MSP430 Optimizing C/C++ Compiler v 3.

User's Guide

Literature Number: SLAU132B

March 2008
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 Preface
SLAU132B – March 2008

Read This First

About This Manual

The MSP430 Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide explains how to use these compiler tools:
• Compiler
• Library-build process
• C++ name demangler
The C/C++ compiler accepts C and C++ code conforming to the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) standards for these languages. The compiler supports the 1989 version of the C
language and the 1998 version of the C++ language.
This user's guide discusses the characteristics of the C/C++ compiler. It assumes that you already know
how to write C programs. The C Programming Language (second edition), by Brian W. Kernighan and
Dennis M. Ritchie, describes C based on the ISO C standard. You can use the Kernighan and Ritchie
(hereafter referred to as K&R) book as a supplement to this manual. References to K&R C (as opposed to
ISO C) in this manual refer to the C language as defined in the first edition of Kernighan and Ritchie's The
C Programming Language.
Notational Conventions
This document uses the following conventions:
• Program listings, program examples, and interactive displays are shown in a special typeface.
Interactive displays use a bold version of the special typeface to distinguish commands that you enter
from items that the system displays (such as prompts, command output, error messages, etc.).
Here is a sample of C code:
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{ printf("hello, cruel world\n";
}

• In syntax descriptions, the instruction, command, or directive is in a bold typeface and parameters are
in an italic typeface. Portions of a syntax that are in bold should be entered as shown; portions of a
syntax that are in italics describe the type of information that should be entered.

• Square brackets ( [ and ] ) identify an optional parameter. If you use an optional parameter, you specify
the information within the brackets. Unless the square brackets are in the bold typeface, do not enter
the brackets themselves. The following is an example of a command that has an optional parameter:
cl430 [options] [filenames] [--run_linker [link_options] [object files]]

• Braces ( { and } ) indicate that you must choose one of the parameters within the braces; you do not
enter the braces themselves. This is an example of a command with braces that are not included in the
actual syntax but indicate that you must specify either the --rom_model or --ram_model option:
cl430 --run_linker {--rom_model | --ram_model} filenames [--output_file=name.out]
--library= libraryname

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• In assembler syntax statements, column 1 is reserved for the first character of a label or symbol. If the
label or symbol is optional, it is usually not shown. If it is a required parameter, it is shown starting
against the left margin of the box, as in the example below. No instruction, command, directive, or
parameter, other than a symbol or label, can begin in column 1.
symbol .usect "section name", size in bytes[, alignment]

• Some directives can have a varying number of parameters. For example, the .byte directive can have
up to 100 parameters. This syntax is shown as [, ..., parameter].
Related Documentation
You can use the following books to supplement this user's guide:
ANSI X3.159-1989, Programming Language - C (Alternate version of the 1989 C Standard), American
National Standards Institute
C: A Reference Manual (fourth edition), by Samuel P. Harbison, and Guy L. Steele Jr., published by
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
DWARF Debugging Information Format Version 3, DWARF Debugging Information Format Workgroup,
Free Standards Group, 2005 (http://dwarfstd.org)
ISO/IEC 14882-1998, International Standard - Programming Languages - C++ (The C++ Standard),
International Organization for Standardization
ISO/IEC 9899:1989, International Standard - Programming Languages - C (The 1989 C Standard),
International Organization for Standardization
ISO/IEC 9899:1999, International Standard - Programming Languages - C (The C Standard),
International Organization for Standardization
Programming Embedded Systems in C and C++, by Michael Barr, Andy Oram (Editor), published by
O'Reilly & Associates; ISBN: 1565923545, February 1999
Programming in C, Steve G. Kochan, Hayden Book Company
The Annotated C++ Reference Manual, Margaret A. Ellis and Bjame Stroustrup, published by
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Massachusetts, 1990
The C Programming Language (second edition), by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie,
published by Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1988
The C++ Programming Language (second edition), Bjame Stroustrup, published by Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Reading, Massachusetts, 1990
Tool Interface Standards (TIS) DWARF Debugging Information Format Specification Version 2.0,
TIS Committee, 1995

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www.ti.com Related Documentation From Texas Instruments

Related Documentation From Texas Instruments

You can use the following books to supplement this user's guide:
— MSP430x3xx Family User's Guide. Describes the MSP430x3xx™ CPU architecture, instruction
set, pipeline, and interrupts for these ultra-low power microcontrollers.
— MSP430x1xx Family User's Guide. Describes the MSP430x1xx™ CPU architecture, instruction
set, pipeline, and interrupts for these ultra-low power microcontrollers.
— MSP430x4xx Family User's Guide. Describes the MSP430x4xx™ CPU architecture, instruction
set, pipeline, and interrupts for these ultra-low power microcontrollers.
— MSP430x4xx Family User's Guide. Describes the MSP430x4xx™ CPU architecture, instruction
set, pipeline, and interrupts for these ultra-low power microcontrollers.
SLAU132 — MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide. Describes the assembly language tools
(the assembler, linker, and other tools used to develop assembly language code), assembler
directives, macros, object file format, and symbolic debugging directives for the MSP430 devices.
SLAU134 — MSP430FE42x ESP30CE1 Peripheral Module User's Guide. Describes common
peripherals available on the MSP430FE42x and ESP430CE1 ultra-low power microcontrollers. This
book includes information on the setup, operation, and registers of the ESP430CE1.
Trademarks
MSP430x3xx, MSP430x1xx, MSP430x4xx are trademarks of Texas Instruments.
Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation.
UNIX is a registered trademark of licensed exclusively through X/Open Company Limited.
All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

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6 Read This First SLAU132B – March 2008
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 Chapter 1
SLAU132B – March 2008

Introduction to the Software Development Tools

This chapter provides an overview of the optimizing C/C++ compiler, the assembler, the linker, and
assorted utilities, and introduces the features of the optimizing C/C++ compiler. The assembler and linker
are discussed in detail in the MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.

Topic .................................................................................................. Page

1.1 Software Development Tools Overview ......................................... 8

1.2 C/C++ Compiler Overview .......................................................... 10

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1.1 Software Development Tools Overview

Figure 1-1 illustrates the software development flow. The shaded portion of the figure highlights the most
common path of software development for C language programs. The other portions are peripheral
functions that enhance the development process.

Figure 1-1. MSP430 Software Development Flow

C/C++
source
files

Macro
source C/C++
files compiler

C/C++ name
Assembler
Archiver demangling
source
utility

Macro
library Assembler

Library-build Debugging
Object
Archiver process tools
files

Run-time-
Library of support
object library
files Linker

Executable
object file

Hex-conversion
utility

EPROM Cross-reference Object file MSP430

Absolute lister
programmer lister utilities

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www.ti.com Software Development Tools Overview
The following list describes the tools that are shown in Figure 1-1:
• The compiler accepts C/C++ source code and produces MSP430 assembly language source code.
See Chapter 2.
• The assembler translates assembly language source files into machine language object files. The
MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide explains how to use the assembler.
• The linker combines object files into a single executable object module. As it creates the executable
module, it performs relocation and resolves external references. The linker accepts relocatable object
files and object libraries as input. See Chapter 4. The MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's
Guide provides a complete description of the linker.
• The archiver allows you to collect a group of files into a single archive file, called a library.
Additionally, the archiver allows you to modify a library by deleting, replacing, extracting, or adding
members. One of the most useful applications of the archiver is building a library of object modules.
The MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide explains how to use the archiver.
• You can use the library-build process to build your own customized run-time-support library. See
Section 7.4. Standard run-time-support library functions for C and C++ are provided in the
self-contained rtssrc.zip file.
The run-time-support libraries contain the standard ISO run-time-support functions, compiler-utility
functions, floating-point arithmetic functions, and C I/O functions that are supported by the compiler.
See Chapter 7.
• The hex conversion utility converts an object file into other object formats. You can download the
converted file to an EPROM programmer. The MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide
explains how to use the hex conversion utility and describes all supported formats.
• The absolute lister accepts linked object files as input and creates .abs files as output. You can
assemble these .abs files to produce a listing that contains absolute, rather than relative, addresses.
Without the absolute lister, producing such a listing would be tedious and would require many manual
operations. The MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide explains how to use the absolute
lister.
• The cross-reference lister uses object files to produce a cross-reference listing showing symbols,
their definitions, and their references in the linked source files. The MSP430 Assembly Language Tools
User's Guide explains how to use the cross-reference utility.
• The C++ name demangler is a debugging aid that converts names mangled by the compiler back to
their original names as declared in the C++ source code. As shown in Figure 1-1, you can use the C++
name demangler on the assembly file that is output by the compiler; you can also use this utility on the
assembler listing file and the linker map file. See Chapter 8.
• The main product of this development process is a module that can be executed in a MSP430 device.

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C/C++ Compiler Overview www.ti.com

1.2 C/C++ Compiler Overview

The following subsections describe the key features of the compiler.

1.2.1 ANSI/ISO Standard

The following features pertain to ISO standards:
• ISO-standard C
The C/C++ compiler fully conforms to the ISO C standard as defined by the ISO specification and
described in the second edition of Kernighan and Ritchie's The C Programming Language (K&R). The
ISO C standard supercedes and is the same as the ANSI C standard.
• ISO-standard C++
The C/C++ compiler supports C++ as defined by the ISO C++ Standard and described in Ellis and
Stroustrup's The Annotated C++ Reference Manual (ARM). The compiler also supports embedded
C++. For a description of unsupported C++ features, see Section 5.2.
• ISO-standard run-time support
The compiler tools come with a complete run-time library. All library functions conform to the ISO
C/C++ library standard. The library includes functions for standard input and output, string
manipulation, dynamic memory allocation, data conversion, timekeeping, trigonometry, and exponential
and hyperbolic functions. Functions for signal handling are not included, because these are
target-system specific. The library includes the ISO C subset as well as those components necessary
for language support. For more information, see Chapter 7.

1.2.2 Output Files

The following features pertain to output files created by the compiler:
• COFF object files
Common object file format (COFF) allows you to define your system's memory map at link time. This
maximizes performance by enabling you to link C/C++ code and data objects into specific memory
areas. COFF also supports source-level debugging.
• EPROM programmer data files
For stand-alone embedded applications, the compiler has the ability to place all code and initialization
data into ROM, allowing C/C++ code to run from reset. The COFF files output by the compiler can be
converted to EPROM programmer data files by using the hex conversion utility, as described in the
MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.

1.2.3 Utilities
The following features pertain to the compiler utilities:
• Library-build process
The library-build process lets you custom-build object libraries from source for any combination of
run-time models. For more information, see Section 7.4.
• C++ name demangler
The C++ name demangler (dem430) is a debugging aid that translates each mangled name it detects
to its original name found in the C++ source code. For more information, see Chapter 8.

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 Chapter 2
SLAU132B – March 2008

Using the C/C++ Compiler

The compiler translates your source program into code that the MSP430 can execute. Source code must
be compiled, assembled, and linked to create an executable object file. All of these steps are executed at
once by using the compiler.

Topic .................................................................................................. Page

2.1 About the Compiler ................................................................... 12

2.2 Invoking the C/C++ Compiler ...................................................... 12
2.3 Changing the Compiler's Behavior With Options .......................... 13
2.4 Controlling the Compiler Through Environment Variables ............. 26
2.5 Precompiled Header Support ...................................................... 28
2.6 Controlling the Preprocessor ..................................................... 29
2.7 Understanding Diagnostic Messages .......................................... 32
2.8 Other Messages ........................................................................ 35
2.9 Generating Cross-Reference Listing Information (--gen_acp_xref
Option) .................................................................................... 35
2.10 Generating a Raw Listing File (--gen_acp_raw Option) .................. 36
2.11 Using Inline Function Expansion ................................................ 37
2.12 Using Interlist ........................................................................... 38
2.13 Enabling Entry Hook and Exit Hook Functions ............................. 40

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2.1 About the Compiler

The compiler lets you compile, assemble, and optionally link in one step. The compiler performs the
following steps on one or more source modules:
• The compiler accepts C/C++ source code and assembly code, and produces object code.
You can compile C, C++, and assembly files in a single command. The compiler uses the filename
extensions to distinguish between different file types. See Section 2.3.7 for more information.
• The linker combines object files to create an executable object file. The linker is optional, so you can
compile and assemble many modules independently and link them later. See Chapter 4 for information
about linking the files.
By default, the compiler does not perform the linker. You can invoke the linker by using the --run_linker
compiler option.
For a complete description of the assembler and the linker, see the MSP430 Assembly Language Tools
User's Guide.

2.2 Invoking the C/C++ Compiler

To invoke the compiler, enter:
cl430 [options] [filenames] [--run_linker [link_options] object files]]

cl430 Command that runs the compiler and the assembler.

options Options that affect the way the compiler processes input files. The options are
listed in Table 2-1 through Table 2-13.
filenames One or more C/C++ source files, assembly language source files, linear
assembly files, or object files.
--run_linker Option that invokes the linker. The --run_linker option's short form is -z. See
Chapter 4 for more information.
link_options Options that control the linking process.
object files Name of the additional object files for the linking process.

The arguments to the compiler are of three types:

• Compiler options
• Link options
• Filenames
The --run_linker option indicates linking is to be performed. If the --run_linker option is used, any compiler
options must precede the --run_linker option, and all other link options must follow the --run_linker option.
Source code filenames must be placed before the --run_linker option. Additional object file filenames can
be placed after the --run_linker option.
For example, if you want to compile two files named symtab.c and file.c, assemble a third file named
seek.asm, assembly optimize a fourth file named find.sa, and link to create an executable program called
myprogram.out, you will enter:
cl430 symtab.c file.c seek.asm find.sa --run_linker --library=lnk.cmd
--library=rts430.lib --output_file=myprogram.out

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www.ti.com Changing the Compiler's Behavior With Options

2.3 Changing the Compiler's Behavior With Options

Options control the operation of the compiler. This section provides a description of option conventions
and an option summary table. It also provides detailed descriptions of the most frequently used options,
including options used for type-checking and assembling.
For an online summary of the options, enter cl430 with no parameters on the command line.
The following apply to the compiler options:
• Options are preceded by one or two hyphens.
• Options are case sensitive.
• Options are either single letters or sequences of characters.
• Individual options cannot be combined.
• An option with a required parameter should be specified with an equal sign before the parameter to
clearly associate the parameter with the option. For example, the option to undefine a constant can be
expressed as --undefine_name=name. Although not recommended, you can separate the option and
the parameter with or without a space, as in --undefine_name name or -undefine_namename.
• An option with an optional parameter should be specified with an equal sign before the parameter to
clearly associate the parameter with the option. For example, the option to specify the maximum
amount of optimization can be expressed as -O=3. Although not recommended, you can specify the
parameter directly after the option, as in -O3. No space is allowed between the option and the optional
parameter, so -O 3 is not accepted.
• Files and options except the --run_linker option can occur in any order. The --run_linker option must
follow all other compile options and precede any link options.
You can define default options for the compiler by using the MSP430_C_OPTION environment variable.
For a detailed description of the environment variable, see Section 2.4.1.
Table 2-1 through Table 2-13 summarize all options (including link options). Use the references in the
tables for more complete descriptions of the options.

