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Word Classes (My Notes)

This document discusses word structure and morphology. It covers the major word classes of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions. Words can be categorized into these classes based on their meaning, morphological properties like inflection, and distributional patterns in sentences. Function words are also discussed, which are differentiated from lexical words by having grammatical rather than lexical meaning. Examples are provided to illustrate morphological properties and how word classes can be identified.

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Chiara Fenech
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
76 views37 pages

Word Classes (My Notes)

This document discusses word structure and morphology. It covers the major word classes of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions. Words can be categorized into these classes based on their meaning, morphological properties like inflection, and distributional patterns in sentences. Function words are also discussed, which are differentiated from lexical words by having grammatical rather than lexical meaning. Examples are provided to illustrate morphological properties and how word classes can be identified.

Uploaded by

Chiara Fenech
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Morphology

Word Structure: Words and word


classes

Nancyy Kula
ƒ Class 8: Words & word classes ( Radford et al. 
p125 139)
p125‐139)
ƒ Class 9: Building words (Radford et al. p140‐
Class 9: Building words (Radford et al. p140
155)
ƒ Class 10:  Morphology across languages 
( ad o d et a p 56 69)
(Radford et al. p156‐169)

ƒ Office hours (Rm 4 209): Tuesdays 15 17
Office hours (Rm 4.209): Tuesdays 15‐17
2
ƒ What are words?
ƒ Classes of words
ƒ Lexical categories
ƒ Functional categories

ƒ Labelled bracketing

3
A:   where are you going?
B    shopping
B:   shopping
A:   what for?
B:   some socks
k

A:   whareying?
B:   shing
A.   Whor?
B:   smsks
4
ƒ A word is the smallest free form found in a 
language.
language
ƒ A free form is an element that 
ƒ can occur in isolation
ƒ does not have an entirely fixed position
y p
e.g. the birds left
birds avoid cats
cats chase birds

5
(1)  A giergy has arrived.
ƒ Even if we do not know what giergy means 
we can infer that we can have;
ƒ the giergy
h   i
ƒ two giergies
ƒ every giergy
ƒ a yellow giergy
ƒ We do this because we assign giergy to a  
word class.
word class
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ƒ Lexical words vs. function words
ƒ Lexical words denote concrete objects, 
activities, ideas, events, states, properties, etc. 
(Dictionary words with specific meanings)
ƒ Function words: words that fulfil a particular 
function in a sentence (cannot easily be 
u ct o a se te ce (ca ot eas y be
assigned a dictionary meaning)

7
(2)  John thinks that Bill has been visiting Mary  
to ask for her help with the assignment which 
must be finished by Friday. 
Lexical words Function words
thinks
hi k that
h
visiting have been
askk to  
Bill the
assignment
i t which
hi h
8
ƒ cat  house  exercise
cat, house, exercise Noun
ƒ hit, sing, think
, g, Verb
ƒ red, tall, difficult Adjective
ƒ often, there, quickly Adverb
ƒ on  through  for
on, through, for P
Preposition
iti

9
ƒ How do we assign words to classes?
ƒ By their meaning
ƒ By their morphological properties
ƒ By their distributional patterns

10
ƒ Noun Things
ƒ Verb  Actions
ƒ Adjective Properties
ƒ Adverb  Manners,Times, Places,
Manners Times  Places
Reasons, ... 
ƒ P
Preposition 
ii   R l i  ( on mat))
Relations (cat

11
ƒ Non‐things as nouns:
idea, singing
, g g ((is fun), redness
),

ƒ Non‐actions as verbs:
remain, suffice, equal (2 + 2 = 4)

ƒ Non‐properties as adjectives
N ti     dj ti
alleged (the alleged attacker), former (president), 
the singing detective

12
ƒ A given word may have several different 
forms  called inflected forms
forms, called inflected forms
ƒ For nouns, verbs and adjectives the set of 
, j
inflected forms often help us identify the 
word class
ƒ E.g. noun ‘cat’: singular cat, plural cats

13
ƒ Plural form (only for count nouns, i.e. 
nouns denoting things that can be counted 
like cats, not mass terms such as water)
e cats, ot ass te s suc as ate )
ƒ cats, criteria, knives, teeth, sheep
ƒ How do we know that sheep is a plural 
form?

14
ƒ Four (regular verbs) or five forms (some irregular 
verbs))
Regular verbs Irregular verbs
walk sing
walks g
sings
walking singing
walked sang
sung

15
ƒ Comparative/Superlative forms

Meanings

more green Comparative


th  
the most green
t  S
Superlative
l ti

16
ƒ The comparative and the superlative can be formed 
by adding the endings ‐er
y g g or ‐est to  adjectives as in 
j
the following:

adjective comparative superlative


green
g greener
g greenest
g
happy happier happiest

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Adjectives: morphological properties

ƒ However, some adjectives do not take these 
endings:

curious *curiouser
curiouser *curiousest
curiousest
foolish  *foolisher *foolishest

ƒ But  more curious, most curious
more foolish, most foolish

18
ƒ Adverbs can often be recognized as being 
derived from adjectives by adding  ly
derived from adjectives by adding –ly
curiously, foolishly

ƒ But they don’t have any other regular forms 
and are not inflected themselves
d     i fl d  h l

ƒ Prepositions don’t take any special form and 
d k lf d
don’t inflect

19
ƒ We have seen how Lexical words can be 
categorised into classes in terms of meaning 
and in terms of their morphological structure.
ƒ We now see how they can also be categorised 
with respect to their distribution.
with respect to their distribution

20
(3) The children are applauding a crazy clown. 

