Amplifier Classes

The main operating characteristics of an ideal amplifier are linearity, signal gain,
efficiency and power output but in real world amplifiers there is always a trade off between
these different characteristics.
Generally, large signal or power amplifiers are used in the output stages of audio
amplifier systems to drive a loudspeaker load. A typical loudspeaker has an impedance of
between 4 and 8, thus a power amplifier must be able to supply the high peak currents
required to drive the low impedance speaker.
One method used to distinguish the electrical characteristics of different types
of amplifiers is by class, and as such amplifiers are classified according to their circuit
configuration and method of operation. Then Amplifier Classes is the term used to differentiate
between the different amplifier types.
Amplifier Classes represent the amount of the output signal which varies within the
amplifier circuit over one cycle of operation when excited by a sinusoidal input signal. The
classification of amplifiers range from entirely linear operation (for use in high-fidelity signal
amplification) with very low efficiency, to entirely non-linear (where a faithful signal
reproduction is not so important) operation but with a much higher efficiency, while others are
a compromise between the two.
Amplifier classes are mainly lumped into two basic groups. The first are the classically
controlled conduction angle amplifiers forming the more common amplifier classes of A, B,
AB and C, which are defined by the length of their conduction state over some portion of the
output waveform, such that the output stage transistor operation lies somewhere between
being fully-ON and fully-OFF.
 The second set of amplifiers are the newer so-called switching amplifier classes of D,
E, F, G, S, T etc, which use digital circuits and pulse width modulation (PWM) to constantly
switch the signal between fully-ON and fully-OFF driving the output hard into the
transistors saturation and cut-off regions.
The most commonly constructed amplifier classes are those that are used as audio
amplifiers, mainly class A, B, AB and C and to keep things simple, it is these types of amplifier
classes we will look at here in more detail.

Class A Amplifier
Class A Amplifiers are the most common type of amplifier class due mainly to their
simple design. Class A, literally means the best class of amplifier due mainly to their low signal
distortion levels and are probably the best sounding of all the amplifier classes mentioned here.
The class A amplifier has the highest linearity over the other amplifier classes and as such
operates in the linear portion of the characteristics curve.
Generally class A amplifiers use the same single transistor (Bipolar, FET, IGBT, etc)
connected in a common emitter configuration for both halves of the waveform with the
transistor always having current flowing through it, even if it has no base signal. This means
that the output stage whether using a Bipolar, MOSFET or IGBT device, is never driven fully into
its cut-off or saturation regions but instead has a base biasing Q-point in the middle of its load
line. Then the transistor never turns OFF which is one of its main disadvantages.

Class A Amplifier

To achieve high linearity and gain, the output stage of a class A amplifier is biased ON
(conducting) all the time. Then for an amplifier to be classified as Class A the zero signal idle
current in the output stage must be equal to or greater than the maximum load current (usually
a loudspeaker) required to produce the largest output signal.
As a class A amplifier operates in the linear portion of its characteristic curves, the single
output device conducts through a full 360 degrees of the output waveform. Then the class A
amplifier is equivalent to a current source.
 Since a class A amplifier operates in the linear region, the transistors base (or gate) DC
biasing voltage should by chosen properly to ensure correct operation and low distortion.
However, as the output device is ON at all times, it is constantly carrying current, which
represents a continuous loss of power in the amplifier.
Due to this continuous loss of power class A amplifiers create tremendous amounts of
heat adding to their very low efficiency at around 30%, making them impractical for high-power
amplifications. Also due to the high idling current of the amplifier, the power supply must be
sized accordingly and be well filtered to avoid any amplifier hum and noise. Therefore, due to
the low efficiency and over heating problems of Class A amplifiers, more efficient amplifier
classes have been developed.

Class B Amplifier
Class B amplifiers were invented as a solution to the efficiency and heating problems
associated with the previous class A amplifier. The basic class B amplifier uses two
complimentary transistors either bipolar of FET for each half of the waveform with its output
stage configured in a push-pull type arrangement, so that each transistor device amplifies
only half of the output waveform.
In the class B amplifier, there is no DC base bias current as its quiescent current is zero,
so that the dc power is small and therefore its efficiency is much higher than that of the class A
amplifier. However, the price paid for the improvement in the efficiency is in the linearity of the
switching device.

