1, v2, , vk in which v1 = vk, k > 2, and the first k 1
nodes are all distinct.
cycle C = 1-2-4-5-3-1
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Trees
Def. An undirected graph is a tree if it is connected and does not contain a
cycle.
Theorem. Let G be an undirected graph on n nodes. Any two of the
following statements imply the third.
G is connected.
G does not contain a cycle.
G has n 1 edges.
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Rooted trees
Given a tree T, choose a root node r and orient each edge away from r.
Importance. Models hierarchical structure.
root r
parent of v
child of v
a tree the same tree, rooted at 1
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Phylogeny trees
Describe evolutionary history of species.
14
GUI containment hierarchy
Describe organization of GUI widgets.
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/uiswing/overview/anatomy.html 15
3. G RAPHS
basic definitions and applications
graph connectivity and graph traversal
testing bipartiteness
connectivity in directed graphs
DAGs and topological ordering
Connectivity
s-t connectivity problem. Given two node s and t, is there a path between s
and t ?
s-t shortest path problem. Given two node s and t, what is the length of the
shortest path between s and t ?
Applications.
Friendster.
Maze traversal.
Kevin Bacon number.
Fewest number of hops in a communication network.
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Breadth-first search
BFS intuition. Explore outward from s in all possible directions, adding
nodes one "layer" at a time.
s L1 L2 Ln1
BFS algorithm.
L0 = { s }.
L1 = all neighbors of L0.
L2 = all nodes that do not belong to L0 or L1, and that have an edge to a
node in L1.
Li+1 = all nodes that do not belong to an earlier layer, and that have an
edge to a node in Li.
Theorem. For each i, Li consists of all nodes at distance exactly i
from s. There is a path from s to t iff t appears in some layer.
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Breadth-first search
Property. Let T be a BFS tree of G = (V, E), and let (x, y) be an edge of G.
Then, the level of x and y differ by at most 1.
L0
L1
L2
L3
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Breadth-first search: analysis
Theorem. The above implementation of BFS runs in O(m + n) time if the
graph is given by its adjacency representation.
Pf.
Easy to prove O(n2) running time:
- at most n lists L[i]
- each node occurs on at most one list; for loop runs n times
- when we consider node u, there are n incident edges (u, v),
and we spend O(1) processing each edge
Actually runs in O(m + n) time:
- when we consider node u, there are degree(u) incident edges (u, v)
- total time processing edges is uV degree(u) = 2m.
each edge (u, v) is counted exactly twice
in sum: once in degree(u) and once in degree(v)
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Connected component
Connected component. Find all nodes reachable from s.
Connected component containing node 1 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }.
21
Flood fill
Flood fill. Given lime green pixel in an image, change color of entire blob of
neighboring lime pixels to blue.
Node: pixel.
Edge: two neighboring lime pixels.
Blob: connected component of lime pixels.
recolor lime green blob to blue
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Flood fill
Flood fill. Given lime green pixel in an image, change color of entire blob of
neighboring lime pixels to blue.
Node: pixel.
Edge: two neighboring lime pixels.
Blob: connected component of lime pixels.
recolor lime green blob to blue
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Connected component
Connected component. Find all nodes reachable from s.
R
s
u v
it's safe to add v
Theorem. Upon termination, R is the connected component containing s.
BFS = explore in order of distance from s.
DFS = explore in a different way.
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3. G RAPHS
basic definitions and applications
graph connectivity and graph traversal
testing bipartiteness
connectivity in directed graphs
DAGs and topological ordering
Bipartite graphs
Def. An undirected graph G = (V, E) is bipartite if the nodes can be colored
blue or white such that every edge has one white and one blue end.
Applications.
Stable marriage: men = blue, women = white.
Scheduling: machines = blue, jobs = white.
a bipartite graph
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Testing bipartiteness
Many graph problems become:
Easier if the underlying graph is bipartite (matching).
Tractable if the underlying graph is bipartite (independent set).
Before attempting to design an algorithm, we need to understand structure
of bipartite graphs.
v2
v2 v3
v1
v4
v6 v5 v4 v3
v5
v6
v7 v1
v7
a bipartite graph G another drawing of G
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An obstruction to bipartiteness
Lemma. If a graph G is bipartite, it cannot contain an odd length cycle.
