Course Title: Protection of Power System (2)

Course Code: EE455

 Presentation 1

Protection of Power System -2

An Overview

Lecturer Schedule: 1st Week

Why the power system needed to be protected ?

1. Reduce Equipment Damage: faulty element carrying

excessive currents gets damaged due to heating,
burning and mechanical stresses set up by the induced
electromagnetic forces in the element.

2. Reduce Power Interruptions (or Improve Power Quality):

faulty element is cleared and unfaulty elements are still
energized.

3. Stability of the interconnected power grid may be lost

causing the different generators to be disconnecting
from the power system network and hence causing
complete shut down (or black out) of the electrical
energy supply system.

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 Causes of Power System Faults

1. Underground cables
➢ Electrochemical Treeing occurs when moisture
penetration in the presence of an electric field
reduces the dielectric strength of cable insulation.

➢ Electrochemical treeing is largely attributed to

insulation impurities and bad manufacturing.

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 Causes of Power System Faults

2. Power Transformers
➢ Overloads rarely result in transformer failures, but do
cause thermal aging of winding insulation.

➢ When thermal aging has

caused insulation to become
sufficiently brittle, the next
fault current that passes
through the transformer will
mechanically shake the
windings, a crack will form in
the insulation, and an internal
transformer fault will result.

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 Causes of Power System Faults

3. Lightning
➢ A lightning strike occurs
when the voltage generated
between a cloud and the
ground exceeds the dielectric
strength of the air. This
results in a massive current
stroke that usually exceeds
30,000 amps.

➢ To make matters worse, most

strokes consist of multiple
discharges within a fraction
of a second.

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 Causes of Power System Faults

4. Tree Contact
➢ When a tree branch bridges two conductors a small
current begins to flow and starts to dry out the wood
fibers. After several minutes, the cellulose will
carbonize, resistance will be greatly reduced, and a
short circuit will occur.

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 Causes of Power System Faults

5. Birds, snakes and insects

Nesting birds materials Three meter long Fire ants nesting

can cause faults, and cobra caused a inside transformer
bird excrement can major power failure
contaminate insulators in transformers

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 Causes of Power System Faults

6. Ice and snow storms

Heavy wind storms caused in December 2005, Japan

complete failure to OHTL experienced a major outage in the
Niigata Kaetsu area that lasted up
to 30 hours and was caused by
snow accretion on insulators

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 Power System Protection : How & Why?

How to protect our investment in the installed power

system devices and keep the continuity of power supplies
as well?

The Answer:
There is a great need for installing a protective switchgear
system.

The objective of such power system protection is :

➢ Detection of the faulted element.

➢ Sending an electrical actuating signal to the circuit-

interrupting device.

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 What Components (Equipment) Do We Protect?

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 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

1) Elements of protective switchgear system

Potential Current
Transformer Transformer Circuit
P.T C.T Breaker

Trip Coil

G Load
Relay
-+

Trip DC supply
Contacts

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 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

2) What is Relay?

 A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal

condition of electrical circuit and closes its contacts.

 These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit

breaker trip coil circuit hence make the circuit breaker
tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the
electrical circuit from rest of the healthy circuit.

 Terminology of protective relay:

➢ Pickup level of actuating signal: The value of actuating

quantity (voltage or current) which is on threshold above
which the relay initiates to be operated.

➢ Operating Time of Relay: The time which elapses between

the instant when actuating quantity exceeds the pickup
value to the instant when the relay contacts close.

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 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

2) Function of protective switchgear system

i. Protective Relays ii. Protective Relays trip

locate faults circuit breakers

iii. Motor circuit breaker

interrupt the flow of
current into the motor

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 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

3) Expanded Function of protective switchgear system

Modern protective relays also provide information on the

location and type of failure to help with equipment
repair and protection scheme analysis.

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 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

4) The Fundamental Design Requirements of a Protective

Switchgear System

i. Sensitivity to very small loads: high sensitivity to faults and

insensitivity to maximum load currents

ii. Selectivity : selectivity in isolating small faulty area

iii. Quickness : high-speed fault clearance with correct

selectivity

iv. Reliability

Reliability - is determined by the following:

➢ Dependability – degree of certainty that relay operates

correctly to clear all faults

➢ Security– degree of certainty that relay will not operate

incorrectly for any fault in its zone of protection and not react
to faults outside of its zone of protection
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 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

5) Protective Zones

Overlapping Zones of Protection

No Gaps. Ever. Anywhere. Period.

G
G
M

G
Feeder Protection
Motor Protection
Line Protection
Transformer Protection
Bus bar Protection
Generator Protection

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5-1) Overlapping of neighboring Protective Zones

G : Generator
T : Step-up Transformer
TL : Transmission Lines

CT1 & CT1/ : CT1 CT1/

G-T unit protection system covering G1 G
circuit breakers X & X/
T T
CT2 & CT2/ :
Main bus protection system covering
circuit breakers X &X/ and also Y & Y/
X X/
CT3 & CT3/ : CT2 CT2/
TL protection system covering circuit
breakers Y & Y/
CT3 CT3/

Neighboring zones overlap so that no

Y Y/
‘dead spot’ are left in the protected
system.