Table 2-1. Options That Control the Compiler

Option Alias Effect Section
--c_src_interlist -ss Interlists C source and assembly statements Section 2.12
Section 3.7
--cmd_file=filename -@ Interprets contents of a file as an extension to the command line. Section 2.3.1
Multiple -@ instances can be used.
--compile_only -c Disables linking (negates --run_linker) Section 2.3.1
Section 4.1.3
--compiler_revision Prints out the compiler release revision and exits –
--define=name[=def] -D Predefines name Section 2.3.1
--gen_func_subsections Puts each function in a separate subsection in the object file Section 4.3.2
--help -h Help Section 2.3.1
--include_path=directory -I Defines #include search path Section 2.3.1
Section 2.6.2.1
--keep_asm -k Keeps the assembly language (.asm) file Section 2.3.1
--preinclude=filename Includes filename at the beginning of compilation Section 2.3.1
--quiet -q Suppresses progress messages (quiet) Section 2.3.1
--run_linker -z Enables linking Section 2.3.1
--skip_assembler -n Compiles or assembly optimizes only Section 2.3.1
--src_interlist -s Interlists optimizer comments (if available) and assembly source Section 2.3.1
statements; otherwise interlists C and assembly source statements
--undefine=name -U Undefines name Section 2.3.1
--verbose -v Displays a banner and function progress information Section 2.3.1
--tool_version -version Displays version number for each tool –

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Table 2-2. Options That Control Symbolic Debugging and Profiling

Option Alias Effect Section
--symdebug:dwarf -g Enables symbolic debugging Section 2.3.3
Section 3.8
--symdebug:dwarf_version=2|3 Specifies the DWARF format version Section 2.3.3
--symdebug:none Disables all symbolic debugging Section 2.3.3
--symdebug:skeletal Enables minimal symbolic debugging that does not hinder Section 2.3.3
optimizations (default behavior)

Table 2-3. Options That Change the Default File Extensions

Option Alias Effect Section
--asm_extension=[.]extension -ea Sets a default extension for assembly source files Section 2.3.7
--c_extension=[.]extension -ec Sets a default extension for C source files Section 2.3.7
--cpp_extension=[.]extension -ep Sets a default extension for C++ source files Section 2.3.7
--listing_extension=[.]extension -es Sets a default extension for listing files Section 2.3.7
--obj_extension=[.]extension -eo Sets a default extension for object files Section 2.3.7

Table 2-4. Options That Specify Files

Option Alias Effect Section
--asm_file=filename -fa Identifies filename as an assembly source file regardless of its Section 2.3.5
extension. By default, the compiler and assembler treat .asm files as
assembly source files.
--c_file=filename -fc Identifies filename as a C source file regardless of its extension. By Section 2.3.5
default, the compiler treats .c files as C source files.
--cpp_default -fg Processes all source files with a C extension as C++ source files. Section 2.3.5
--cpp_file=filename -fp Identifies filename as a C++ file, regardless of its extension. By Section 2.3.5
default, the compiler treats .C, .cpp, .cc and .cxx files as a C++ files.
--obj_file=filename -fo Identifies filename as an object code file regardless of its extension. Section 2.3.5
By default, the compiler and linker treat .obj files as object code files.

Table 2-5. Options That Specify Directories

Option Alias Effect Section
--abs_directory=directory -fb Specifies an absolute listing file directory Section 2.3.8
--asm_directory=directory -fs Specifies an assembly file directory Section 2.3.8
--list_directory=directory -ff Specifies an assembly listing file and cross-reference listing file Section 2.3.8
directory
--obj_directory=directory -fr Specifies an object file directory Section 2.3.8
--temp_directory=directory -ft Specifies a temporary file directory Section 2.3.8

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www.ti.com Changing the Compiler's Behavior With Options
Table 2-6. Options That Are Machine-Specific
Option Alias Effect Section
––aliased_variables -ma Assumes variables are aliased Section 2.3.2
––large_memory_model -ml Use a large memory model when compiling for the MSP430X
––opt_for_space -ms Optimizes for code size (default) Section 2.3.2
––opt_for_speed -mf Optimizes for speed over space Section 2.3.2
––optimize_with_debug Re-enables the optimizations disabled by the --symdebug:dwarf Section 2.3.2
option.
––plain_char={signed|unsigned} -mc Changes variables of type char from unsigned to signed Section 2.3.2
––printf_support={full|minimal| Enables support for smaller limited versions of printf. Section 2.3.2
nofloat}
––small–enum Uses the smallest possible size for the enumeration type Section 2.3.2
––silicon_version={msp|mspx} -v Selects the instruction set. Section 2.3.2

Table 2-7. Options That Control Hooks

Option Alias Effect Section
--entry_hook[=name] Enables entry hooks Section 2.13
--entry_param={name|address| Specifies the parameters to the function to the --entry_hook option Section 2.13
none}
--exit_hook[=name] Enables exit hooks Section 2.13
--exit_param={name|address|none} Specifies the parameters to the function to the --exit_hook option Section 2.13

Table 2-8. Options That Control Parsing

Option Alias Effect Section
--create_pch=filename Creates a precompiled header file with the name specified Section 2.5
--embedded_cpp -pe Enables embedded C++ mode Section 5.12.3
--exceptions Enables C++ exception handling Section 2.3.1
--fp_mode={relaxed|strict} Enables or disables relaxed floating-point mode Section 2.3.1
--fp_reassoc={on|off} Enables or disables the reassociation of floating-point arithmetic Section 2.3.1
--gcc Enables support for GCC extensions Section 5.13
--gen_asp_raw -pl Generates a raw listing file Section 2.10
--gen_acp_xref -px Generates a cross-reference listing file Section 2.9
--kr_compatible -pk Allows K&R compatibility Section 5.12.1
--no_inlining -pi Disables definition-controlled inlining (but --opt_level=3 (or -O3) Section 2.11
optimizations still perform automatic inlining)
--pch Creates or uses precompiled header files Section 2.5
--pch_dir=directory Specifies the path where the precompiled header file resides Section 2.5
--pch_verbose Displays a message for each precompiled header file that is Section 2.5
considered but not used
--program_level_compile -pm Combines source files to perform program-level optimization Section 3.3
--relaxed_ansi -pr Enables relaxed mode; ignores strict ISO violations Section 5.12.2
--rtti -rtti Enables run time type information (RTTI) –
--sat_reassoc={on|off} Enables or disables the reassociation of saturating arithmetic Section 2.3.1
--static_template_instantiation Instantiate all template entities with internal linkage –
--strict_ansi -ps Enables strict ISO mode (for C/C++, not K&R C) Section 5.12.2
--use_pch=filename Specifies the precompiled header file to use for this compilation Section 2.5

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Table 2-9. Parser Options That Control Preprocessing

Option Alias Effect Section
--preproc_dependency[=filename] -ppd Performs preprocessing only, but instead of writing preprocessed Section 2.6.7
output, writes a list of dependency lines suitable for input to a
standard make utility
--preproc_includes[=filename] -ppi Performs preprocessing only, but instead of writing preprocessed Section 2.6.8
output, writes a list of files included with the #include directive
--preproc_macros Performs preprocessing only. Writes list of predefined and Section 2.6.9
user-defined macros to a file with the same name as the input but
with a .pp extension.
--preproc_only -ppo Performs preprocessing only. Writes preprocessed output to a file Section 2.6.3
with the same name as the input but with a .pp extension.
--preproc_with_comments -ppc Performs preprocessing only. Writes preprocessed output, keeping Section 2.6.5
the comments, to a file with the same name as the input but with a
.pp extension.
--preproc_with_compile -ppa Continues compilation after preprocessing Section 2.6.4
--preproc_with_line -ppl Performs preprocessing only. Writes preprocessed output with Section 2.6.6
line-control information (#line directives) to a file with the same name
as the input but with a .pp extension.

Table 2-10. Parser Options That Control Diagnostics

Option Alias Effect Section
--diag_error=num -pdse Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as an error Section 2.7.1
--diag_remark=num -pdsr Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a remark Section 2.7.1
--diag_suppress=num -pds Suppresses the diagnostic identified by num Section 2.7.1
--diag_warning=num -pdsw Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a warning Section 2.7.1
--display_error_number=num -pden Displays a diagnostic's identifiers along with its text Section 2.7.1
--issue_remarks -pdr Issues remarks (nonserious warnings) Section 2.7.1
--no_warnings -pdw Suppresses warning diagnostics (errors are still issued) Section 2.7.1
--set_error_limit=num -pdel Sets the error limit to num. The compiler abandons compiling after Section 2.7.1
this number of errors. (The default is 100.)
--verbose_diagnostics -pdv Provides verbose diagnostics that display the original source with Section 2.7.1
line-wrap
--write_diagnostics_file (1) -pdf Generates a diagnostics information file Section 2.7.1
(1)
Parser only option.

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www.ti.com Changing the Compiler's Behavior With Options

Table 2-11. Options That Control Optimization (1)

Option Alias Effect Section
--auto_inline=[size] -oi Sets automatic inlining size (--opt_level=3 only). If size is not Section 3.6
specified, the default is 1.
--call_assumptions=0 -op0 Specifies that the module contains functions and variables that are Section 3.3.1
called or modified from outside the source code provided to the
compiler
--call_assumptions=1 -op1 Specifies that the module contains variables modified from outside Section 3.3.1
the source code provided to the compiler but does not use functions
called from outside the source code
--call_assumptions=2 -op2 Specifies that the module contains no functions or variables that are Section 3.3.1
called or modified from outside the source code provided to the
compiler (default)
--call_assumptions=3 -op3 Specifies that the module contains functions that are called from Section 3.3.1
outside the source code provided to the compiler but does not use
variables modified from outside the source code
--gen_opt_info=0 -on0 Disables the optimization information file Section 3.2.2
--gen_opt_info=1 -on1 Produces an optimization information file Section 3.2.2
--gen_opt_info=2 -on2 Produces a verbose optimization information file Section 3.2.2
--opt_level=0 -O0 Optimizes register usage Section 3.1
--opt_level=1 -O1 Uses -O0 optimizations and optimizes locally Section 3.1
--opt_level=2 -O2 or -O Uses -O1 optimizations and optimizes globally Section 3.1
--opt_level=3 -O3 Uses -O2 optimizations and optimizes the file Section 3.1
Section 3.2
--optimizer_interlist -os Interlists optimizer comments with assembly statements Section 3.7
--single_inline Inlines functions that are only called once
--std_lib_func_defined -ol1 or Informs the optimizer that your file declares a standard library Section 3.2.1
-oL1 function
--std_lib_func_not_defined -ol2 or Informs the optimizer that your file does not declare or alter library Section 3.2.1
-oL2 functions. Overrides the -ol0 and -ol1 options (default).
--std_lib_func_redefined -ol0 or Informs the optimizer that your file alters a standard library function Section 3.2.1
-oL0
(1)
Note: Machine-specific options (see Table 2-6 ) can also affect optimization.

Table 2-12. Options That Control the Assembler

Option Alias Effect Section
--absolute_listing -aa Enables absolute listing Section 2.3.9
--asm_define=name[=def] -ad Sets the name symbol Section 2.3.9
--asm_dependency -apd Performs preprocessing; lists only assembly dependencies Section 2.3.9
--asm_includes -api Performs preprocessing; lists only included #include files Section 2.3.9
--asm_listing -al Generates an assembly listing file Section 2.3.9
--asm_undefine=name -au Undefines the predefined constant name Section 2.3.9
--copy_file=filename -ahc Copies the specified file for the assembly module Section 2.3.9
--cross_reference -ax Generates the cross-reference file Section 2.3.9
--include_file=filename -ahi Includes the specified file for the assembly module Section 2.3.9
--output_all_syms -as Puts labels in the symbol table Section 2.3.9
--syms_ignore_case -ac Makes case insignificant in assembly source files Section 2.3.9

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Table 2-13. Options That Control the Linker

Option Alias Description Section
--absolute_exe -a Generates absolute executable output Section 4.2
-ar Generates relocatable, executable output Section 4.2
--arg_size=size --args Allocates memory to be used by the loader to pass arguments Section 4.2
--compress_dwarf Aggressively reduces the size of DWARF information from input Section 4.2
object files
--define=name[=val] Predefines name as a preprocessor macro. Section 4.2
--diag_error=num Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as an error Section 2.7.1
--diag_remark=num Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a remark Section 2.7.1
--diag_suppress=num Suppresses the diagnostic identified by num Section 2.7.1
--diag_warning=num Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a warning Section 2.7.1
--disable_auto_rts Disables the automatic selection of a run-time-support library Section 4.2
--disable_clink -j Disables conditional linking of COFF object modules Section 4.2
--disable_pp Disables preprocessing for link command files Section 4.2
--display_error_number=num Displays a diagnostic's identifiers along with its text Section 2.7.1
--entry_point=global_symbol -e Defines an entry point Section 4.2
--fill_value=value -f Sets default fill value Section 4.2
--generate_dead_funcs_list= Writes a list of the dead functions that were removed by the linker to Section 4.2
filename filename.
--heap_size=size -heap Sets heap size (bytes) Section 4.2
--issue_remarks Issues remarks (nonserious warnings) Section 2.7.1
--library=libraryname -l Supplies library or command filename Section 4.2
--linker_help -help Displays usage information Section 4.2
--make_global=global_symbol -g Keeps a global_symbol global (overrides -h) Section 4.2
--make_static -h Makes all global symbols static Section 4.2
--map_file=filename -m Names the map file Section 4.2
--mapfile_contents=filter[, filter] Controls the information that appears in the map file Section 4.2
--no_demangle Disables demangling of symbol names in diagnostics Section 4.2
--no_sym_merge -b Disables merge of COFF symbolic debugging information Section 4.2
--no_sym_table -s Strips symbol table information and line number entries from the Section 4.2
output module
--no_warnings Suppresses warning diagnostics (errors are still issued) Section 2.7.1
--output_file=filename -o Names the output file. Section 4.2
--priority -priority Satisfies unresolved references by the first library that contains a Section 4.2
definition for that symbol
--ram_model -cr Initializes variables at load time Section 4.2
Section 6.9.7
--relocatable -r Produces nonexecutable, relocatable output Section 4.2
--reread_libs -x Forces rereading of libraries Section 4.2
--rom_model -c Autoinitializes variables at run time Section 4.2
Section 6.9.7
--run_abs -abs Produces an absolute listing file Section 4.2
--scan_libraries Scans all libraries for duplicate symbol definitions Section 4.2
--search_path=directory -I Defines library search path Section 4.2
--set_error_limit=num Sets the error limit to num. The linker abandons linking after this Section 2.7.1
number of errors. (The default is 100.)
--stack_size=size -stack Sets stack size (bytes) Section 4.2
--strict_compatibility Performs more conservative and rigorous compatibility checking of Section 4.2
input object files
--symbol_map=refname=defname Enables symbol mapping Section 4.2
--undef_sym -u Creates unresolved external symbol Section 4.2