Class B Amplifier

When the input signal goes positive, the positive biased transistor conducts while the
negative transistor is switched OFF. Likewise, when the input signal goes negative, the
positive transistor switches OFF while the negative biased transistor turns ON and conducts
the negative portion of the signal. Thus the transistor conducts only half of the time, either on
positive or negative half cycle of the input signal.
Then we can see that each transistor device of the class B amplifier only conducts
through one half or 180 degrees of the output waveform in strict time alternation, but as the
output stage has devices for both halves of the signal waveform the two halves are combined
together to produce the full linear output waveform.
This push-pull design of amplifier is obviously more efficient than Class A, at about 50%,
but the problem with the class B amplifier design is that it can create distortion at the zero-
crossing point of the waveform due to the transistors dead band of input base voltages from -
0.7V to +0.7.
We remember from the Transistor tutorial that it takes a base-emitter voltage of about
0.7 volts to get a bipolar transistor to start conducting. Then in a class B amplifier, the output
transistor is not biased to an ON state of operation until this voltage is exceeded.
This means that the the part of the waveform which falls within this 0.7 volt window will
not be reproduced accurately making the class B amplifier unsuitable for precision audio
amplifier applications.
To overcome this zero-crossing distortion (also known as Crossover Distortion) class AB
amplifiers were developed.

Class AB Amplifier
As its name suggests, the Class AB Amplifier is a combination of the Class A and the
Class B type amplifiers we have looked at above. The AB classification of amplifier is currently
one of the most common used types of audio power amplifier design. The class AB amplifier is a
variation of a class B amplifier as described above, except that both devices are allowed to
conduct at the same time around the waveforms crossover point eliminating the crossover
distortion problems of the previous class B amplifier.
The two transistors have a very small bias voltage, typically at 5 to 10% of the quiescent
current to bias the transistors just above its cut-off point. Then the conducting device, either
bipolar of FET, will be ON for more than one half cycle, but much less than one full cycle of
the input signal. Therefore, in a class AB amplifier design each of the push-pull transistors is
conducting for slightly more than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the
full cycle of conduction of class A.
In other words, the conduction angle of a class AB amplifier is somewhere between
180oand 360o depending upon the chosen bias point as shown.
Class AB Amplifier

The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided by series diodes or resistors, is that
the crossover distortion created by the class B amplifier characteristics is overcome, without
the inefficiencies of the class A amplifier design. So the class AB amplifier is a good compromise
between class A and class B in terms of efficiency and linearity, with conversion efficiencies
reaching about 50% to 60%.

Class C Amplifier
The Class C Amplifier design has the greatest efficiency but the poorest linearity of the
classes of amplifiers mentioned here. The previous classes, A, B and AB are considered linear
amplifiers, as the output signals amplitude and phase are linearly related to the input signals
amplitude and phase.
However, the class C amplifier is heavily biased so that the output current is zero for
more than one half of an input sinusoidal signal cycle with the transistor idling at its cut-off
point. In other words, the conduction angle for the transistor is significantly less than 180
degrees, and is generally around the 90 degrees area.
While this form of transistor biasing gives a much improved efficiency of around 80% to
the amplifier, it introduces a very heavy distortion of the output signal. Therefore, class C
amplifiers are not suitable for use as audio amplifiers.
Class C Amplifier

Due to its heavy audio distortion, class C amplifiers are commonly used in high
frequency sine wave oscillators and certain types of radio frequency amplifiers, where the
pulses of current produced at the amplifiers output can be converted to complete sine waves of
a particular frequency by the use of LC resonant circuits in its collector circuit.

Amplifier Classes Summary

Then we have seen that the quiescent DC operating point (Q-point) of an amplifier
determines the amplifier classification. By setting the position of the Q-point at half way on the
load line of the amplifiers characteristics curve, the amplifier will operate as a class A amplifier.
By moving the Q-point lower down the load line changes the amplifier into a class AB,
B or C amplifier.
Then the class of operation of the amplifier with regards to its DC operating point can be given
as:

Amplifier Classes and Efficiency

 As well as audio amplifiers there are a number of high efficiency Amplifier
Classesrelating to switching amplifier designs that use different switching techniques to reduce
power loss and increase efficiency. Some amplifier class designs listed below use RLC
resonators or multiple power-supply voltages to reduce power loss, or are digital DSP (digital
signal processing) type amplifiers which use pulse width modulation (PWM) switching
techniques.