Pf. Not possible to 2-color the odd cycle, let alone G.
bipartite not bipartite
(2-colorable) (not 2-colorable)
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Bipartite graphs
Lemma. Let G be a connected graph, and let L0, , Lk be the layers produced
by BFS starting at node s. Exactly one of the following holds.
(i) No edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G is bipartite.
(ii) An edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G contains an
odd-length cycle (and hence is not bipartite).
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3
Case (i) Case (ii)
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Bipartite graphs
Lemma. Let G be a connected graph, and let L0, , Lk be the layers produced
by BFS starting at node s. Exactly one of the following holds.
(i) No edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G is bipartite.
(ii) An edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G contains an
odd-length cycle (and hence is not bipartite).
Pf. (i)
Suppose no edge joins two nodes in same layer.
By BFS property, each edge join two nodes in adjacent levels.
Bipartition: white = nodes on odd levels, blue = nodes on even levels.
L1 L2 L3
Case (i)
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Bipartite graphs
Lemma. Let G be a connected graph, and let L0, , Lk be the layers produced
by BFS starting at node s. Exactly one of the following holds.
(i) No edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G is bipartite.
(ii) An edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G contains an
odd-length cycle (and hence is not bipartite).
Pf. (ii)
Suppose (x, y) is an edge with x, y in same level Lj.
Let z = lca(x, y) = lowest common ancestor. z = lca(x, y)
Let Li be level containing z.
Consider cycle that takes edge from x to y,
then path from y to z, then path from z to x.
Its length is 1 + (j i) + (j i), which is odd.
(x, y) path from path from
y to z z to x
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The only obstruction to bipartiteness
Corollary. A graph G is bipartite iff it contain no odd length cycle.
5-cycle C
bipartite not bipartite
(2-colorable) (not 2-colorable)
32
3. G RAPHS
basic definitions and applications
graph connectivity and graph traversal
testing bipartiteness
connectivity in directed graphs
DAGs and topological ordering
Directed graphs
Notation. G = (V, E).
Edge (u, v) leaves node u and enters node v.
Ex. Web graph: hyperlink points from one web page to another.
Orientation of edges is crucial.
Modern web search engines exploit hyperlink structure to rank web
pages by importance.
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World wide web
Web graph.
Node: web page.
Edge: hyperlink from one page to another (orientation is crucial).
Modern search engines exploit hyperlink structure to rank web pages
by importance.
cnn.com
netscape.com novell.com cnnsi.com timewarner.com
hbo.com
sorpranos.com
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Road network
To see all the details that are visible on the screen,use the
Address Holland Tunnel "Print" link next to the map.
New York, NY 10013
Vertex = intersection; edge = one-way street.
2008 Google - Map data 2008 Sanborn, NAVTEQ - Terms of Use
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Political blogosphere graph
Vertex = political blog; edge = link.
The Political Blogosphere and the 2004 U.S. Election: Divided They Blog, Adamic and Glance, 2005
Figure 1: Community structure of political blogs (expanded set), shown using utilizing a GEM
layout [11] in the GUESS[3] visualization and analysis tool. The colors reflect political orientation, 37
Ecological food web
Food web graph.
Node = species.
Edge = from prey to predator.
Reference: http://www.twingroves.district96.k12.il.us/Wetlands/Salamander/SalGraphics/salfoodweb.giff
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Some directed graph applications
directed graph node directed edge
transportation street intersection one-way street
web web page hyperlink
food web species predator-prey relationship
WordNet synset hypernym
scheduling task precedence constraint
financial bank transaction
cell phone person placed call
infectious disease person infection
game board position legal move
citation journal article citation
object graph object pointer
inheritance hierarchy class inherits from
control flow code block jump
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Graph search
Directed reachability. Given a node s, find all nodes reachable from s.
Directed s-t shortest path problem. Given two node s and t, what is the
length of the shortest path from s and t ?
Graph search. BFS extends naturally to directed graphs.
Web crawler. Start from web page s. Find all web pages linked from s,
either directly or indirectly.
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Strong connectivity
Def. Nodes u and v are mutually reachable if there is a both path from u to v
and also a path from v to u.
Def. A graph is strongly connected if every pair of nodes is mutually
reachable.
Lemma. Let s be any node. G is strongly connected iff every node is
reachable from s, and s is reachable from every node.
Pf. Follows from definition.
Pf. Path from u to v: concatenate us path with sv path.