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Table 2-13. Options That Control the Linker (continued)

Option Alias Description Section
--undefine=name[=val] Removes the preprocessor macro name Section 4.2
--use_hw_mpy[={16|32|F5}] Replaces all references to the default integer/long multiply routine Section 4.2
with the version of the multiply routine that uses the hardware
multiplier support.
--verbose_diagnostics Provides verbose diagnostics that display the original source with Section 2.7.1
line-wrap
--warn_sections -w Displays a message when an undefined output section is created Section 4.2
--xml_link_info Generates an XML information file Section 4.2

2.3.1 Frequently Used Options

Following are detailed descriptions of options that you will probably use frequently:
--c_src_interlist Invokes the interlist feature, which interweaves original C/C++ source
with compiler-generated assembly language. The interlisted C
statements may appear to be out of sequence. You can use the interlist
feature with the optimizer by combining the --optimizer_interlist and
--c_src_interlist options. See Section 3.7. The --c_src_interlist option can
have a negative performance and/or code size impact.
--cmd_file=filename Appends the contents of a file to the option set. You can use this option
to avoid limitations on command line length or C style comments
imposed by the host operating system. Use a # or ; at the beginning of a
line in the command file to include comments. You can also include
comments by delimiting them with /* and */. To specify options, surround
hyphens with quotation marks. For example, "--"quiet.
You can use the --cmd_file option multiple times to specify multiple files.
For instance, the following indicates that file3 should be compiled as
source and file1 and file2 are --cmd_file files:
cl430 --cmd_file=file1 --cmd_file=file2 file3

--compile_only Suppresses the linker and overrides the --run_linker option, which
specifies linking. The --compile_only option's short form is -c. Use this
option when you have --run_linker specified in the MSP430_C_OPTION
environment variable and you do not want to link. See Section 4.1.3.
--define_name=name[=def] Predefines the constant name for the preprocessor. This is equivalent to
inserting #define name def at the top of each C source file. If the
optional[=def] is omitted, the name is set to 1. The --define_name
option's short form is -D.
If you want to define a quoted string and keep the quotation marks, do
one of the following:
• For Windows®, use --define_name=name="\"string def\"". For
example, --define_name=car="\"sedan\""
• For UNIX®, use --define_name=name='"string def"'. For example,
--define_name=car='"sedan"'
• For Code Composer Studio, enter the definition in a file and include
that file with the --cmd_file option.
--exceptions Enables support of C++ exception handling. The compiler will generate
code to handle try/catch/throw statements in C++ code. See Section 5.5.

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--fp_mode={relaxed|strict} Supports relaxed floating-point mode. In this mode, if the result of a

double-precision floating-point expression is assigned to a
single-precision floating-point or an integer, the computations in the
expression are converted to single-precision computations. Any
double-precision constants in the expression are also converted to
single-precision if they can be correctly represented as single-precision
constants. This behavior does not conform with ISO; but it results in
faster code, with some loss in accuracy. In the following example, where
N is a number, iN=integer variable, fN=float variable, dN=double
variable:

il = f1 + f2 * 5.0 -> +, * are float, 5.0 is converted to 5.0f

il = d1 + d2 * d3 -> +, are float
f1 = f2 + f3 * 1.1; -> +, are float, 1.1 is converted to 1

To enable relaxed floating-point mode use the --fp_mode=relaxed option,

which also sets --fp_reassoc=on. To disable relaxed floating-point mode
use the --fp_mode=strict option, which also sets --fp_reassoc=off. The
default behavior is --fp_mode=strict.
If --strict_ansi is specified, --fp_mode=strict is set automatically. You can
enable the relaxed floating-point mode with strict ansi mode by
specifying --fp_mode=relaxed after --strict_ansi.
--fp_reassoc={on|off} Enables or disables the reassociation of floating-point arithmetic. If
--fp_mode=relaxed is specified, --fp_reassoc=on is set automatically. If
--strict_ansi is set, --fp_reassoc=off is set since reassociation of
floating-point arithmetic is an ANSI violation.
--help Displays the syntax for invoking the compiler and lists available options.
If the --help option is followed by another option or phrase detailed
information about the option or phrase is displayed. For example, to see
information about debugging options use --help debug.
--include_path=directory Adds directory to the list of directories that the compiler searches for
#include files. The --include_path option's short form is -I. You can use
this option several times to define several directories; be sure to
separate the --include_path options with spaces. If you do not specify a
directory name, the preprocessor ignores the --include_path option. See
Section 2.6.2.1.
--keep_asm Retains the assembly language output from the compiler or assembly
optimizer. Normally, the compiler deletes the output assembly language
file after assembly is complete. The --keep_asm option's short form is -k.
--preinclude=filename Includes the source code of filename at the beginning of the compilation.
This can be used to establish standard macro definitions. The filename is
searched for in the directories on the include search list. The files are
processed in the order in which they were specified.
--quiet Suppresses banners and progress information from all the tools. Only
source filenames and error messages are output. The --quiet option's
short form is -q.
--run_linker Runs the linker on the specified object files. The --run_linker option and
its parameters follow all other options on the command line. All
arguments that follow --run_linker are passed to the linker. The
--run_linker option's short form is -z. See Section 4.1.

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--sat_reassoc={on|off} Enables or disables the reassociation of saturating arithmetic.

--skip_assembler Compiles only. The specified source files are compiled but not
assembled or linked. The --skip_assembler option's short form is -n. This
option overrides --run_linker. The output is assembly language output
from the compiler.
--src_interlist Invokes the interlist feature, which interweaves optimizer comments or
C/C++ source with assembly source. If the optimizer is invoked
(--opt_level=n option), optimizer comments are interlisted with the
assembly language output of the compiler, which may rearrange code
significantly. If the optimizer is not invoked, C/C++ source statements are
interlisted with the assembly language output of the compiler, which
allows you to inspect the code generated for each C/C++ statement. The
--src_interlist option implies the --keep_asm option. The --src_interlist
option's short form is -s.
--tool_version Prints the version number for each tool in the compiler. No compiling
occurs.
--undefine_name=name Undefines the predefined constant name. This option overrides any
--define_name options for the specified constant. The --undefine_name
option's short form is -U.
--verbose Displays progress information and toolset version while compiling.
Resets the --quiet option.

2.3.2 Machine-Specific Options

These options are specific to the MSP430 toolset. The linker options are described in Section 4.2. Please
see the referenced sections for more information.
--aliased_variables Assumes that variables are aliased. The compiler assumes that
pointers may alias (point to) named variables. Therefore, it disables
register optimizations when an assignment is made through a pointer
when the compiler determines that there may be another pointer
pointing to the same object. See Section 3.4.
--gcc Enables support for GCC extensions. See Section 5.13.
--large_memory_model Uses a large memory model for an MSP430X device. The large-data
model uses 20-bit data pointers, which allows data to be located
anywhere in the address space and not be restricted to the low 64
Kb.
--opt_for_space Optimizes your code for size over speed. This is the default behavior
of the compiler.
--opt_for_speed Optimizes your code for speed over size. By default, the MSP430
optimizer attempts to reduce the size of your code at the expense of
speed.
--optimize_with_debug Re-enables the optimizations disabled by the --symdebug:dwarf
option. If you use the --symdebug:dwarf option, many code generator
optimizations are disabled because the disrupt the debugger.
Therefore, if you use the --optimize_with_debug option, portions of
the debugger's functionality will be unreliable.
--plain_char={unsigned|signed} Specifies how to treat C/C++ plain char variables, default is unsigned.

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--printf_support=version Enables support for smaller, limited versions of the printf and sprintf
run-time-support functions. The valid version values are full (default),
nofloat and minimal.
The printf/sprintf functions use a common low-level routine, _printfi,
which processes a given printf format string. The full version of_printfi
provides formatting capabilities that are not required in typical
embedded applications. To address this the C run-time libraries also
include two limited of versions of _printfi that provide a useful subset
of the formatting features specified by C library standard.
One version excludes support for printing floating values. All format
specifiers except for %f, %g, %G, %e, or %E are supported. You
specify this version with ––printf_support=nofloat when compiling and
linking.
The other version only supports printing of integer, char, or string
values without width or precision flags. Specifically, only the %%, %d,
%o, %c, %s, and %x format specifiers are supported. You specify this
version with ––printf_support=minimal when compiling and linking.
There are no run-time error checks if a format specifier is used but is
not supported in the version specified by the ––printf_support option.
An upcoming release will add compile-time checks.
The ––printf_support option precedes the ––run_linker option;––
printf_support must be used when performing the final link.
--small_enum By default, the MSP430 compiler uses 16 bits for every enum. When
you use the --small-enum option, the smallest possible byte size for
the enumeration type is used. For example, enum example_enum
{first = -128, second = 0, third = 127} uses only one byte instead of 16
bits when the --small-enum option is used. Do not link object files
compiled with the --small-enum option with object files that have been
compiled without it. If you use the --small-enum option, you must use
it with all of your C/C++ files, otherwise, you will encounter errors that
cannot be detected until run time.
--silicon_version Selects the instruction set version. Using --silicon_version=mspx
generates code for MSP430X devices (20-bit code addressing). Using
--silicon_version=msp generates code for 16-bit MSP430 devices.
Modules assembled/compiled for 16-bit MSP430 devices are not
compatible with modules that are assembled/compiled for 20-bit
MSPx devices. The linker generates errors if an attempt is made to
combine incompatible object files.

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2.3.3 Symbolic Debugging Options
The following options are used to select symbolic debugging or profiling:
--symdebug:dwarf Generates directives that are used by the C/C++ source-level
debugger and enables assembly source debugging in the
assembler. The --symdebug:dwarf option's short form is -g. The
--symdebug_dwarf option disables many code generator
optimizations, because they disrupt the debugger. You can use the
--symdebug_dwarf option with the --opt_level (aliased as -O) option
to maximize the amount of optimization that is compatible with
debugging (see Section 3.8).
For more information on the DWARF debug format, see The
DWARF Debugging Standard.
--symdebug:dwarf_version={2|3} Specifies the DWARF debugging format version (2 or 3) to be
generated when --symdebug:dwarf or --symdebug:skeletal is
specified. For more information on TI extensions to the DWARF
language, see The Impact of DWARF on TI Object Files
(SPRAAB5).
--symdebug:none Disables all symbolic debugging output. This option is not
recommended; it prevents debugging and most performance
analysis capabilities.
--symdebug:skeletal Generates as much symbolic debugging information as possible
without hindering optimization. Generally, this consists of
global-scope information only. This option reflects the default
behavior of the compiler.
See Section 2.3.10 for a list of deprecated symbolic debugging options.

2.3.4 Specifying Filenames

The input files that you specify on the command line can be C source files, C++ source files, assembly
source files, or object files. The compiler uses filename extensions to determine the file type.
Extension File Type
.asm, .abs, or .s* (extension begins with s) Assembly source
.c C source
.C Depends on operating system
.cpp, .cxx, .cc C++ source
.obj Object

Note: Case Sensitivity in Filename Extensions

Case sensitivity in filename extensions is determined by your operating system. If your
operating system is not case sensitive, a file with a .C extension is interpreted as a C file. If
your operating system is case sensitive, a file with a .C extension is interpreted as a C++ file.

For information about how you can alter the way that the compiler interprets individual filenames, see
Section 2.3.5. For information about how you can alter the way that the compiler interprets and names the
extensions of assembly source and object files, see Section 2.3.8.
You can use wildcard characters to compile or assemble multiple files. Wildcard specifications vary by
system; use the appropriate form listed in your operating system manual. For example, to compile all of
the files in a directory with the extension .cpp, enter the following:

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cl430 *.cpp

Note: No Default Extension for Source Files is Assumed

If you list a filename called example on the command line, the compiler assumes that the
entire filename is example not example.c. No default extensions are added onto files that do
not contain an extension.

2.3.5 Changing How the Compiler Interprets Filenames

You can use options to change how the compiler interprets your filenames. If the extensions that you use
are different from those recognized by the compiler, you can use the filename options to specify the type
of file. You can insert an optional space between the option and the filename. Select the appropriate
option for the type of file you want to specify:
--asm_file=filename for an assembly language source file
--c_file=filename for a C source file
--cpp_file=filename for a C++ source file
--obj_file=filename for an object file

For example, if you have a C source file called file.s and an assembly language source file called assy,
use the --asm_file and --c_file options to force the correct interpretation:
cl430 --c_file=file.s --asm_file=assy

You cannot use the filename options with wildcard specifications.

2.3.6 Changing How the Compiler Processes C Files

The --cpp_default option causes the compiler to process C files as C++ files. By default, the compiler
treats files with a .c extension as C files. See Section 2.3.7 for more information about filename extension
conventions.