Other Amplifier Classes

Class D Amplifier A Class D audio amplifier is basically a non-linear switching amplifier or
PWM amplifier. Class-D amplifiers theoretically can reach 100% efficiency, as there is no
period during a cycle were the voltage and current waveforms overlap as current is drawn
only through the transistor that is on.
Class F Amplifier Class-F amplifiers boost both efficiency and output by using harmonic
resonators in the output network to shape the output waveform into a square wave.
Class-F amplifiers are capable of high efficiencies of more than 90% if infinite harmonic
tuning is used.
Class G Amplifier Class G offers enhancements to the basic class AB amplifier design.
Class G uses multiple power supply rails of various voltages and automatically switches
between these supply rails as the input signal changes. This constant switching reduces
the average power consumption, and therefore power loss caused by wasted heat.
Class I Amplifier The class I amplifier has two sets of complementary output switching
devices arranged in a parallel push-pull configuration with both sets of switching devices
sampling the same input waveform. One device switches the positive half of the
waveform, while the other switches the negative half similar to a class B amplifier. With
no input signal applied, or when a signal reaches the zero crossing point, the switching
devices are both turned ON and OFF simultaneously with a 50% PWM duty cycle
cancelling out any high frequency signals.
To produce the positive half of the output signal, the output of the positive switching
device is increased in duty cycle while the negative switching device is decreased by the
same and vice versa. The two switching signal currents are said to be interleaved at the
output, giving the class I amplifier the named of: interleaved PWM amplifier operating
at switching frequencies in excess of 250kHz.
Class S Amplifier A class S power amplifier is a non-linear switching mode amplifier
similar in operation to the class D amplifier. The class S amplifier converts analogue input
signals into digital square wave pulses by a delta-sigma modulator, and amplifies them to
increases the output power before finally being demodulated by a band pass filter. As the
digital signal of this switching amplifier is always either fully ON or OFF (theoretically
zero power dissipation), efficiencies reaching 100% are possible.
 Class T Amplifier The class T amplifier is another type of digital switching amplifier
design. Class T amplifiers are starting to become more popular these days as an audio
amplifier design due to the existence of digital signal processing (DSP) chips and multi-
channel surround sound amplifiers as it converts analogue signals into digital pulse width
modulated (PWM) signals for amplification increasing the amplifiers efficiency. Class T
amplifier designs combine both the low distortion signal levels of class AB amplifier and
the power efficiency of a class D amplifier.

We have seen here a number of classification of amplifiers ranging from linear power
amplifiers to non-linear switching amplifiers, and have seen how an amplifier class differs along
the amplifiers load line. The class AB, B and C amplifiers can be defined in terms of the
conduction angle, as follows:

Amplifier Class by Conduction Angle

Amplifier Conduction
Description
Class Angle

Class-A Full cycle 360o of Conduction = 2

Class-B Half cycle 180o of Conduction =

Class-AB Slightly more than 180o of conduction < < 2

Class-C Slightly less than 180o of conduction <

Class-D to T ON-OFF non-linear switching =0

 Single Phase Full Wave Semi-Controlled Bridge Rectifier

CIRCUIT OPERATION

A fully-controlled rectifier circuit contains only controlled-rectifiers, whereas a semi-

controlled rectifier circuit is made up of both controlled and uncontrolled rectifiers. Due to
presence of diodes, free-wheeling operation takes place without allowing the bridge output
voltage to become negative. In a semi-controlled rectifier, control is effected only for positve
output voltage, and no control is possible when its output voltage tends to become negative
since it is clamped at zero volt. This page describes the operation of a single-phase half-
controlled rectifier.

A semi-controlled full-wave bridge rectifier can be configured in a few ways. They are
shown below.

