Modulus of Elasticity
By
Pavithran S. Iyer
Rohan Sinha
CMI
Modulus of ElasticityYoung’s
Modulus
•
An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the mathematical
description of an object or substance's tendency to be deformed
elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a force is applied to it. The
elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress-
strain curve in the elastic deformation region.
Modulus of ElasticityYoung’s
Modulus
•
where λ (lambda) is the elastic modulus; stress is the
force causing the deformation divided by the area to
which the force is applied; and strain is the ratio of the
change caused by the stress to the original state of the
object. If stress is measured in pascals, since strain is a
unit--less ratio, then the units of λ are pascals as well. An
alternative definition is that the elastic modulus is the
stress required to cause a sample of the material to
double in length. This is not realistic for most materials
because the value is far greater than the yield stress of
the material or the point where elongation becomes
nonlinear, but some may find this definition more intuitive.
Young's modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity, or the
tendency of an object to deform along an axis when
opposing forces are applied along that axis; it is defined as
the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. It is often referred
to simply as the elastic modulus.
Modulus of ElasticityYoung’s
Modulus
When the metal is
devoid of force, the
molecules are properly
aligned.
EXTENSION CAUSED DUE TO
FORCE, ON AN ELASTIC MATERIAL
THE FIGURE ABOVE SOWS A SECTION OF THE
ATOMIC LAYER IN THE ELASTIC MATERIAL
EXTENSION CAUSED DUE TO FORCE, ON
AN ELASTIC MATERIAL
Force
THE ABOVE DIAGRAM SHOWS THE ACTION OF FORCE, AT A
POINT ON THAT MATERIAL. NOTE: THE ELASTIC NATURE OF
THE MATERIAL IS ONLY SEEN WHEN THE FORCES ON
DIFFERENT POINTS ON THE MATERIALS ARE DIFFERENT.
EXTENSION CAUSED DUE TO FORCE, ON
AN ELASTIC MATERIAL
BUT WHEN FORCE IS APPLIED, THE MOLECULES START SHIFTING
AND ON THE WHOLE, THE MATERIAL APPEARS TO BE BENT.
THE ELASTIC MATERIAL BENDS, AT THE POINT OF APPLICATION
OF FORCE. THIS LENGTH THROUGH WHICH IT BENDS, OR THE
HEIGHT OF THE DEPRESSION IS WHAT WE ARE TRYING TO
DETERMINE IN THIS EXPERIMENT.
Modulus of ElasticityYoung’s
Modulus
Let’s take the case of a metal
strip, where the thickness is very
small compared to the length.
Let’s take the bending at a
distance x from one end and let
the shear angle be ‘φ’.
RELATING THE EXTENSION WITH OTHER
EXPERIMENTAL PARAMENTERS – A FORMULA
•
The new depth or bend of the material can be calculated from
the Formulations as before as:
Where:
L: Depth
L: Length of the scale between
knife edges.
B: Width of the scale
a: Thickness of Scale
Fy: Vertical Force
E: Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND UNDERSTANDING
THE PROCEDURE
The arrangement of the apparatus
can be shown with the help of the
following schematic diagram.
The metal strip is kept completely
symmetrical with respect to the knife
edge so that the torques on either
sides balance out. (otherwise they
provide a force that counteracts the
weight of the mass hung).
The weighs are loaded at the centre
since maximum extension occurs
there, and errors can be made small.
The knife edge on which the mass
was hung was ensured to be
balanced.
In case of zero error on the dial
gauge, the initial reading was taken.
BRIEF PROCEDURE AND UNDERSTANDING
•The components are fitted to the correct apparatus.
•The knife edges are made to be at the same height using a spirit balance.
•The same procedure is repeated for the square-rod holding the dial gauge.
•Both the rods (the experimental rod and the rod on which the dial gauge is
mounted) are made to be parallel to each other.
•The axis of the Dial Gauge is made to be perfectly vertical by rotating the
circular rod to which it is attached. If this is not so, then the extension on the
rod will not be equal to the reading shown on the dial.
•Now, the rod on which measurements are made is kept symmetrically, i.e. the
centre of the Strip is at the centre between the knife edges.
•Now the mass hanger is kept at the centre and the hanger is attached onto it.
•Now the Dial Gauge is brought down onto the knife-edge, so that it is
perpendicular to the strips and hence vertical.
•The Readings are taken by subtracting the reading before the masses were
hung and after the masses were hung.
•Now, the necessary variations are made.
PRECAUTIONS WITH DIAL GAUGE
Marking the Dial Gauge Readings, we
obtain the Shear-Strain Graph as
shown (in Black).
The ideal Stress-Strain Relation has
S been shown in green.
T This is because of the errors in the
R experimental procedure followed.
A Since the analog meter showing the
I extensions was very-very sensitive,
N any mild disturbances changed the
reading of the
meter, and the original value could not
be reached again. Even while loading
the masses a lot of care had to be
STRESS
taken to see that there is no extra
push from the loading process. This
can cause permanent shift in the
extensions.
OBSERVATIONS – EXTENSION vs. MASS
The following graph shows change in extension observed with the mass
attached. As per the Hooke's law, all points must lie in a straight line, but
due to the hysteresis observed (the extension dial) while loading and
unloading the mass, some random errors had crept in.
CALCULATING THE MODULUS OF RIGIDITY FROM DATA
FROM THE ABOVE DATA COLLECTED (IN THE PREVIOUS GRAPH),
THE RIGIDITY MODULUS WAS COMPUTED.FOR THE STEEL
RODS. ALSO FOR OTHER RODS SUCH AS ALUMINUM AND BRASS
ALSO THE SAME WAS COMPUTED.
GIVEN BELOW IS A TABLE SHOWING THE COMPUTED VALUE OF
THE RIGIDITY MODULUS AND THE CORRESPONDING
THEORETICAL VALUE (THAT WAS GIVEN)
MATERIAL EXPERIMENTAL THEORITICAL
(N/m-2) (N/m-2)
STEEL (10X2X500) mm 4.40 X 1010 2.06 X 1010
ALUMINUM 4.22 X 1010 6.70 X 1010
BRASS 5.92 X 1010 9.22 X 1010
OBSERVATIONS – EXTENSION VS. LENGTH
Below graph shows the change in Extension for different lengths of the
rods used. The effects of hysteresis here appear magnified because the
relation is a cubit one. So, any error, in principle will get magnified three
times. But one thing that is clear is that it is not a linear relationship. This
agrees with the formula that was given earlier.
OBSERVATIONS – EXTENSION VS. WIDTH
The graph below shows the change in extension with the width of the steel rod
used. The relation, as per the formula is inverse cubic. Here we see that there is
some considerable error. It can be attributed to systematic error on the dial. Here
each time, we need to remove the rod and fix the masses again. Due to this
frequent loading and unloading, it must be seen that after each unloading the dial
is reset. In case of any hysteresis, the initial reading must be repeated.
OBSERVATIONS – EXTENSIONS AT VARIOUS
POINTS OF THE ROD
In this section, our intention was to determine the extension caused in the rod,
at points further away from the point of suspension of the mass. As expected,
we have the greatest extension at the point of suspension of mass, and the
extension was seen to decrease linearly with distance from the center.
CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES
From this experiment, the relation between various
parameters like Force, extension, and the
properties of the rod were verified. A major
difficulty faced by us during the experiment was
that every time the masses were loaded and
unloaded from the hanger, there was some
hysteresis observed in the readings. Due to this
many of the readings did not exactly follow the
desired relationships. Also, the nature of the
extensions caused all across the rod keeping the
point of application of force constant was also
observed.