TL TL/

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 5-2) Overlapping : Current Transformers Locations

➢ Overlap is accomplished by the locations of CTs,

the key source for protective relays.

Relay Zone A Relay Zone A

Zone A Zone A

Relay Zone B Relay Zone B

Zone B Zone B

CTs are located at both sides of CB CTs are located at one side of CB

➢ fault between CTs is cleared from ➢ fault between CTs is sensed by

both remote sides both relays and remote right side
relay-A operates only

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 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

6) Primary and Back-up Protection: definitions & importance

i. Primary (or Main) protection is the essential protection

for protecting an equipment/system. It is the first to act
and to interrupt the fault immediately.

ii. Back-up protection is the next in the line defense-

meaning, when the primary protection scheme fails.

iii. When main protection is made inoperative for the purpose

of maintenance, testing, etc. the Back-up protection acts
like main protection.

iv. The cost of back-up protection is justified on the basis of

probability of failure of individual components in
protection system, cost of the protected equipment,
importance of protected equipment, and location of
protective equipment.
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 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

6-2) Methods of Back-up Protection

i. Relay back-up.
Primary and protective relaying
systems are activating parallel trip circuits of the
same circuit breaker. The back-up relay operates after
coordinated time delay following the failure of main
relaying system.

ii. Breaker back-up. Different breakers are provided for

main and back-up protection, both the breakers being
in the same station.

iii. Remote back-up. The main and back-up protections are

provided at different stations and are completely
independent.

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 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

6-2) Methods of Back-up Protection, cont’d

iv. Centrally coordinated back-up.

The power grid having centralized Energy Management Control

System (EMS) can be provided with centrally controlled
back-up :

➢ The EMS receives information about system contingencies

by SCADA system via modern communication channels.

➢ The EMS runs the software package programs on-line to

determine the correct switching operation, as regards
severity of fault, system stability, etc.

➢ Main protection are activated by various stations, while

back-up protection are activated via EMS.

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 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

7) SWITCHGEAR : definitions?

SWITCHGEAR
Gear for Switching

Control & Decision

Switching
Sensing Making
Devices
Devices Devices

Circuit Breakers Current Transformers Protective Relays

Voltage Transformers Lightning Arresters
Isolators Reactors
Switches Tripping Units Fuses

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 Instrument Transformers: types & basic function

Types of instrument
transformers:
1. Current transformers
2. Voltage transformers

 Basic function of Instrument transformers is to step

down the AC power system voltage and current.
Generally measuring instruments are designed for 1 or
5 A and 110-120 V.
 Instrument Transformers are used in AC system for
measurement of electrical quantities i.e. voltage,
current , power, etc.
 Instrument transformers are also used with protective
relays for protection of power systems.
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Advantages of Instrument Transformers

1. The large voltage and current of AC Power system can be

measured by using small rating measuring instrument i.e. 1 or
5 A, 110 – 120 V (low power consumption).

2. By using the instrument transformers, measuring instruments

can be standardized. Which results in reduction of cost of
measuring instruments. More ever the damaged measuring
instruments can be replaced easy with healthy standardized
measuring instruments.

3. Instrument transformers provide electrical isolation between

high voltage power circuit and measuring instruments. Which
reduces the electrical insulation requirement for measuring
instruments and protective circuits and also assures the
safety of operators.

4. Several measuring instruments can be connected through a

single transformer to power system.

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 Difference between C.T. and P.T.

S.N Current Transformer (C.T.) Potential Transformer (P.T.)

Connected in series with Connected in Parallel with
1 power circuit. Power circuit.

2 Secondary works almost in Secondary works almost in

short circuited condition. open circuited condition.

Primary current depends on Primary current depends on

3
power circuit current. secondary burden.

Primary current and Primary current and excitation

4 excitation vary over wide variation are restricted to a
range with change of power small range.
circuit current
One terminal of secondary is One terminal of secondary can
5 earthed to avoid the be earthed for Safety.
insulation break down.

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 Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

i. History of Protective Relay:

 The evolution of protective relays begins with the

electromechanical relays.

 Over the past decade it upgraded from electromechanical to

solid state technologies to predominate use of microprocessors
and microcontrollers.

 The timeline of the development of protective relays is

1900 ~ 1963 1963 ~ 1972 1972 ~ 1980 1980 ~ 1990

Electromechanical Static Relays Digital Relays Numerical Relays
Relays

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 Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

ii. Limitations of Electromechanical Relays:

➢ Low speed of operation.

➢ Change in characteristics over a period

due to ageing effect. Electromechanical relay
Attracted armature-type
➢ Component failure leading to relay
failure.