2.3.7 Changing How the Compiler Interprets and Names Extensions

You can use options to change how the compiler program interprets filename extensions and names the
extensions of the files that it creates. The filename extension options must precede the filenames they
apply to on the command line. You can use wildcard specifications with these options. An extension can
be up to nine characters in length. Select the appropriate option for the type of extension you want to
specify:
--asm_extension=new extension for an assembly language file
--c_extension=new extension for a C source file
--cpp_extension=new extension for a C++ source file
--listing_extension=new extension sets default extension for listing files
--obj_extension=new extension for an object file

The following example assembles the file fit.rrr and creates an object file named fit.o:
cl430 --asm_extension=.rrr --obj_extension=.o fit.rrr

The period (.) in the extension is optional. You can also write the example above as:
cl430 --asm_extension=rrr --obj_extension=o fit.rrr

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2.3.8 Specifying Directories
By default, the compiler program places the object, assembly, and temporary files that it creates into the
current directory. If you want the compiler program to place these files in different directories, use the
following options:
--abs_directory=directory Specifies the destination directory for absolute listing files. The default is
to use the same directory as the object file directory. For example:
cl430 --abs_directory=d:\abso_list

--asm_directory=directory Specifies a directory for assembly files. For example:

cl430 --asm_directory=d:\assembly

--list_directory=directory Specifies the destination directory for assembly listing files and
cross-reference listing files. The default is to use the same directory as
the object file directory. For example:
cl430 --list_directory=d:\listing

--obj_directory=directory Specifies a directory for object files. For example:

cl430 --obj_directory=d:\object

--temp_directory=directory Specifies a directory for temporary intermediate files. For example:

cl430 --temp_directory=c:\temp

2.3.9 Assembler Options

Following are assembler options that you can use with the compiler. For more information, see the
MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.
--absolute_listing Generates a listing with absolute addresses rather than section-relative
offsets.
--asm_define=name[=def] Predefines the constant name for the assembler; produces a .set directive
for a constant or a .arg directive for a string. If the optional [=def] is
omitted, the name is set to 1. If you want to define a quoted string and
keep the quotation marks, do one of the following:
• For Windows, use --asm_define=name="\"string def\"". For
example:--asm_define=car="\"sedan\""
• For UNIX, use --asm_define=name='"string def"'. For example:
--asm_define=car='"sedan"'
• For Code Composer Studio, enter the definition in a file and include
that file with the --cmd_file option.
--asm_dependency Performs preprocessing for assembly files, but instead of writing
preprocessed output, writes a list of dependency lines suitable for input to
a standard make utility. The list is written to a file with the same name as
the source file but with a .ppa extension.
--asm_includes Performs preprocessing for assembly files, but instead of writing
preprocessed output, writes a list of files included with the #include
directive. The list is written to a file with the same name as the source file
but with a .ppa extension.
--asm_listing Produces an assembly listing file.
--asm_undefine=name Undefines the predefined constant name. This option overrides any
--asm_define options for the specified constant.

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--copy_file=filename Copies the specified file for the assembly module; acts like a .copy
directive. The file is inserted before source file statements. The copied file
appears in the assembly listing files.
--cross_reference Produces a symbolic cross-reference in the listing file.
--include_file=filename Includes the specified file for the assembly module; acts like a .include
directive. The file is included before source file statements. The included
file does not appear in the assembly listing files.
--output_all_syms Puts labels in the symbol table. Label definitions are written to the COFF
symbol table for use with symbolic debugging.
--syms_ignore_case Makes letter case insignificant in the assembly language source files. For
example, --syms_ignore_case makes the symbols ABC and abc
equivalent. If you do not use this option, case is significant (this is the
default).

2.3.10 Deprecated Options

Several compiler options have been deprecated. The compiler continues to accept these options, but they
are not recommended for use. Future releases of the tools will not support these options. Table 2-14 lists
the deprecated options and the options that have replaced them.

Table 2-14. Compiler Backwards-Compatibility Options Summary

Old Option Effect New Option
-gp Allows function-level profiling of optimized code --symdebug:dwarf or -g
-gt Enables symbolic debugging using the alternate STABS --symdebug:coff
debugging format
-gw Enables symbolic debugging using the DWARF debugging --symdebug:dwarf or -g
format

Additionally, the --symdebug:profile_coff option has been added to enable function-level profiling of
optimized code with symbolic debugging using the STABS debugging format (the --symdebug:coff or -gt
option).

2.4 Controlling the Compiler Through Environment Variables

An environment variable is a system symbol that you define and assign a string to. Setting environment
variables is useful when you want to run the compiler repeatedly without re-entering options, input
filenames, or pathnames.

Note: C_OPTION and C_DIR

The C_OPTION and C_DIR environment variables are deprecated. Use the device-specific
environment variables instead.

2.4.1 Setting Default Compiler Options (MSP430_C_OPTION)

You might find it useful to set the compiler, assembler, and linker default options using the
MSP430_C_OPTION environment variable. If you do this, the compiler uses the default options and/or
input filenames that you name with MSP430_C_OPTION every time you run the compiler.
Setting the default options with these environment variables is useful when you want to run the compiler
consecutive times with the same set of options and/or input files. After the compiler reads the command
line and the input filenames, it looks for the MSP430_C_OPTION environment variable and processes it.

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The table below shows how to set the MSP430_C_OPTION environment variable. Select the command
for your operating system:
Operating System Enter
UNIX (Bourne shell) MSP430_C_OPTION="option1[option2 . . .]"; export MSP430_C_OPTION
Windows set MSP430_C_OPTION=option1[;option2. . .]

Environment variable options are specified in the same way and have the same meaning as they do on
the command line. For example, if you want to always run quietly (the --quiet option), enable C/C++
source interlisting (the --src_interlist option), and link (the --run_linker option) for Windows, set up the
MSP430_C_OPTION environment variable as follows:

set MSP430_C_OPTION=--quiet --src_interlist --run_linker

In the following examples, each time you run the compiler, it runs the linker. Any options following
--run_linker on the command line or in MSP430_C_OPTION are passed to the linker. Thus, you can use
the MSP430_C_OPTION environment variable to specify default compiler and linker options and then
specify additional compiler and linker options on the command line. If you have set --run_linker in the
environment variable and want to compile only, use the compiler --compile_only option. These additional
examples assume MSP430_C_OPTION is set as shown above:
cl430 *c ; compiles and links
cl430 --compile_only *.c ; only compiles
cl430 *.c --run_linker lnk.cmd ; compiles and links using a command file
cl430 --compile_only *.c --run_linker lnk.cmd
; only compiles (--compile_only overrides --run_linker)

For details on compiler options, see Section 2.3. For details on linker options, see Section 4.2.

2.4.2 Naming an Alternate Directory (MSP430_C_DIR)

The linker uses the MSP430_C_DIR environment variable to name alternate directories that contain object
libraries. The command syntaxes for assigning the environment variable are:

Operating System Enter

UNIX (Bourne shell) MSP430_C_DIR=" pathname1 ; pathname2 ;..."; export MSP430_C_DIR
Windows set MSP430_C_DIR=pathname1;pathname2;...

The pathnames are directories that contain input files. The pathnames must follow these constraints:
• Pathnames must be separated with a semicolon.
• Spaces or tabs at the beginning or end of a path are ignored. For example, the space before and after
the semicolon in the following is ignored:
set MSP430_C_DIR=c:\path\one\to\tools ; c:\path\two\to\tools
• Spaces and tabs are allowed within paths to accommodate Windows directories that contain spaces.
For example, the pathnames in the following are valid:
set MSP430_C_DIR=c:\first path\to\tools;d:\second path\to\tools

The environment variable remains set until you reboot the system or reset the variable by entering:

Operating System Enter

UNIX (Bourne shell) unset MSP430_C_DIR
Windows set MSP430_C_DIR=

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2.5 Precompiled Header Support

Precompiled header files may reduce the compile time for applications whose source files share a
common set of headers, or a single file which has a large set of header files. Using precompiled headers,
some recompilation is avoided thus saving compilation time.
There are two ways to use precompiled header files. One is the automatic precompiled header file
processing and the other is called the manual precompiled header file processing.

2.5.1 Automatic Precompiled Header

The option to turn on automatic precompiled header processing is: --pch. Under this option, the compile
step takes a snapshot of all the code prior to the header stop point, and dump it out to a file with suffix
.pch. This snapshot does not have to be recompiled in the future compilations of this file or compilations of
files with the same header files.
The stop point typically is the first token in the primary source file that does not belong to a preprocessing
directive. For example, in the following the stopping point is before int i:
#include "x.h"
#include "y.h"
int i

Carefully organizing the include directives across multiple files so that their header files maximize common
usage can increase the compile time savings when using precompiled headers.
A precompiled header file is produced only if the header stop point and the code prior to it meet certain
requirements.

2.5.2 Manual Precompiled Header

You can manually control the creation and use of precompiled headers by using several command line
options. You specify a precompiled header file with a specific filename as follows:
--create_pch=filename
The --use_pch=filename option specifies that the indicated precompiled header file should be used for this
compilation. If this precompiled header file is invalid, if its prefix does not match the prefix for the current
primary source file for example, a warning is issued and the header file is not used.
If --create_pch=filename or --use_pch=filename is used with --pch_dir, the indicated filename, which can
be a path name, is tacked on to the directory name, unless the filename is an absolute path name.
The --create_pch, --use_pch, and --pch options cannot be used together. If more than one of these
options is specified, only the last one is applied. In manual mode, the header stop points are determined
in the same way as in automatic mode. The precompiled header file applicability is determined in the
same manner.

2.5.3 Additional Precompiled Header Options

The --pch_verbose option displays a message for each precompiled header file that is considered but not
used. The --pch_dir=pathname option specifies the path where the precompiled header file resides.

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2.6 Controlling the Preprocessor

This section describes specific features that control the preprocessor, which is part of the parser. A
general description of C preprocessing is in section A12 of K&R. The C/C++ compiler includes standard
C/C++ preprocessing functions, which are built into the first pass of the compiler. The preprocessor
handles:
• Macro definitions and expansions
• #include files
• Conditional compilation
• Various preprocessor directives, specified in the source file as lines beginning with the # character
The preprocessor produces self-explanatory error messages. The line number and the filename where the
error occurred are printed along with a diagnostic message.

2.6.1 Predefined Macro Names

The compiler maintains and recognizes the predefined macro names listed in Table 2-15.

Table 2-15. Predefined Macro Names

Macro Name Description
__DATE__ (1) Expands to the compilation date in the form mmm dd yyyy
__FILE__ (1) Expands to the current source filename
_INLINE Expands to 1 if optimization is used (--opt_level or -O option); undefined otherwise.
Regardless of any optimization, always undefined when --no_inlining is used.
__LARGE_CODE_MODEL__ Defined if ––silicon_version=mspx is specified
__LARGE_DATA_MODEL Defined if ––large_memory_model is specified
(1)
__LINE__ Expands to the current line number
__MSP430__ Always defined
__MSP430X461X__ Defined if --silicon_version=mspx is specified
__signed_chars__ Defined if char types are signed by default (--plain_char=signed)
__STDC__ (1) Defined to indicate that compiler conforms to ISO C Standard. See Section 5.1 for
exceptions to ISO C conformance.
__TI_COMPILER_VERSION__ Defined to a 7-digit integer that takes the 3-digit release version number X.Y.Z and
generates an integer XXXYYYZZZ where each portion X, Y and Z is expanded to three
digits and concatenated together. The number does not contain a decimal. For example,
version 3.2.1 is represented as 3002001. The leading zeros are dropped to prevent the
number being interpreted as an octal.
__TIME__ (1) Expands to the compilation time in the form hh:mm:ss
__unsigned_chars__ Defined if char types are unsigned by default (default or–– plain_char=unsigned)

(1)
Specified by the ISO standard

You can use the names listed in Table 2-15 in the same manner as any other defined name. For example,
printf ( "%s %s" , __TIME__ , __DATE__);

translates to a line such as:

printf ("%s %s" , "13:58:17", "Jan 14 1997");

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2.6.2 The Search Path for #include Files

The #include preprocessor directive tells the compiler to read source statements from another file. When
specifying the file, you can enclose the filename in double quotes or in angle brackets. The filename can
be a complete pathname, partial path information, or a filename with no path information.
• If you enclose the filename in double quotes (" "), the compiler searches for the file in the following
directories in this order:
1. The directory of the file that contains the #include directive and in the directories of any files that
contain that file.
2. Directories named with the --include_path option.
3. Directories set with the MSP430_C_DIR environment variable.
• If you enclose the filename in angle brackets (< >), the compiler searches for the file in the following
directories in this order:
1. Directories named with the --include_path option.
2. Directories set with the MSP430_C_DIR environment variable.
See Section 2.6.2.1 for information on using the --include_path option. See Section 2.4.2 for more
information on input file directories.

2.6.2.1 Changing the #include File Search Path (--include_path Option)

The --include_path option names an alternate directory that contains #include files. The --include_path
option's short form is -I. The format of the --include_path option is:
--include_path=directory1 [--include_path=directory2 ...]
There is no limit to the number of --include_path options per invocation of the compiler; each
--include_path option names one directory. In C source, you can use the #include directive without
specifying any directory information for the file; instead, you can specify the directory information with the
--include_path option. For example, assume that a file called source.c is in the current directory. The file
source.c contains the following directive statement:
#include "alt.h"

Assume that the complete pathname for alt.h is:

UNIX /tools/files/alt.h
Windows c:\tools\files\alt.h

The table below shows how to invoke the compiler. Select the command for your operating system:
Operating System Enter
UNIX cl430 --include_path=tools/files source.c
Windows cl430 --include_path=c:\tools\files source.c

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Note: Specifying Path Information in Angle Brackets

If you specify the path information in angle brackets, the compiler applies that information
relative to the path information specified with --include_path options and the MSP430_C_DIR
environment variable.
For example, if you set up MSP430_C_DIR with the following command:
MSP430_C_DIR "/usr/include;/usr/ucb"; export C_DIR

or invoke the compiler with the following command:

cl430 --include_path=/usr/include file.c

and file.c contains this line:

#include <sys/proc.h>

the result is that the included file is in the following path:

/usr/include/sys/proc.h

2.6.3 Generating a Preprocessed Listing File (--preproc_only Option)

The --preproc_only option allows you to generate a preprocessed version of your source file with an
extension of .pp. The compiler's preprocessing functions perform the following operations on the source
file:
• Each source line ending in a backslash (\) is joined with the following line.
• Trigraph sequences are expanded.
• Comments are removed.
• #include files are copied into the file.
• Macro definitions are processed.
• All macros are expanded.
• All other preprocessing directives, including #line directives and conditional compilation, are expanded.

