INTRODUCTION
ISS2101-DATABASE
Institut Teknologi Del
Semester 1-2015/2016
Database Management System (DBMS)
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DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
Collection of interrelated data
Set of programs to access the data
An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
Database Applications:
Banking: transactions
Airlines: reservations, schedules
Universities: registration, grades
Sales: customers, products, purchases
Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
Databases can be very large.
Databases touch all aspects of our lives
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University Database Example
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Application program examples
Add new students, instructors, and courses
Register students for courses, and generate class rosters
Assign grades to students, compute grade point
averages (GPA) and generate transcripts
In the early days, database applications were built
directly on top of file systems
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Drawbacks of using file systems to
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store data
Data redundancy and inconsistency
Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different
files
Difficulty in accessing data
Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
Data isolation — multiple files and formats
Integrity problems
Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become
“buried” in program code rather than being stated explicitly
Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
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Drawbacks of using file systems to
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store data
Atomicity of updates
Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with
partial updates carried out
Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another
should either complete or not happen at all
Concurrent access by multiple users
Concurrent access needed for performance
Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating
it by withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
Security problems
Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
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Levels of Abstraction
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Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored.
Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the
relationships among the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views
can also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.
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View of Data
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An architecture for a database system
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Instances and Schemas
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Similar to types and variables in programming languages
Schema – the logical structure of the database
Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and
accounts and the relationship between them
Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
Physical schema: database design at the physical level
Logical schema: database design at the logical level
Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
Analogous to the value of a variable
Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema
without changing the logical schema
Applications depend on the logical schema
In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be
well defined so that changes in some parts do
not seriously influence others.
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Data Models
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A collection of tools for describing
Data
Data relationships
Data semantics
Data constraints
Relational model
Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-
relational)
Semistructured data model (XML)
Other older models:
Network model
Hierarchical model
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Relational Model
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Relational model (next session) Columns
Example of tabular data in the relational model
Rows
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A Sample Relational Database
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Data Manipulation Language (DML)
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Language for accessing and manipulating the data
organized by the appropriate data model
DML also known as query language
Two classes of languages
Procedural – user specifies what data is required and
how to get those data
Declarative (nonprocedural) – user specifies what
data is required without specifying how to get those
data
SQL is the most widely used query language
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Data Definition Language (DDL)
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Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a data
dictionary
Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
Database schema
Integrity constraints
Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
Referential integrity (references constraint in SQL)
e.g. dept_name value in any instructor tuple must appear in department relation
Authorization
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SQL
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SQL: widely used non-procedural language
Example: Find the name of the instructor with ID 22222
select name
from instructor
where instructor.ID = ‘22222’
Example: Find the ID and building of instructors in the Physics dept.
select instructor.ID, department.building
from instructor, department
where instructor.dept_name = department.dept_name and
department.dept_name = ‘Physics’
Application programs generally access databases through one of
Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL
queries to be sent to a database
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Database Design
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The process of designing the general structure of the database:
Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database
design requires that we find a “good” collection of relation schemas.
Business decision – What attributes should we record in the database?
Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we have
and how should the attributes be distributed among the various relation
schemas?
Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database
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Database Design?
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Is there any problem with this design?
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Design Approaches
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Normalization Theory
Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them
Entity Relationship Model
Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and
relationships
Entity:a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is
distinguishable from other objects
Described by a set of attributes
Relationship: an association among several entities
Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship
diagram:
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The Entity-Relationship Model
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Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable from
other objects
Described by a set of attributes
Relationship: an association among several entities
Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:
What happened to dept_name of instructor and student?
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Object-Relational Data Models
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Relational model: flat, “atomic” values
Object Relational Data Models
Extend the relational data model by including object
orientation and constructs to deal with added data types.
Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including
non-atomic values such as nested relations.
Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative
access to data, while extending modeling power.
Provide upward compatibility with existing relational
languages.
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XML: Extensible Markup Language
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Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
Originally intended as a document markup
language not a database language
The ability to specify new tags, and to create
nested tag structures made XML a great way to
exchange data, not just documents
XML has become the basis for all new generation
data interchange formats.
A wide variety of tools is available for parsing,
browsing and querying XML documents/data
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Database Users and Administrators
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History of Database Systems
1950s and early 1960s:
Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
Tapes provided only sequential access
Punched cards for input
Late 1960s and 1970s:
Hard disks allowed direct access to data
Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
Ted Codd defines the relational data model
Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
IBM Research begins System R prototype
UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
High-performance (for the era) transaction processing
History (cont.)
1980s:
Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial
systems
SQL becomes industrial standard
Parallel and distributed database systems
Object-oriented database systems
1990s:
Large decision support and data-mining applications
Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
Emergence of Web commerce
Early 2000s:
XML and XQuery standards
Automated database administration
Later 2000s:
Giant data storage systems
Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon, ..
Reference
Database System Concepts, 6th Ed. Silberschatz,
Korth and Sudarshan
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Question??
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Figure 1.02
Figure 1.04
Figure 1.06