ƒ Nouns
ƒ A noun is often preceded by a definite (the) or an 
p y ( )
indefinite article (a/an).
ƒ Nouns can be modified by adjectives: crazy
y j y clown.
ƒ Nouns cannot be modified by adverbs: * foolishly 
clown  *clown foolishly
clown, *clown foolishly

21
ƒ Verbs
ƒ Verbs can take nouns as complements or 
arguments:
( )  Th   it   t l     k
(4)  The waiter stole a cake
ƒ Verbs are modified by adverbs;
y ;
(5) The waiter laughed foolishly
ƒ Verbs do not take articles; are not modified by 
V b  d   t t k   ti l     t  difi d b  
adjectives 
(6) * the steal ; *crazy stole
* the steal   *cra  stole
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ƒ Adjectives
ƒ Can be used with another adjective to modify a 
C  b   d  ith  th   dj ti  t   dif    
noun; the crazy green clown
ƒ Unlike verbs: *steal applauding, or nouns.
ƒ An adjective can be used after a form of the verb 
j
be to denote  a property of a noun; John is happy

23
ƒ Adverbs
ƒ An adverb typically modifies a verb indicating 
A   d b t i ll   difi     b i di ti  
how, when or why something happened or the 
d
degree of a property; carelessly
  f    t   l l dropped.
d d
ƒ Like adjectives two can be used to modify a verb;
the audience applauded the clown very 
enthusiastically.
y

24
ƒ Thus when we hear a sentence we can identify 
the word classes in it and label them as follows:
the word classes in it and label them as follows
(7)  John called Bill on Friday evening.
(7) y g
[NJohn] [Vcalled] [NBill] [Pon] [NFriday]    
[ADJevening]
(8) Bill laughed heartily
[NBill] [Vlaughed] [ADVheartily]

25
ƒ We have identified the following major lexical 
word classes:
word classes
j
Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs and
Prepositions
ƒ We can identify them by their meaning, their 
f
morphological properties
p g p p or their 
distributional patterns.

26
ƒ Function words can be differentiated from 
lexical words because they are not content 
words.
ƒ They have grammatical rather than lexical 
meaning.
meaning
ƒ They usually don’t have referents.
ƒ They form a closed class.

27
ƒ that, this demonstratives
ƒ and, but, or, as conjunctions
ƒ th   /  
the, a/an, every determiners
ƒ him, her, who pronouns
p o ou s
ƒ if, that, whether complementizers
ƒ can, will, must, have auxiliaries

28
ƒ Can be identified by their distribution:
ƒ allow inversion in questions
ƒ May I go? Did John go? *Go John yesterday?
y g g y y
ƒ attract negation
ƒ John didn’t go. Mary will not eat. *John go not. 
ƒ they can be emphasised (easily)
ƒ John did sing that song. ??John eats bread.

29
ƒ Can be used as question tags
ƒ John came, didn’t he? John plays the violin, 
J h    did ’t h ? J h   l  th   i li  
doesn’t he? * John eats apples, eatsn’t he?
ƒ Can be used in gapping
ƒ A: John ate the apple
A: John ate the apple.
ƒ B: Yes he did
ƒ C: No he didn’t
C  N  h  did ’
ƒ B: yes he did!

30
Co‐occurrence of lexical & function 
words

ƒ Words of a given major lexical class (N, V, 
Adj ) will often be accompanied by 
Adj,) will often be accompanied by 

ƒ particular kinds of function words
l k d ff d
ƒ or lexical words
ƒ or phrases

31
determiners (the, a, some, all, every, ...)
d
demonstratives
t ti (thi  
(this man,...))
conjunctions
j ((Jack and Jill))
complementizers (If John comes...)
adjectives
dj i (the fluffy toy)
h fl ff
relative clauses (the girl that/who is wearing a 
red coat)

32
auxiliary verbs (may be being checked, will have 
been checked)
pronouns (she gave him a hat)
adverbs (arrived now, came quickly, ...)
adverbial clauses (left when Jill arrived/because 
she was bored...)

33
ƒ modifiers too, very, more/most, 
(tall) enough

ƒ comparative  more intelligent than 
ll h
phrases
p her brother

34
ƒ We can now label more complicated sentences:
((9) John thinks that Bill has been visiting Mary  to ask for 
) J h   hi k   h  Bill h  b   i i i  M      k f  
her help with the assignment which must be finished by 
F id
Friday.
[NJohn] [
] [Vthinks] [
] [COMPthat] [
] [NBill] [
] [AUXhas] 
]
[AUXbeen] [Vvisiting] [NMary] [Pto] [Vask] [Pfor] 
[PRNher] [Nhelp] [Pwith] [DETthe] [Nassignment] 
[PRNwhich] [AUXmust] [AUXbe] [Vfinished] [Pby] 
[NFriday].
Friday]
35
ƒ Words can be divided into word classes.
ƒ We can broadly distinguish lexical from 
W    b dl  di ti i h l i l f  
function words.
ƒ The major word classes in lexical words are 
, ,p p , j
nouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives and 
adverbs.
ƒ Word classes under function words include; 
auxiliaries, determiners, demonstratives, 
pronouns and conjunctions  
pronouns and conjunctions. 
36
ƒ Read Radford et al. Chapter 9: Building words 
(p162‐179)

37

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