2.6.4 Continuing Compilation After Preprocessing (--preproc_with_compile Option)

If you are preprocessing, the preprocessor performs preprocessing only; it does not compile your source
code. To override this feature and continue to compile after your source code is preprocessed, use the
--preproc_with_compile option along with the other preprocessing options. For example, use
--preproc_with_compile with --preproc_only to perform preprocessing, write preprocessed output to a file
with a .pp extension, and compile your source code.

2.6.5 Generating a Preprocessed Listing File With Comments (--preproc_with_comments

Option)
The --preproc_with_comments option performs all of the preprocessing functions except removing
comments and generates a preprocessed version of your source file with a .pp extension. Use the
--preproc_with_comments option instead of the --preproc_only option if you want to keep the comments.

2.6.6 Generating a Preprocessed Listing File With Line-Control Information

(--preproc_with_line Option)
By default, the preprocessed output file contains no preprocessor directives. To include the #line
directives, use the --preproc_with_line option. The --preproc_with_line option performs preprocessing only
and writes preprocessed output with line-control information (#line directives) to a file named as the
source file but with a .pp extension.

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2.6.7 Generating Preprocessed Output for a Make Utility (--preproc_dependency Option)

The --preproc_dependency option performs preprocessing only, but instead of writing preprocessed
output, writes a list of dependency lines suitable for input to a standard make utility. If you do not supply
an optional filename, the list is written to a file with the same name as the source file but with a .pp
extension.

2.6.8 Generating a List of Files Included With the #include Directive (--preproc_includes
Option)
The --preproc_includes option performs preprocessing only, but instead of writing preprocessed output,
writes a list of files included with the #include directive. If you do not supply an optional filename, the list is
written to a file with the same name as the source file but with a .pp extension.

2.6.9 Generating a List of Macros in a File (--preproc_macros Option)

The --preproc_macros option generates a list of all predefined and user-defined macros. If you do not
supply an optional filename, the list is written to a file with the same name as the source file but with a .pp
extension. Predefined macros are listed first and indicated by the comment /* Predefined */. User-defined
macros are listed next and indicated by the source filename.

2.7 Understanding Diagnostic Messages

One of the compiler's primary functions is to report diagnostics for the source program. The new linker
also reports diagnostics. When the compiler or linker detects a suspect condition, it displays a message in
the following format:
"file.c=, line n:diagnostic severity: diagnostic message
"file.c" The name of the file involved
line n : The line number where the diagnostic applies
diagnostic severity The diagnostic message severity (severity category descriptions follow)
diagnostic message The text that describes the problem

Diagnostic messages have an associated severity, as follows:

• A fatal error indicates a problem so severe that the compilation cannot continue. Examples of such
problems include command-line errors, internal errors, and missing include files. If multiple source files
are being compiled, any source files after the current one will not be compiled.
• An error indicates a violation of the syntax or semantic rules of the C/C++ language. Compilation
continues, but object code is not generated.
• A warning indicates something that is valid but questionable. Compilation continues and object code is
generated (if no errors are detected).
• A remark is less serious than a warning. It indicates something that is valid and probably intended, but
may need to be checked. Compilation continues and object code is generated (if no errors are
detected). By default, remarks are not issued. Use the --issue_remarks compiler option to enable
remarks.
Diagnostics are written to standard error with a form like the following example:
"test.c", line 5: error: a break statement may only be used within a loop or switch
break;
^

By default, the source line is omitted. Use the --verbose_diagnostics compiler option to enable the display
of the source line and the error position. The above example makes use of this option.

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The message identifies the file and line involved in the diagnostic, and the source line itself (with the
position indicated by the ^ character) follows the message. If several diagnostics apply to one source line,
each diagnostic has the form shown; the text of the source line is displayed several times, with an
appropriate position indicated each time.
Long messages are wrapped to additional lines, when necessary.
You can use the --display_error_number command-line option to request that the diagnostic's numeric
identifier be included in the diagnostic message. When displayed, the diagnostic identifier also indicates
whether the diagnostic can have its severity overridden on the command line. If the severity can be
overridden, the diagnostic identifier includes the suffix -D (for discretionary); otherwise, no suffix is
present. For example:
"Test_name.c", line 7: error #64-D: declaration does not declare anything
struct {};
^
"Test_name.c", line 9: error #77: this declaration has no storage class or type specifier
xxxxx;
^

Because an error is determined to be discretionary based on the error severity associated with a specific
context, an error can be discretionary in some cases and not in others. All warnings and remarks are
discretionary.
For some messages, a list of entities (functions, local variables, source files, etc.) is useful; the entities are
listed following the initial error message:
"test.c", line 4: error: more than one instance of overloaded function "f"
matches the argument list:
function "f(int)"
function "f(float)"
argument types are: (double)
f(1.5);
^

In some cases, additional context information is provided. Specifically, the context information is useful
when the front end issues a diagnostic while doing a template instantiation or while generating a
constructor, destructor, or assignment operator function. For example:
"test.c", line 7: error: "A::A()" is inaccessible
B x;
^
detected during implicit generation of "B::B()" at line 7

Without the context information, it is difficult to determine to what the error refers.

2.7.1 Controlling Diagnostics

The C/C++ compiler provides diagnostic options to modify how the parser interprets your code. These
options are used by the linker to control linker-generated diagnostics. The diagnostic options must be
specified before the --run_linker option.
--diag_error=num Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as an error. To determine the
numeric identifier of a diagnostic message, use the --display_error_number
option first in a separate compile. Then use --diag_error=num to recategorize
the diagnostic as an error. You can only alter the severity of discretionary
diagnostics.
--diag_remark=num Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a remark. To determine the
numeric identifier of a diagnostic message, use the --display_error_number
option first in a separate compile. Then use --diag_remark=num to
recategorize the diagnostic as a remark. You can only alter the severity of
discretionary diagnostics.

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--diag_suppress=num Suppresses the diagnostic identified by num. To determine the numeric

identifier of a diagnostic message, use the --display_error_number option first
in a separate compile. Then use --diag_suppress=num to suppress the
diagnostic. You can only suppress discretionary diagnostics.
--diag_warning=num Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a warning. To determine the
numeric identifier of a diagnostic message, use the --display_error_number
option first in a separate compile. Then use --diag_warning=num to
recategorize the diagnostic as a warning. You can only alter the severity of
discretionary diagnostics.
--display_error_number Displays a diagnostic's numeric identifier along with its text. Use this option in
determining which arguments you need to supply to the diagnostic
suppression options (--diag_suppress, --diag_error, --diag_remark, and
--diag_warning). This option also indicates whether a diagnostic is
discretionary. A discretionary diagnostic is one whose severity can be
overridden. A discretionary diagnostic includes the suffix -D; otherwise, no
suffix is present. See Section 2.7.
--issue_remarks Issues remarks (nonserious warnings), which are suppressed by default.
--no_warnings Suppresses warning diagnostics (errors are still issued).
--set_error_limit=num Sets the error limit to num, which can be any decimal value. The compiler
abandons compiling after this number of errors. (The default is 100.)
--verbose_diagnostics Provides verbose diagnostics that display the original source with line-wrap
and indicate the position of the error in the source line
--write_diagnostics_file Produces a diagnostics information file with the same source file name with an
.err extension. (The --write_diagnostics_file option is not supported by the
linker.)

2.7.2 How You Can Use Diagnostic Suppression Options

The following example demonstrates how you can control diagnostic messages issued by the compiler.
You control the linker diagnostic messages in a similar manner.
int one();
int I;
int main()
{
switch (I){
case 1;
return one ();
break;
default:
return 0;
break;
}
}

If you invoke the compiler with the --quiet option, this is the result:
"err.c", line 9: warning: statement is unreachable
"err.c", line 12: warning: statement is unreachable

Because it is standard programming practice to include break statements at the end of each case arm to
avoid the fall-through condition, these warnings can be ignored. Using the --display_error_number option,
you can find out the diagnostic identifier for these warnings. Here is the result:
[err.c]
"err.c", line 9: warning #111-D: statement is unreachable
"err.c", line 12: warning #111-D: statement is unreachable

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www.ti.com Other Messages
Next, you can use the diagnostic identifier of 111 as the argument to the --diag_remark option to treat this
warning as a remark. This compilation now produces no diagnostic messages (because remarks are
disabled by default).
Although this type of control is useful, it can also be extremely dangerous. The compiler often emits
messages that indicate a less than obvious problem. Be careful to analyze all diagnostics emitted before
using the suppression options.

2.8 Other Messages

Other error messages that are unrelated to the source, such as incorrect command-line syntax or inability
to find specified files, are usually fatal. They are identified by the symbol >> preceding the message.

2.9 Generating Cross-Reference Listing Information (--gen_acp_xref Option)

The --gen_acp_xref option generates a cross-reference listing file that contains reference information for
each identifier in the source file. (The --gen_acp_xref option is separate from --cross_reference, which is
an assembler rather than a compiler option.) The cross-reference listing file has the same name as the
source file with a .crl extension.
The information in the cross-reference listing file is displayed in the following format:
sym-id name X filename line number column number
sym-id An integer uniquely assigned to each identifier
name The identifier name
X One of the following values:
D Definition
d Declaration (not a definition)
M Modification
A Address taken
U Used
C Changed (used and modified in a single operation)
R Any other kind of reference
E Error; reference is indeterminate
filename The source file
line number The line number in the source file
column number The column number in the source file

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2.10 Generating a Raw Listing File (--gen_acp_raw Option)

The --gen_acp_raw option generates a raw listing file that can help you understand how the compiler is
preprocessing your source file. Whereas the preprocessed listing file (generated with the --preproc_only,
--preproc_with_comment, --preproc_with_line, and --preproc_dependency preprocessor options) shows a
preprocessed version of your source file, a raw listing file provides a comparison between the original
source line and the preprocessed output. The raw listing file has the same name as the corresponding
source file with an .rl extension.
The raw listing file contains the following information:
• Each original source line
• Transitions into and out of include files
• Diagnostics
• Preprocessed source line if nontrivial processing was performed (comment removal is considered
trivial; other preprocessing is nontrivial)
Each source line in the raw listing file begins with one of the identifiers listed in Table 2-16.

Table 2-16. Raw Listing File Identifiers

Identifier Definition
N Normal line of source
X Expanded line of source. It appears immediately following the normal line of
source if nontrivial preprocessing occurs.
S Skipped source line (false #if clause)
L Change in source position, given in the following format:
L line number filename key
Where line number is the line number in the source file. The key is present only
when the change is due to entry/exit of an include file. Possible values of key are:
1 = entry into an include file
2 = exit from an include file

The --gen_acp_raw option also includes diagnostic identifiers as defined in Table 2-17.

Table 2-17. Raw Listing File Diagnostic Identifiers

Diagnostic Identifier Definition
E Error
F Fatal
R Remark
W Warning

Diagnostic raw listing information is displayed in the following format:

S filename line number column number diagnostic

S One of the identifiers in Table 2-17 that indicates the severity of the diagnostic
filename The source file
line number The line number in the source file
column number The column number in the source file
diagnostic The message text for the diagnostic

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www.ti.com Using Inline Function Expansion
Diagnostics after the end of file are indicated as the last line of the file with a column number of 0. When
diagnostic message text requires more than one line, each subsequent line contains the same file, line,
and column information but uses a lowercase version of the diagnostic identifier. For more information
about diagnostic messages, see Section 2.7.

2.11 Using Inline Function Expansion

When an inline function is called, the C/C++ source code for the function is inserted at the point of the call.
This is known as inline function expansion. Inline function expansion is advantageous in short functions for
the following reasons:
• It saves the overhead of a function call.
• Once inlined, the optimizer is free to optimize the function in context with the surrounding code.
Inline function expansion is performed in one of the following ways:
• Intrinsic operators are inlined by default.
• Code is compiled with definition-controlled inlining.
• When the optimizer is invoked with the --opt_level=3 option (-O3), automatic inline expansion is
performed at call sites to small functions. For more information about automatic inline function
expansion, see Section 3.6.

Note: Function Inlining Can Greatly Increase Code Size

Expanding functions inline increases code size, especially inlining a function that is called in
a number of places. Function inlining is optimal for functions that are called only from a small
number of places and for small functions.

2.11.1 Inlining Intrinsic Operators

An operator is intrinsic if it can be implemented very efficiently with the target's instruction set. The
compiler automatically inlines the intrinsic operators of the target system by default. Inlining happens
whether or not you use the optimizer and whether or not you use any compiler or optimizer options on the
command line. These functions are considered the intrinsic operators:
• abs
• labs
• fabs

2.11.2 Using the inline Keyword, the --no_inlining Option, and Level 3 Optimization
Definition-controlled inline function expansion is performed when you invoke the compiler with optimization
and the compiler encounters the inline keyword in code. Functions with a variable number of arguments
are not inlined. In addition, a limit is placed on the depth of inlining for recursive or nonleaf functions.
Inlining should be used for small functions or functions that are called in a few places (though the compiler
does not enforce this). You can control this type of function inlining with the inline keyword.
The inline keyword specifies that a function is expanded inline at the point at which it is called, rather than
by using standard calling procedures.
The semantics of the inline keyword follows that described in the C++ standard. The inline keyword is
identically supported in C as a language extension. Because it is a language extension that could conflict
with a strictly conforming program, however, the keyword is disabled in strict ANSI C mode (when you use
the --strict_ansi compiler option). If you want to use definition-controlled inlining while in strict ANSI C
mode, use the alternate keyword _ _inline.
When you want to compile without definition-controlled inlining, use the --no_inlining option.

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Note: Using the --no_inlining Option With Level 3 Optimizations

When you use the --no_inlining option with --opt_level=3 (aliased as -O3) optimizations,
automatic inlining is still performed.

2.12 Using Interlist

The compiler tools include a feature that interlists C/C++ source statements into the assembly language
output of the compiler. The interlist feature enables you to inspect the assembly code generated for each
C statement. The interlist behaves differently, depending on whether or not the optimizer is used, and
depending on which options you specify.
The easiest way to invoke the interlist feature is to use the --c_src_interlist option. To compile and run the
interlist on a program called function.c, enter:

cl430 --c_src_interlist function

The --c_src_interlist option prevents the compiler from deleting the interlisted assembly language output
file. The output assembly file, function.asm, is assembled normally.
When you invoke the interlist feature without the optimizer, the interlist runs as a separate pass between
the code generator and the assembler. It reads both the assembly and C/C++ source files, merges them,
and writes the C/C++ statements into the assembly file as comments.
Using the --c_src_interlist option can cause performance and/or code size degradation.
Example 2-1 shows a typical interlisted assembly file.
For more information about using the interlist feature with the optimizer, see Section 3.7.