Path from v to u: concatenate vs path with su path.
ok if paths overlap
s u
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Strong connectivity: algorithm
Theorem. Can determine if G is strongly connected in O(m + n) time.
Pf.
Pick any node s.
Run BFS from s in G. reverse orientation of every edge in G
Run BFS from s in Greverse.
Return true iff all nodes reached in both BFS executions.
Correctness follows immediately from previous lemma.
strongly connected not strongly connected
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Strong components
Def. A strong component is a maximal subset of mutually reachable
nodes.
A digraph and its strong components
Theorem. [Tarjan 1972] Can find all strong components in O(m + n) time.
SIAM J. COMPUT.
Vol. 1, No. 2, June 1972
DEPTH-FIRST SEARCH AND LINEAR GRAPH ALGORITHMS*
ROBERT TARJAN"
Abstract. The value of depth-first search or "bacltracking" as a technique for solving problems is
illustrated by two examples. An improved version of an algorithm for finding the strongly connected
components of a directed graph and ar algorithm for finding the biconnected components of an un-
direct graph are presented. The space and time requirements of both algorithms are bounded by
k 1V + k2E d- k for some constants kl, k2, and k a, where Vis the number of vertices and E is the number
of edges of the graph being examined.
Key words. Algorithm, backtracking, biconnectivity, connectivity, depth-first, graph, search, 43
spanning tree, strong-connectivity.
3. G RAPHS
basic definitions and applications
graph connectivity and graph traversal
testing bipartiteness
connectivity in directed graphs
DAGs and topological ordering
Directed acyclic graphs
Def. A DAG is a directed graph that contains no directed cycles.
Def. A topological order of a directed graph G = (V, E) is an ordering of its
nodes as v1, v2, , vn so that for every edge (vi, vj) we have i < j.
v2 v3
v6 v5 v4 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7
v7 v1
a DAG a topological ordering
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Precedence constraints
Precedence constraints. Edge (vi, vj) means task vi must occur before vj.
Applications.
Course prerequisite graph: course vi must be taken before vj.
Compilation: module vi must be compiled before vj. Pipeline of
computing jobs: output of job vi needed to determine input of job vj.
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Directed acyclic graphs
Lemma. If G has a topological order, then G is a DAG.
Pf. [by contradiction]
Suppose that G has a topological order v1, v2, , vn and that G also has a
directed cycle C. Let's see what happens.
Let vi be the lowest-indexed node in C, and let vj be the node just
before vi; thus (vj, vi) is an edge.
By our choice of i, we have i < j.
On the other hand, since (vj, vi) is an edge and v1, v2, , vn is a topological
order, we must have j < i, a contradiction.
the directed cycle C
v1 vi vj vn
the supposed topological order: v1, , vn
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Directed acyclic graphs
Lemma. If G has a topological order, then G is a DAG.
Q. Does every DAG have a topological ordering?
Q. If so, how do we compute one?
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Directed acyclic graphs
Lemma. If G is a DAG, then G has a node with no entering edges.
Pf. [by contradiction]
Suppose that G is a DAG and every node has at least one entering edge.
Let's see what happens.
Pick any node v, and begin following edges backward from v. Since v
has at least one entering edge (u, v) we can walk backward to u.
Then, since u has at least one entering edge (x, u), we can walk
backward to x.
Repeat until we visit a node, say w, twice.
Let C denote the sequence of nodes encountered between successive
visits to w. C is a cycle.
w x u v
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Directed acyclic graphs
Lemma. If G is a DAG, then G has a topological ordering.
Pf. [by induction on n]
Base case: true if n = 1.
Given DAG on n > 1 nodes, find a node v with no entering edges.
G { v } is a DAG, since deleting v cannot create cycles.
By inductive hypothesis, G { v } has a topological ordering.
Place v first in topological ordering; then append nodes of G { v }
in topological order. This is valid since v has no entering edges.
DAG
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Topological sorting algorithm: running time
Theorem. Algorithm finds a topological order in O(m + n) time.
Pf.
Maintain the following information:
- count(w) = remaining number of incoming edges
- S = set of remaining nodes with no incoming edges
Initialization: O(m + n) via single scan through graph.
Update: to delete v
- remove v from S
- decrement count(w) for all edges from v to w;
and add w to S if count(w) hits 0
- this is O(1) per edge
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