➢ Imposes high burden on CT.

➢ No fault data available except phase

indication.

➢ Limitations of minimum input to output

Electromechanical relay
isolation voltages of 1500 to 2000 V-AC.
Electromagnetic
Induction-type
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 Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

iii. Solid State Relays (Static Relays): Construction & Operation

➢ Static relays were manufactured as

semiconductor devices which incorporate
transistors, ICs, capacitors, small
microprocessors etc.

➢ Solid Static relays use analogue electronic

devices instead of magnetic coils and
mechanical components to create the relay Solid state (or Static)
Overcurrent relay
characteristics.

➢ Measurement is carried out by static

circuits consisting of comparators, level
detectors, filters, logic circuits, etc.

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 Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

iii. Solid State Relays (Static Relays): Operation

CT/PT DC supply
secondary

Aux. Relay Output Trip

Rectifier Measuring Amplifier
CT/PT Sec. Device Circuit
Circuit

Usually an
electromagnetic-type

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 Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

iv. Solid State Relays (Static Relays):

➢ Advantages over electromechanical types

 Static Relay burden is less than Electromagnetic type of relays.

Hence error is less.
 Fast response.
 High Range of Setting compared to electromechanical Relay.
 More Accurate compared to electromechanical Relay.
 No moving parts: There are no moving parts to wear out or
arcing contacts to deteriorate that are often the primary cause
of failure with an Electro Mechanical Relay.
 Multi-function integration.
 Long life (High Reliability): more than 109 operations
 Low Electromagnetic Interference.
 Less power consumption.
 Isolation of Voltage.

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 Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

v. Solid State Relays (Static Relays): Limitations

 Auxiliary voltage requirement for relay operation.

 Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients which are

caused by operation of breaker and isolator in the primary
circuit of CTs and PTs.

 Serious over voltage is also caused by breaking of control

circuit, relay contacts etc. Such voltage spikes of small
duration can damage the semiconductor components.

 Temperature dependence of static relays: The characteristics

of semiconductor devices are affected by ambient
temperature.

 Highly sophisticated isolation and filter circuits are required

to prevent electromagnetic interference and transient
switching disturbances in the power system.

 Characteristic variations with ageing.

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 Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

vi. Digital/Numerical Relays :

➢ Revolution step in changing relay technology

 Technology of digital relays started in 1980,

where microprocessors and micro controllers
are used in replacement of analogue circuits
used in static relays to implement relay
functions.

 By the mid-1990s Numerical relays have been

viewed as natural developments of digital
relays as a result of advances in technology.

 Typically, Numerical relays use a specialized

digital signal processor (DSP) as the
computational hardware, together with the
associated software tools.

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 Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays
vii. Numerical Relays : Operation
current signal from CT is converted
into proportional voltage signal
using I to V converter Analog-to-Digital
convertor
EOC
I to V Precision ADC

Multiplexer (MUX)
CT

Microprocessor
secondary converter rectifier
SOC

Channel selection
CT I to V Precision
secondary converter rectifier

Signal to trip circuit

➢ Microprocessor sends a signal ADC for Start Of Conversion (SOC),

examines whether the conversion is completed and on receipt of
End Of Conversion (EOC) from ADC, receives the data in digital form.
➢ The microprocessor then compares the data with pick-up value. If
the input is greater than pick-up value the microprocessor send a
trip signal to circuit breaker of the desired circuit
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 Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

viii.Numerical Relays: Advantages over static relays

 Several setting groups (i.e. high level of functionality

integration).

 Wide range of parameter adjustment.

 Remote communication built-in.

 Internal fault diagnosis.

 Circuit-breaker monitoring (state and condition).

 Disturbance recording.

 Back-up protection function in-built.

 Low burden: The microprocessor based relays have minimum

burden on the instrument transformers.

 Speed: With static relays, tripping time of ½ cycle or even

less can be obtained.

 Less sensitive to temperature and aging.

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 Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

ix. Numerical Relays: Limitations

 Short technical lifetime due to the continuous

development of new technologies.

 Susceptibility to power system transients.

 As digital systems become increasingly more complex

they require specially trained staff for operation.

 Numerical Relay protection shares common functions.

This means that there are common failure modes that can
affect multiple elements of protection. For example,
failure of a power supply or an input signal processor may
disable an entire protective device that provides many
different protection functions.

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 Multifunctional Digital Relay Devices

 Multifunctional numerical relays are used in

majority protection schemes

 allow an implementation of almost all the functionalities needed

to protect and control the power system components more
efficiently:

➢ Fundamental protections (Over Current, Over Voltage, Over

Frequency, Distance, Differential Protections)
➢ Breaker Failure protection (BFPN)
➢ Autoreclose (AR)
➢ Automatic switching of protection settings
➢ Overload protection
➢ Wide area special protection schemes (SPS) or remedial action
scheme (RAS)
➢ Synchronized Phasor Measurement

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