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Example 2-1. An Interlisted Assembly Language File

;******************************************************************************
;* MSP430 C/C++ Codegen Unix v0.2.0 *
;* Date/Time created: Tue Jun 29 14:54:28 2004 *
;******************************************************************************
.compiler_opts --mem_model:code=flat --mem_model:data=flat --symdebug:none
; acp430 -@/var/tmp/TI764/AAAv0aGVG
.sect ".text"
.align 2
.clink
.global main
;-----------------------------------------------------------------------
; 3 | int main()
;-----------------------------------------------------------------------

;******************************************************************************
;* FUNCTION NAME: main *
;* *
;* Regs Modified : SP,SR,r11,r12,r13,r14,r15 *
;* Regs Used : SP,SR,r11,r12,r13,r14,r15 *
;* Local Frame Size : 2 Args + 0 Auto + 0 Save = 2 byte *
;******************************************************************************
main:
;* ---------------------------------------------------------------------------*
SUB.W #2,SP
;-----------------------------------------------------------------------
; 5 | printf("Hello, world\n");
;-----------------------------------------------------------------------
MOV.W #$C$SL1+0,0(SP) ; |5|
CALL #printf ; |5|
; |5|
;-----------------------------------------------------------------------
; 7 | return 0;
;-----------------------------------------------------------------------
MOV.W #0,r12 ; |7|
ADD.W #2,SP ; |7|
RET ; |7|
; |7|
;******************************************************************************
;* STRINGS *
;******************************************************************************
.sect ".const"
.align 2
$C$SL1: .string "Hello, world",10,0
;******************************************************************************
;* UNDEFINED EXTERNAL REFERENCES *
;******************************************************************************
.global printf

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2.13 Enabling Entry Hook and Exit Hook Functions

An entry hook is a routine that is called upon entry to each function in the program. An exit hook is a
routine that is called upon exit of each function. Applications for hooks include debugging, trace, profiling,
and stack overflow checking.
Entry and exit hooks are enabled using the following options:
--entry_hook[=name] Enables entry hooks. If specified, the hook function is called name. Otherwise,
the default entry hook function name is __entry_hook.
--entry_param{=name| Specify the parameters to the hook function. The name parameter specifies
address|none} that the name of the calling function is passed to the hook function as an
argument. In this case the signature for the hook function is: void hook(const
char *name);
The address parameter specifies that the address of the calling function is
passed to the hook function. In this case the signature for the hook function is:
void hook(void (*addr)());
The none parameter specifies that the hook is called with no parameters. This
is the default. In this case the signature for the hook function is: void
hook(void);
--exit_hook[=name] Enables exit hooks. If specified, the hook function is called name. Otherwise,
the default exit hook function name is __exit_hook.
--exit_param{=name| Specify the parameters to the hook function. The name parameter specifies
address|none} that the name of the calling function is passed to the hook function as an
argument. In this case the signature for the hook function is: void hook(const
char *name);
The address parameter specifies that the address of the calling function is
passed to the hook function. In this case the signature for the hook function is:
void hook(void (*addr)());
The none parameter specifies that the hook is called with no parameters. This
is the default. In this case the signature for the hook function is: void
hook(void);

The presence of the hook options creates an implicit declaration of the hook function with the given
signature. If a declaration or definition of the hook function appears in the compilation unit compiled with
the options, it must agree with the signatures listed above.
In C++, the hooks are declared extern "C". Thus you can define them in C (or assembly) without being
concerned with name mangling.
Hooks can be declared inline, in which case the compiler tries to inline them using the same criteria as
other inline functions.
Entry hooks and exit hooks are independent. You can enable one but not the other, or both. The same
function can be used as both the entry and exit hook.
You must take care to avoid recursive calls to hook functions. The hook function should not call any
function which itself has hook calls inserted. To help prevent this, hooks are not generated for inline
functions, or for the hook functions themselves.
See Section 5.8.12 for information about the NO_HOOKS pragma.

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 Chapter 3
SLAU132B – March 2008

Optimizing Your Code

The compiler tools can perform many optimizations to improve the execution speed and reduce the size of
C and C++ programs by simplifying loops, software pipelining, rearranging statements and expressions,
and allocating variables into registers.
This chapter describes how to invoke different levels of optimization and describes which optimizations are
performed at each level. This chapter also describes how you can use the Interlist feature when
performing optimization and how you can profile or debug optimized code.

Topic .................................................................................................. Page

3.1 Invoking Optimization ................................................................ 42

3.2 Performing File-Level Optimization (--opt_level=3 option) .............. 43
3.3 Performing Program-Level Optimization
(--program_level_compile and --opt_level=3 options) .................... 44
3.4 Accessing Aliased Variables in Optimized Code ........................... 46
3.5 Use Caution With asm Statements in Optimized Code ................... 46
3.6 Automatic Inline Expansion (--auto_inline Option) ........................ 47
3.7 Using the Interlist Feature With Optimization ............................... 47
3.8 Debugging Optimized Code ........................................................ 49
3.9 What Kind of Optimization Is Being Performed? ........................... 49

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3.1 Invoking Optimization

The C/C++ compiler is able to perform various optimizations. High-level optimizations are performed in the
optimizer and low-level, target-specific optimizations occur in the code generator. Use high-level
optimizations to achieve optimal code.
The easiest way to invoke optimization is to use the compiler program, specifying the --opt_level=n option
on the compiler command line. You can use -On to alias the --opt_level option. The n denotes the level of
optimization (0, 1, 2, and 3), which controls the type and degree of optimization.
• --opt_level=0 or -O0
– Performs control-flow-graph simplification
– Allocates variables to registers
– Performs loop rotation
– Eliminates unused code
– Simplifies expressions and statements
– Expands calls to functions declared inline
• --opt_level=1 or -O1
Performs all --opt_level=0 (-O0) optimizations, plus:
– Performs local copy/constant propagation
– Removes unused assignments
– Eliminates local common expressions
• --opt_level=2 or -O2
Performs all --opt_level=1 (-O1) optimizations, plus:
– Performs loop optimizations
– Eliminates global common subexpressions
– Eliminates global unused assignments
– Performs loop unrolling
The optimizer uses --opt_level=2 (-O2) as the default if you use --opt_level (-O) without an optimization
level.
• --opt_level=3 or -O3
Performs all --opt_level=2 (-O2) optimizations, plus:
– Removes all functions that are never called
– Simplifies functions with return values that are never used
– Inlines calls to small functions
– Reorders function declarations; the called functions attributes are known when the caller is
optimized
– Propagates arguments into function bodies when all calls pass the same value in the same
argument position
– Identifies file-level variable characteristics
If you use --opt_level=3 (-O3), see Section 3.2 and Section 3.3 for more information.

The levels of optimizations described above are performed by the stand-alone optimization pass. The
code generator performs several additional optimizations, particularly processor-specific optimizations. It
does so regardless of whether you invoke the optimizer. These optimizations are always enabled,
although they are more effective when the optimizer is used.

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www.ti.com Performing File-Level Optimization (--opt_level=3 option)

3.2 Performing File-Level Optimization (--opt_level=3 option)

The --opt_level=3 option (aliased as the -O3 option) instructs the compiler to perform file-level
optimization. You can use the --opt_level=3 option alone to perform general file-level optimization, or you
can combine it with other options to perform more specific optimizations. The options listed in Table 3-1
work with --opt_level=3 to perform the indicated optimization:

Table 3-1. Options That You Can Use With --opt_level=3

If You ... Use this Option See
Have files that redeclare standard library functions --std_lib_func_defined Section 3.2.1
--std_lib_func_redefined
Want to create an optimization information file --gen_opt_level=n Section 3.2.2
Want to compile multiple source files --program_level_compile Section 3.3

3.2.1 Controlling File-Level Optimization (--std_lib_func_def Options)

When you invoke the compiler with the --opt_level=3 option, some of the optimizations use known
properties of the standard library functions. If your file redeclares any of these standard library functions,
these optimizations become ineffective. Use Table 3-2 to select the appropriate file-level optimization
option.

Table 3-2. Selecting a File-Level Optimization Option

If Your Source File... Use this Option
Declares a function with the same name as a standard library function --std_lib_func_redefined
Contains but does not alter functions declared in the standard library --std_lib_func_defined
Does not alter standard library functions, but you used the --std_lib_func_redefined or --std_lib_func_not_defined
--std_lib_func_defined option in a command file or an environment variable. The
--std_lib_func_not_defined option restores the default behavior of the optimizer.

3.2.2 Creating an Optimization Information File (--gen_opt_info Option)

When you invoke the compiler with the --opt_level=3 option, you can use the --gen_opt_info option to
create an optimization information file that you can read. The number following the option denotes the
level (0, 1, or 2). The resulting file has an .nfo extension. Use Table 3-3 to select the appropriate level to
append to the option.

Table 3-3. Selecting a Level for the --gen_opt_info Option

If you... Use this option
Do not want to produce an information file, but you used the --gen_opt_level=1 or --gen_opt_level=2 --gen_opt_level=0
option in a command file or an environment variable. The --gen_opt_level=0 option restores the
default behavior of the optimizer.
Want to produce an optimization information file --gen_opt_level=1
Want to produce a verbose optimization information file --gen_opt_level=2

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3.3 Performing Program-Level Optimization (--program_level_compile and --opt_level=3

options)
You can specify program-level optimization by using the --program_level_compile option with the
--opt_level=3 option (aliased as -O3). With program-level optimization, all of your source files are compiled
into one intermediate file called a module. The module moves to the optimization and code generation
passes of the compiler. Because the compiler can see the entire program, it performs several
optimizations that are rarely applied during file-level optimization:
• If a particular argument in a function always has the same value, the compiler replaces the argument
with the value and passes the value instead of the argument.
• If a return value of a function is never used, the compiler deletes the return code in the function.
• If a function is not called directly or indirectly by main(), the compiler removes the function.
To see which program-level optimizations the compiler is applying, use the --gen_opt_level=2 option to
generate an information file. See Section 3.2.2 for more information.
In Code Composer Studio, when the --program_level_compile option is used, C and C++ files that have
the same options are compiled together. However, if any file has a file-specific option that is not selected
as a project-wide option, that file is compiled separately. For example, if every C and C++ file in your
project has a different set of file-specific options, each is compiled separately, even though program-level
optimization has been specified. To compile all C and C++ files together, make sure the files do not have
file-specific options. Be aware that compiling C and C++ files together may not be safe if previously you
used a file-specific option.

Note: Compiling Files With the --program_level_compile and --keep_asm Options

If you compile all files with the --program_level_compile and --keep_asm options, the
compiler produces only one .asm file, not one for each corresponding source file.

3.3.1 Controlling Program-Level Optimization (--call_assumptions Option)

You can control program-level optimization, which you invoke with --program_level_compile --opt_level=3,
by using the --call_assumptions option. Specifically, the --call_assumptions option indicates if functions in
other modules can call a module's external functions or modify a module's external variables. The number
following --call_assumptions indicates the level you set for the module that you are allowing to be called or
modified. The --opt_level=3 option combines this information with its own file-level analysis to decide
whether to treat this module's external function and variable declarations as if they had been declared
static. Use Table 3-4 to select the appropriate level to append to the --call_assumptions option.

Table 3-4. Selecting a Level for the --call_assumptions Option

If Your Module … Use this Option
Has functions that are called from other modules and global variables that are modified in other --call_assumptions=0
modules
Does not have functions that are called by other modules but has global variables that are modified in --call_assumptions=1
other modules
Does not have functions that are called by other modules or global variables that are modified in other --call_assumptions=2
modules
Has functions that are called from other modules but does not have global variables that are modified --call_assumptions=3
in other modules

In certain circumstances, the compiler reverts to a different --call_assumptions level from the one you
specified, or it might disable program-level optimization altogether. Table 3-5 lists the combinations of
--call_assumptions levels and conditions that cause the compiler to revert to other --call_assumptions
levels.

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Table 3-5. Special Considerations When Using the --call_assumptions Option

Then the --call_assumptions
If Your Option is... Under these Conditions... Level...
Not specified The --opt_level=3 optimization level was specified Defaults to --call_assumptions=2
Not specified The compiler sees calls to outside functions under the Reverts to --call_assumptions=0
--opt_level=3 optimization level
Not specified Main is not defined Reverts to --call_assumptions=0
--call_assumptions=1 or No function has main defined as an entry point and functions are Reverts to --call_assumptions=0
--call_assumptions=2 not identified by the FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma
--call_assumptions=1 or No interrupt function is defined Reverts to --call_assumptions=0
--call_assumptions=2
--call_assumptions=1 or Functions are identified by the FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma Remains --call_assumptions=1
--call_assumptions=2 or --call_assumptions=2
--call_assumptions=3 Any condition Remains --call_assumptions=3

In some situations when you use --program_level_compile and --opt_level=3, you must use a
--call_assumptions option or the FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma. See Section 3.3.2 for information about
these situations.

3.3.2 Optimization Considerations When Mixing C/C++ and Assembly

If you have any assembly functions in your program, you need to exercise caution when using the
--program_level_compile option. The compiler recognizes only the C/C++ source code and not any
assembly code that might be present. Because the compiler does not recognize the assembly code calls
and variable modifications to C/C++ functions, the --program_level_compile option optimizes out those
C/C++ functions. To keep these functions, place the FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma (see Section 5.8.6)
before any declaration or reference to a function that you want to keep.
Another approach you can take when you use assembly functions in your program is to use the
--call_assumptions=n option with the --program_level_compile and --opt_level=3 options (see
Section 3.3.1).
In general, you achieve the best results through judicious use of the FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma in
combination with --program_level_compile --opt_level=3 and --call_assumptions=1 or
--call_assumptions=2.
If any of the following situations apply to your application, use the suggested solution:
Situation— Your application consists of C/C++ source code that calls assembly functions. Those
assembly functions do not call any C/C++ functions or modify any C/C++ variables.
Solution — Compile with --program_level_compile --opt_level=3 --call_assumptions=2 to tell the compiler
that outside functions do not call C/C++ functions or modify C/C++ variables. See Section 3.3.1 for
information about the --call_assumptions=2 option.
If you compile with the --program_level_compile --opt_level=3 options only, the compiler reverts
from the default optimization level (--call_assumptions=2) to --call_assumptions=0. The compiler
uses --call_assumptions=0, because it presumes that the calls to the assembly language functions
that have a definition in C/C++ may call other C/C++ functions or modify C/C++ variables.
Situation— Your application consists of C/C++ source code that calls assembly functions. The assembly
language functions do not call C/C++ functions, but they modify C/C++ variables.
Solution— Try both of these solutions and choose the one that works best with your code:
• Compile with --program_level_compile --opt_level=3 --call_assumptions=1.
• Add the volatile keyword to those variables that may be modified by the assembly functions and
compile with --program_level_compile --opt_level=3 --call_assumptions=2.
See Section 3.3.1 for information about the --call_assumptions=n option.