The circuit in Configuration 1 contains two SCRs and two diodes. When source V in is
positive, SCR S1 can be triggered at a firing angle called a and then current flows out of the
source through SCR S1 first, then through the load and returns via diode D3. If

then SCR S1 and diode D3 conduct during a < wt < p. When p < wt < 2p, Vin is negative and SCR
S2 is normally triggered when wt = p + a. During p < wt < (p + a) , the output of the bridge circuit
would have been negative if we had used a fully-controlled bridge rectifer and if the current
flow was continuous. But here we have two diodes D3 and D4 instead of two SCRs. When the
output of the bridge tends to becomes negative just after wt exceeds p, diode D4 tends to get
forward-biased and it starts conducting. Then diode D3 is reverse-biased and it stops
conducting. During p < wt < (p + a) , the devices in conduction are SCR S1 and diode D4 and the
output of the bridge is clamped at zero, assuming that the on-state drops across devices in
conduction is zero. During ( p + a) < wt < 2p , the devices in conduction are SCR S2 and diode D4.
SCR S2 and diode D3 would conduct during 0 < wt < a .
 The circuit in configuration 1 has SCRs as the devices in the top-half and diodes as the
devices in the bottom-half. Instead, it it is possible to use SCRs as the devices in the bottom-half
and diodes as the devices in the top-half.

It is also possible to build a semi-controlled full-wave bridge rectifier as shown by the

circuit in configuration 2.

The behaviour of the circuit is the same as described earlier. In this circuit, SCR S 1 and
diode D3 conduct during a < wt < p . During p < wt < (p + a) , the devices in conduction are
diodes D3 and D4 and the output of the bridge is clamped at zero. During (p + a) < wt < 2p , the
devices in conduction are SCR S2 and diode D4. Diodes D3 and D4 would conduct during 0 < wt
<a.

Yet another configuration is available for semi-controlled bridge rectifier, as shown by

the circuit in configuration 3.
 In this circuit, SCRs S1 and S3 conduct during a < wt < p. During p < wt < (p + a) , the
device in conduction is diode D and the output of the bridge is clamped at zero. During (p + a) <
wt < 2p , the devices in conduction are SCRs S2 and S4. Diode D would conduct during 0 < wt
<a.

MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

The aim of analysis is to obtain the following values:

1. The average output voltage of the bridge as a function of firing angle.

2. The rms output voltage of the bridge as a function of firing angle.

3. The ripple factor of output voltage of the bridge as a function of firing angle.

4. The rms line current as a function of firing angle and the ratio wL/R.

5. The fundamental rms line current as a function of firing angle and the ratio wL/R.

6. The THD in line current as a function of firing angle and the ratio wL/R.

The Average Output Voltage

The ripple factor is defined then as

Next it is shown how the line current is to be analysed. An expression for load current over half-
a-cycle can be obtained first. The load current during a < wt < p can be defined as follows.

where

From the expression for load current,

The load current during p < wt < (p + a) can be defined as follows.

When the load current is repetitive, we have that

That is,
and

Hence we obtain that

Once A is known, the total rms value of line current and the rms value of its fundamental
component can be estimated.

Let

and

Then the rms line current given t and a is obtained as follows.

 To obtain the rms value of the fundamental component of the line current, we obtain
the trigonometric Fourier series coefficients of the fundamental component. The line current
has half-wave symmetry and hence these coefficients are obtained as follows.

Then

We obtain the rms value of fundamental component as:

Total harmonic distortion in line current is then

SIMULATION

The applet shown below simulates this circuit. The parameters to be keyed-in are the
ratio of load reactance to load resistance and the firing angle in degrees.
PSPICE SIMULATION

The semi-controlled bridge rectifier that has been simulated has four SCRs and a single
free-wheeling diode. The program is presented below.

Full-wave Bridge Rectifier with a resistive load

VIN 1 0 SIN(0 340V 50Hz)
XT1 1 2 5 2 SCR
XT2 0 2 6 2 SCR
XT3 4 0 7 0 SCR
XT4 4 1 8 1 SCR
VP1 5 2 PULSE(0 10 1667U 1N 1N 100U 20M)
VP2 6 2 PULSE(0 10 11667U 1N 1N 100U 20M)
VP3 7 0 PULSE(0 10 1667U 1N 1N 100U 20M)
VP4 8 1 PULSE(0 10 11667U 1N 1N 100U 20M)
D1 4 2 DNAME
L1 2 3 31.8M
R1 3 4 10
R2 1 0 1MEG
R3 2 0 1MEG
R4 4 0 1MEG
.MODEL DNAME D(IS=10N N=1 BV=1200 IBV=10E-3 VJ=0.6)