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Situation— Your application consists of C/C++ source code and assembly source code. The assembly
functions are interrupt service routines that call C/C++ functions; the C/C++ functions that the
assembly functions call are never called from C/C++. These C/C++ functions act like main: they
function as entry points into C/C++.
Solution— Add the volatile keyword to the C/C++ variables that may be modified by the interrupts. Then,
you can optimize your code in one of these ways:
• You achieve the best optimization by applying the FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma to all of the
entry-point functions called from the assembly language interrupts, and then compiling with
--program_level_compile --opt_level=3 --call_assumptions=2. Be sure that you use the pragma
with all of the entry-point functions. If you do not, the compiler might remove the entry-point
functions that are not preceded by the FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma.
• Compile with --program_level_compile --opt_level=3 --call_assumptions=3. Because you do not
use the FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma, you must use the --call_assumptions=3 option, which is
less aggressive than the --call_assumptions=2 option, and your optimization may not be as
effective.
Keep in mind that if you use --program_level_compile --opt_level=3 without additional options, the
compiler removes the C functions that the assembly functions call. Use the FUNC_EXT_CALLED
pragma to keep these functions.

3.4 Accessing Aliased Variables in Optimized Code

Aliasing occurs when a single object can be accessed in more than one way, such as when two pointers
point to the same object or when a pointer points to a named object. Aliasing can disrupt optimization
because any indirect reference can refer to another object. The optimizer analyzes the code to determine
where aliasing can and cannot occur, then optimizes as much as possible while still preserving the
correctness of the program. The optimizer behaves conservatively. If there is a chance that two pointers
are pointing to the same object, then the optimizer assumes that the pointers do point to the same object.
The compiler assumes that if the address of a local variable is passed to a function, the function changes
the local variable by writing through the pointer. This makes the local variable's address unavailable for
use elsewhere after returning. For example, the called function cannot assign the local variable's address
to a global variable or return the local variable's address. In cases where this assumption is invalid, use
the --aliased_variables compiler option to force the compiler to assume worst-case aliasing. In worst-case
aliasing, any indirect reference can refer to such a variable.

3.5 Use Caution With asm Statements in Optimized Code

You must be extremely careful when using asm (inline assembly) statements in optimized code. The
compiler rearranges code segments, uses registers freely, and can completely remove variables or
expressions. Although the compiler never optimizes out an asm statement (except when it is
unreachable), the surrounding environment where the assembly code is inserted can differ significantly
from the original C/C++ source code.
It is usually safe to use asm statements to manipulate hardware controls such as interrupt masks, but asm
statements that attempt to interface with the C/C++ environment or access C/C++ variables can have
unexpected results. After compilation, check the assembly output to make sure your asm statements are
correct and maintain the integrity of the program.

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www.ti.com Automatic Inline Expansion (--auto_inline Option)

3.6 Automatic Inline Expansion (--auto_inline Option)

When optimizing with the --opt_level=3 option (aliased as -O3), the compiler automatically inlines small
functions. A command-line option, --auto_inline=size, specifies the size threshold. Any function larger than
the size threshold is not automatically inlined. You can use the --auto_inline=size option in the following
ways:
• If you set the size parameter to 0 (--auto_inline=0), automatic inline expansion is disabled.
• If you set the size parameter to a nonzero integer, the compiler uses this size threshold as a limit to
the size of the functions it automatically inlines. The compiler multiplies the number of times the
function is inlined (plus 1 if the function is externally visible and its declaration cannot be safely
removed) by the size of the function.
The compiler inlines the function only if the result is less than the size parameter. The compiler measures
the size of a function in arbitrary units; however, the optimizer information file (created with the
--gen_opt_level=1 or --gen_opt_level=2 option) reports the size of each function in the same units that the
--auto_inline option uses.
The --auto_inline=size option controls only the inlining of functions that are not explicitly declared as inline.
If you do not use the --auto_inline=size option, the compiler inlines very small functions.

Note: Optimization Level 3 and Inlining

In order to turn on automatic inlining, you must use the --opt_level=3 option. The
--opt_level=3 option turns on other optimizations. If you desire the --opt_level=3
optimizations, but not automatic inlining, use --auto_inline=0 with the --opt_level=3 option.

Note: Inlining and Code Size

Expanding functions inline increases code size, especially inlining a function that is called in
a number of places. Function inlining is optimal for functions that are called only from a small
number of places and for small functions. In order to prevent increases in code size because
of inlining, use the --auto_inline=0 and --no_inlining options. These options, used together,
cause the compiler to inline intrinsics only.

3.7 Using the Interlist Feature With Optimization

You control the output of the interlist feature when compiling with optimization (the --opt_level=n or -On
option) with the --optimizer_interlist and --c_src_interlist options.
• The --optimizer_interlist option interlists compiler comments with assembly source statements.
• The --c_src_interlist and --optimizer_interlist options together interlist the compiler comments and the
original C/C++ source with the assembly code.
When you use the --optimizer_interlist option with optimization, the interlist feature does not run as a
separate pass. Instead, the compiler inserts comments into the code, indicating how the compiler has
rearranged and optimized the code. These comments appear in the assembly language file as comments
starting with ;**. The C/C++ source code is not interlisted, unless you use the --c_src_interlist option also.
The interlist feature can affect optimized code because it might prevent some optimization from crossing
C/C++ statement boundaries. Optimization makes normal source interlisting impractical, because the
compiler extensively rearranges your program. Therefore, when you use the --optimizer_interlist option,
the compiler writes reconstructed C/C++ statements.
Example 3-1 shows a function that has been compiled with optimization (--opt_level=2) and the
--optimizer_interlist option. The assembly file contains compiler comments interlisted with assembly code.

Note: Impact on Performance and Code Size

The --c_src_interlist option can have a negative effect on performance and code size.

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When you use the --c_src_interlist and --optimizer_interlist options with optimization, the compiler inserts
its comments and the interlist feature runs before the assembler, merging the original C/C++ source into
the assembly file.
Example 3-2 shows the function from Example 3-1 compiled with the optimization (--opt_level=2) and the
--c_src_interlist and --optimizer_interlist options. The assembly file contains compiler comments and C
source interlisted with assembly code.

Example 3-1. The Function From Example 2-1 Compiled with the --opt_level=2 and
--optimizer_interlist Options

main:
;* -----------------------------------------------------------------------*
SUB.W #2,SP
;** 5 ------------------------- printf((const unsigned char *)"Hello, world\n");
MOV.W #$C$SL1+0,0(SP) ; |5|
CALL #printf ; |5|
; |5|
;** 6 ------------------------- return 0;
MOV.W #0,r12 ; |6|
ADD.W #2,SP
RET

Example 3-2. The Function From Example 2-1 Compiled with the --opt_level=2, --optimizer_interlist,
and --c_src_interlist Options

main:
;* ----------------------------------------------------------------------------*
SUB.W #2,SP
;** 5 ------------------------- printf((const unsigned char *)"Hello, world\n");
;------------------------------------------------------------------------
; 5 | printf ("Hello, world\n");
;------------------------------------------------------------------------
MOV.W #$C$SL1+0,0(SP) ; |5|
CALL #printf ; |5|
; |5|
;** 6 ------------------------- return 0;
;------------------------------------------------------------------------
; 6 | return 0;
;------------------------------------------------------------------------
MOV.W #0,r12 ; |6|
ADD.W #2,SP
RET

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www.ti.com Debugging Optimized Code

3.8 Debugging Optimized Code

Debugging fully optimized code is not recommended, because the compiler's extensive rearrangement of
code and the many-to-many allocation of variables to registers often make it difficult to correlate source
code with object code. Profiling code that has been built with the --symdebug:dwarf (aliased as -g) option
or the --symdebug:coff option (STABS debug) is not recommended as well, because these options can
significantly degrade performance. To remedy these problems, you can use the options described below
to optimize your code in such a way that you can still debug or profile the code.
To debug optimized code, use the --opt_level option (aliased as -O) in conjunction with one of the
symbolic debugging options (--symdebug:dwarf or --symdebug:coff). The symbolic debugging options
generate directives that are used by the C/C++ source-level debugger, but they disable many compiler
optimizations. When you use the --opt_level option (which invokes optimization) with the
--symdebug:dwarf or --symdebug:coff option, you turn on the maximum amount of optimization that is
compatible with debugging.
If you want to use symbolic debugging and still generate fully optimized code, use the
--optimize_with_debug option. This option reenables the optimizations disabled by --symdebug:dwarf or
--symdebug:coff. However, if you use the --optimize_with_debug option, portions of the debugger's
functionality will be unreliable.

Note: Symbolic Debugging Options Affect Performance and Code Size

Using the --symdebug:dwarf or -symdebug:coff option can cause a significant performance
and code size degradation of your code. Use these options for debugging only. Using
--symdebug:dwarf or -symdebug:coff when profiling is not recommended.

3.9 What Kind of Optimization Is Being Performed?

The MSP430 C/C++ compiler uses a variety of optimization techniques to improve the execution speed of
your C/C++ programs and to reduce their size. See Section 2.11 for more information.
Following are some of the optimizations performed by the compiler:
Optimization See
Cost-based register allocation Section 3.9.1
Alias disambiguation Section 3.9.1
Branch optimizations and control-flow simplification Section 3.9.3
Data flow optimizations Section 3.9.4
• Copy propagation
• Common subexpression elimination
• Redundant assignment elimination
Expression simplification Section 3.9.5
Inline expansion of functions Section 3.9.6
Induction variable optimizations and strength reduction Section 3.9.7
Loop-invariant code motion Section 3.9.8
Loop rotation Section 3.9.9
Instruction scheduling Section 3.9.10

MSP430-Specific Optimization See

Tail merging Section 3.9.12
Integer division with constant divisor Section 3.9.11
_never_executed() intrinsic Section 3.9.13

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3.9.1 Cost-Based Register Allocation

The compiler, when optimization is enabled, allocates registers to user variables and compiler temporary
values according to their type, use, and frequency. Variables used within loops are weighted to have
priority over others, and those variables whose uses do not overlap can be allocated to the same register.
Induction variable elimination and loop test replacement allow the compiler to recognize the loop as a
simple counting loop and software pipeline, unroll, or eliminate the loop. Strength reduction turns the array
references into efficient pointer references with autoincrements.

3.9.2 Alias Disambiguation

C and C++ programs generally use many pointer variables. Frequently, compilers are unable to determine
whether or not two or more I values (lowercase L: symbols, pointer references, or structure references)
refer to the same memory location. This aliasing of memory locations often prevents the compiler from
retaining values in registers because it cannot be sure that the register and memory continue to hold the
same values over time.
Alias disambiguation is a technique that determines when two pointer expressions cannot point to the
same location, allowing the compiler to freely optimize such expressions.

3.9.3 Branch Optimizations and Control-Flow Simplification

The compiler analyzes the branching behavior of a program and rearranges the linear sequences of
operations (basic blocks) to remove branches or redundant conditions. Unreachable code is deleted,
branches to branches are bypassed, and conditional branches over unconditional branches are simplified
to a single conditional branch.
When the value of a condition is determined at compile time (through copy propagation or other data flow
analysis), the compiler can delete a conditional branch. Switch case lists are analyzed in the same way as
conditional branches and are sometimes eliminated entirely. Some simple control flow constructs are
reduced to conditional instructions, totally eliminating the need for branches.

3.9.4 Data Flow Optimizations

Collectively, the following data flow optimizations replace expressions with less costly ones, detect and
remove unnecessary assignments, and avoid operations that produce values that are already computed.
The compiler with optimization enabled performs these data flow optimizations both locally (within basic
blocks) and globally (across entire functions).
• Copy propagation. Following an assignment to a variable, the compiler replaces references to the
variable with its value. The value can be another variable, a constant, or a common subexpression.
This can result in increased opportunities for constant folding, common subexpression elimination, or
even total elimination of the variable.
• Common subexpression elimination. When two or more expressions produce the same value, the
compiler computes the value once, saves it, and reuses it.
• Redundant assignment elimination. Often, copy propagation and common subexpression elimination
optimizations result in unnecessary assignments to variables (variables with no subsequent reference
before another assignment or before the end of the function). The compiler removes these dead
assignments.

3.9.5 Expression Simplification

For optimal evaluation, the compiler simplifies expressions into equivalent forms, requiring fewer
instructions or registers. Operations between constants are folded into single constants. For example, a =
(b + 4) - (c + 1) becomes a = b - c + 3.

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3.9.6 Inline Expansion of Functions
The compiler replaces calls to small functions with inline code, saving the overhead associated with a
function call as well as providing increased opportunities to apply other optimizations.

3.9.7 Induction Variables and Strength Reduction

Induction variables are variables whose value within a loop is directly related to the number of executions
of the loop. Array indices and control variables for loops are often induction variables.
Strength reduction is the process of replacing inefficient expressions involving induction variables with
more efficient expressions. For example, code that indexes into a sequence of array elements is replaced
with code that increments a pointer through the array.
Induction variable analysis and strength reduction together often remove all references to your
loop-control variable, allowing its elimination.

3.9.8 Loop-Invariant Code Motion

This optimization identifies expressions within loops that always compute to the same value. The
computation is moved in front of the loop, and each occurrence of the expression in the loop is replaced
by a reference to the precomputed value.

3.9.9 Loop Rotation

The compiler evaluates loop conditionals at the bottom of loops, saving an extra branch out of the loop. In
many cases, the initial entry conditional check and the branch are optimized out.