Subcircuit for SCR

.SUBCKT SCR 101 102 103 102
S1 101 105 106 102 SMOD
RG 103 104 50
VX 104 102 DC 0
VY 105 107 DC 0
DT 107 102 DMOD
RT 106 102 1
CT 106 102 10U
F1 102 106 POLY(2) VX VY 0 50 11
.MODEL SMOD VSWITCH(RON=0.0105 ROFF=10E+5 VON=0.5 VOFF=0)
.MODEL DMOD D((IS=2.2E-15 BV=1200 TT=0 CJO=0)
.ENDS SCR
.TRAN 10US 60.0MS 0.0MS 10US
.FOUR 50 V(2,4) I(VIN)
.PROBE
.OPTIONS(ABSTOL=1N RELTOL=.01 VNTOL=1MV)
.END
The waveforms obtained are displayed.
The waveform of bridge output voltage

The waveform of load current

 The waveform of mains current

The waveform of current through the free-wheeling diode

 The Half-wave Controlled Rectifier

Normal rectifiers are considered as uncontrolled rectifiers.

Once the source and load parameters are established, the dc level of the output and power
transferred to the load are fixed quantities.
A way to control the output is to use SCR instead of diode. Two condition must be met before
SCR can conduct: The SCR must be forward biased (VSCR>0) Current must be applied to the
gate of SCR The Half-wave Controlled Rectifier
The simplest controlled rectifier uses a single device, such as a thyristor, to produce variable
voltage d.c. from fixed voltage a.c. mains. The circuit arrangement is shown below

The thyristor is turned on in the positive half-cycle, some time after supply voltage zero, by the
application of a gate pulse with delay angle . In the negative halfcycle, the thyristor is reverse
biased and cannot switch on. The larger the delay angle, the smaller is the average load voltage.
 Controlled, Half-wave R load

A gate signal is ,t = applied at is thewhere delay/firing angle.

 Three-phase
This article is about the basic mathematics and principles of three-phase electricity. For information on
where, how and why three-phase is used, see three-phase electric power.

One voltage cycle of a three-phase system, labeled 0 to 360 (2 radians) along the time axis. The
plotted line represents the variation of instantaneous voltage (or current) with respect to time. This
cycle repeats with a frequency that depends on the power system.

In electrical engineering, three-phase electric power systems have at least three conductors
carrying alternating current voltages that are offset in time by one-third of the period. A three-phase
system may be arranged in delta () or star (Y) (also denoted as wye in some areas). A wye system
allows the use of two different voltages from all three phases, such as a 230/400 V system which
provides 230 V between the neutral (centre hub) and any one of the phases, and 400 V across any two
phases. A delta system arrangement only provides one voltage magnitude, however it has a greater
redundancy as it may continue to operate normally with one of the three supply windings offline, albeit
at 57.7% of total capacity.[1] Harmonic current in the neutral may become very large if non-linear loads
are connected.

Definitions

In a star (wye) connected topology, with rotation sequence L1 - L2 - L3, the time-varying instantaneous
voltages can be calculated for each phase A,C,B respectively by:
Balanced loads

Generally, in electric power systems, the loads are distributed as evenly as is practical between
the phases. It is usual practice to discuss a balanced system first and then describe the effects of
unbalanced systems as deviations from the elementary case.

Single phase power is:

Used in most homes in North America

Able to supply ample power for most smaller customers, including homes and small, non-
industrial businesses
Adequate for running motors up to about 5 horsepower; a single phase motor draws
significantly more current than the equivalent 3 phase motor, making 3 phase power a more
efficient choice for industrial applications

3 phase power is:

Common in large businesses, as well as industry and manufacturing

Increasingly popular in power-hungry, high-density data centers
Expensive to convert from an existing single phase installation, but 3 phase allows for smaller,
less expensive wiring and lower voltages, making it safer and less expensive to run
Highly efficient for equipment designed to run on 3 phase
 Rizal Technological University
College of Engineering and Industrial Technology

RESEARCH IN
POWER ELECTRONICS

Submitted by:
Tubierra, Lycka Mae P.

Submitted To:
Engr. Odilon Yangco