3.9.10 Instruction Scheduling

The compiler performs instruction scheduling, which is the rearranging of machine instructions in such a
way that improves performance while maintaining the semantics of the original order. Instruction
scheduling is used to improve instruction parallelism and hide pipeline latencies. It can also be used to
reduce code size.

3.9.11 Integer Division With Constant Divisor

The optimizer attempts to rewrite integer divide operations with constant divisors. The integer divides are
rewritten as a multiply with the reciprocal of the divisor. This occurs at optimization level 2 (--opt_level=2
or -O2) and higher. You must also compile with the --opt_for_speed option, which selects compile for
speed.

3.9.12 Tail Merging

If you are optimizing for code size, tail merging can be very effective for some functions. Tail merging finds
basic blocks that end in an identical sequence of instructions and have a common destination. If such a
set of blocks is found, the sequence of identical instructions is made into its own block. These instructions
are then removed from the set of blocks and replaced with branches to the newly created block. Thus,
there is only one copy of the sequence of instructions, rather than one for each block in the set.

3.9.13 _never_executed Intrinsic

The _never_executed( )intrinsic can be used to assert to the compiler that a switch expression can only
take on values represented by the case labels within a switch block. This assertion enables the compiler
to avoid generating test code for handling values not specified by the switch case labels. This assertion is
specifically suited for handling values that characterize a vector generator. See Section 6.8.2 for details on
the _never_executed( ) intrinsic.

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 Chapter 4
SLAU132B – March 2008

Linking C/C++ Code

The C/C++ compiler and assembly language tools provide two methods for linking your programs:
• You can compile individual modules and link them together. This method is especially useful when you
have multiple source files.
• You can compile and link in one step. This method is useful when you have a single source module.
This chapter describes how to invoke the linker with each method. It also discusses special requirements
of linking C/C++ code, including the run-time-support libraries, specifying the type of initialization, and
allocating the program into memory. For a complete description of the linker, see the MSP430 Assembly
Language Tools User's Guide.

Topic .................................................................................................. Page

4.1 Invoking the Linker Through the Compiler (-z Option) ................... 54
4.2 Linker Options .......................................................................... 56
4.3 Linker Code Optimizations ......................................................... 59
4.4 Controlling the Linking Process.................................................. 60

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4.1 Invoking the Linker Through the Compiler (-z Option)

This section explains how to invoke the linker after you have compiled and assembled your programs: as
a separate step or as part of the compile step.

4.1.1 Invoking the Linker Separately

This is the general syntax for linking C/C++ programs as a separate step:
cl430 --run_linker {--rom_model | --ram_model} filenames [options]
[--output_file=name.out] --library=library [lnk.cmd]

cl430 --run_linker The command that invokes the linker.

--rom_model | --ram_model Options that tell the linker to use special conventions defined by the
C/C++ environment. When you use cl430 --run_linker, you must use
--rom_model or --ram_model. The --rom_model option uses
automatic variable initialization at run time; the --ram_model option
uses variable initialization at load time.
filenames Names of object files, linker command files, or archive libraries. The
default extension for all input files is .obj; any other extension must be
explicitly specified. The linker can determine whether the input file is
an object or ASCII file that contains linker commands. The default
output filename is a.out, unless you use the --output_file option to
name the output file.
options Options affect how the linker handles your object files. Linker options
can only appear after the --run_linker option on the command line,
but otherwise may be in any order. (Options are discussed in
Section 4.2.)
--output_file= name.out Names the output file.
--library= library Identifies the appropriate archive library containing C/C++
run-time-support and floating-point math functions, or linker command
files. If you are linking C/C++ code, you must use a run-time-support
library. You can use the libraries included with the compiler, or you
can create your own run-time-support library. If you have specified a
run-time-support library in a linker command file, you do not need this
parameter. The --library option's short form is -l.
lnk.cmd Contains options, filenames, directives, or commands for the linker.

When you specify a library as linker input, the linker includes and links only those library members that
resolve undefined references. The linker uses a default allocation algorithm to allocate your program into
memory. You can use the MEMORY and SECTIONS directives in the linker command file to customize
the allocation process. For information, see the MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.
You can link a C/C++ program consisting of modules prog1.obj, prog2.obj, and prog3.obj, with an
executable filename of prog.out with the command:
cl430 --run_linker --rom_model prog1 prog2 prog3 --output_file=prog.out
--library=rts430.lib

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4.1.2 Invoking the Linker as Part of the Compile Step
This is the general syntax for linking C/C++ programs as part of the compile step:
cl430 filenames [options] --run_linker {--rom_model | --ram_model} filenames
[options] [--output_file=name.out] --library=library [lnk.cmd]

The --run_linker option divides the command line into the compiler options (the options before
--run_linker) and the linker options (the options following --run_linker). The --run_linker option must follow
all source files and compiler options on the command line.
All arguments that follow --run_linker on the command line are passed to the linker. These arguments can
be linker command files, additional object files, linker options, or libraries. These arguments are the same
as described in Section 4.1.1.
All arguments that precede --run_linker on the command line are compiler arguments. These arguments
can be C/C++ source files, assembly files, or compiler options. These arguments are described in
Section 2.2.
You can compile and link a C/C++ program consisting of modules prog1.c, prog2.c, and prog3.c, with an
executable filename of prog.out with the command:
cl430 prog1.c prog2.c prog3.c --run_linker --rom_model --output_file=prog.out --library=rts430.lib

Note: Order of Processing Arguments in the Linker

The order in which the linker processes arguments is important. The compiler passes
arguments to the linker in the following order:
1. Object filenames from the command line
2. Arguments following the --run_linker option on the command line
3. Arguments following the --run_linker option from the MSP430_C_OPTION environment
variable

4.1.3 Disabling the Linker (--compile_only Compiler Option)

You can override the --run_linker option by using the --compile_only compiler option. The -run_linker
option's short form is -z and the --compile_only option's short form is -c.
The --compile_only option is especially helpful if you specify the --run_linker option in the
MSP430_C_OPTION environment variable and want to selectively disable linking with the --compile_only
option on the command line.

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4.2 Linker Options

All command-line input following the --run_linker option (aliased as -z) is passed to the linker as
parameters and options. Following are the options that control the linker, along with detailed descriptions
of their effects.
--absolute_exe Produces an absolute, executable module. This is the default; if
neither --absolute_exe nor --relocatable is specified, the linker acts
as if --absolute_exe is specified.
-ar Produces a relocatable, executable object module. The output
module contains the special linker symbols, an optional header,
and all symbol references. The relocation information is retained.
--arg_size=size Allocates memory to be used by the loader to pass arguments from
the command line of the loader to the program. The linker allocates
size bytes in an uninitialized .args section. The __c_args__ symbol
contains the address of the .args section.
--compress_dwarf Aggressively reduces the size of DWARF information from input
object files
--define=name[=val] Predefines name as a preprocessor macro. This option is distinct
from the compiler --define option.
--diag_error=num Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as an error. See
Section 2.7.1 for details.
--diag_remark=num Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a remark. See
Section 2.7.1 for details.
--diag_suppress=num Suppresses the diagnostic identified by num. See Section 2.7.1 for
details.
--diag_warning=num Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a warning. See
Section 2.7.1 for details.
--disable_auto_rts Disables the automatic selection of a run-time-support library. See
Section 4.4.1.2 for more information.
--disable_clink Disables conditional linking that has been set up with the assembler
.clink directive for COFF object files. By default, all sections are
unconditionally linked.
--disable_pp Disables preprocessing for command files. By default, the linker
now preprocesses link command files using a standard C
preprocessor.
--display_error_number=num Displays a diagnostic's identifiers along with its text. See
Section 4.4.1.2 for more information.
--entry_point=global_symbol Defines a global_symbol that specifies the primary entry point for
the output module
--fill_value=value Sets the default fill value for null areas within output sections; value
is a 16-bit constant
--generate_dead_funcs_list Writes a list of the dead functions that were removed by the linker
to file fname for object files
--heap_size=size Sets the heap size (for dynamic memory allocation) to size bytes
and defines a global symbol that specifies the heap size. The
default is 128 bytes.
--issue_remarks Issues remarks (nonserious warnings). See Section 4.4.1.2 for
more information.

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--library= libraryname Names an archive library file or linker command filename as linker
input. The libraryname is an archive library name and must follow
operating system conventions. The --library option's short form is -l.
--linker_help Produces a help listing displaying syntax and available options
--make_global=global_symbol Defines global_symbol as global even if the global symbol has
been made static with the --make_static option
--make_static Makes all global symbols static; global symbols are essentially
hidden. This allows external symbols with the same name (in
different files) to be treated as unique.
--map_file=filename Produces a map or listing of the input and output sections, including
null areas, and places the listing in filename. The filename must
follow operating system conventions.
--mapfile_contents=filter[,filter] Controls the information that appears in the map file. Enter
--mapfile_contents=help on the command line to produce a listing
of available options.
--no_demangle Disables demangling of symbol names in diagnostics
--no_sym_merge Disables merge of symbolic debugging information in COFF object
files. The linker keeps the duplicate entries of symbolic debugging
information commonly generated when a C program is compiled for
debugging. (Deprecated option; use the strip utility described in the
MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.
--no_sym_table Creates a smaller output section by stripping symbol table
information and line number entries from the output module.
--no_warnings Suppresses warning diagnostics (errors are still issued). See
Section 4.4.1.2 for more information.
--output_file=filename Names the executable output module. The filename must follow
operating system conventions. If the --output_file option is not used,
the default filename is a.out.
--priority Satisfies each unresolved reference by the first library that contains
a definition for that symbol
--ram_model Initializes variables at load time. See Section 6.9.7 for more
information.
--relocatable Retains relocation entries in the output module.
--reread_libs Forces rereading of libraries. The linker continues to reread libraries
until no more references can be resolved.
--rom_model Autoinitializes variables at run time. See Section 6.9.6 for more
information.
--run_abs Produces an absolute listing file.
--scan_libraries Scans all libraries during a link to look for duplicate symbol
definitions to those symbols that are actually included in the link.
--search_path=directory Alters the library-search algorithm to look in directory before looking
in the default location. This option must appear before the --library
option. The directory must follow operating system conventions.
You can specify up to 128 --search_path options. The
--search_path option's short form is -I.

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--set_error_limit=num Sets the error limit to num. The linker abandons linking after this
number of errors. (The default is 100.) See Section 4.4.1.2 for more
information.
--stack_size=size Sets the C/C++ system stack size to size bytes and defines a
global symbol that specifies the stack size. The default is 128
bytes.
--strict_compatibility Performs more conservative and rigorous compatibility checking of
input object files.
--symbol_map=refname=defname Enables symbol mapping, which allows a symbol reference to be
resolved by a symbol with a different name.
--undef_sym=symbol Places the unresolved external symbol symbol into the output
module's symbol table. This forces the linker to search a library and
include the member that defines the symbol.
--undefine=name Removes the preprocessor macro name. This option is distinct from
the compiler --undefine option.
--use_hw_mpy[={16|32|F5}] Replaces all references to the default integer/long multiply routine
with the version of the multiply routine that uses hardware multiplier
support. The optional argument can be 16 for 16-bit hardware
multiplier (default); 32 for F4xxx 32-bit hardware multiplier; or F5 for
F5xxx 32-bit hardware multiplier.
--verbose_diagnostics Provides verbose diagnostics that display the original source with
line-wrap. See Section 4.4.1.2 for more information.
--warn_sections Displays a message when the linker encounters one or more input
sections that do not have a corresponding output section defined in
the SECTIONS directive.
--xml_link_info=file Generates an XML link information file. This option causes the
linker to generate a well-formed XML file containing detailed
information about the result of a link. The information included in
this file includes all of the information that is currently produced in a
linker generated map file.

For more information on linker options, see the MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.

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www.ti.com Linker Code Optimizations

4.3 Linker Code Optimizations

These options are used to further optimize your code.

4.3.1 Generate List of Dead Functions (--generate_dead_funcs_list Option)

In order to facilitate the removal of unused code, the linker generates a feedback file containing a list of
functions that are never referenced. The feedback file must be used the next time you compile the source
files. The syntax for the --generate_dead_funcs_list option is:
--generate_dead_funcs_list= filename
If filename is not specified, a default filename of dead_funcs.txt is used.
Proper creation and use of the feedback file entails the following steps:
1. Compile all source files using the --gen_func_subsections compiler option. For example:
cl430 file1.c file2.c --gen_func_subsections
2. During the linker, use the --generate_dead_funcs_list option to generate the feedback file based on the
generated object files. For example:
cl430 --run_linker file1.obj file2.obj
--generate_dead_funcs_list=feedback.txt
Alternatively, you can combine steps 1 and 2 into one step. When you do this, you are not required to
specify --gen_func_subsections when compiling the source files as this is done for you automatically.
For example:
cl430 file1.c file2.c --run_linker --generate_dead_funcs_list=feedback.txt
3. Once you have the feedback file, rebuild the source. Give the feedback file to the compiler using the
--use_dead_funcs_list option. This option forces each dead function listed in the file into its own
subsection. For example:
cl430 file1.c file2.c --use_dead_funcs_list=feedback.txt
4. Invoke the linker with the newly built object files. The linker removes the subsections. For example:
cl430 --run_linker file1.obj file2.obj
Alternatively, you can combine steps 3 and 4 into one step. For example:
cl430 file1.c file2.c --use_dead_funcs_list=feedback.txt --run_linker

Note: Dead Functions Feedback

The feedback file generated with the -gen_dead_funcs_list option is version controlled. It
must be generated by the linker in order to be processed correctly by the compiler.

4.3.2 Generating Function Subsections (--gen_func_subsections Compiler Option)

When the linker places code into an executable file, it allocates all the functions in a single source file as a
group. This means that if any function in a file needs to be linked into an executable, then all the functions
in the file are linked in. This can be undesirable if a file contains many functions and only a few are
required for an executable.
This situation may exist in libraries where a single file contains multiple functions, but the application only
needs a subset of those functions. An example is a library .obj file that contains a signed divide routine
and an unsigned divide routine. If the application requires only signed division, then only the signed divide
routine is required for linking. By default, both the signed and unsigned routines are linked in since they
exist in the same .obj file.
The --gen_func_subsections compiler option remedies this problem by placing each function in a file in its
own subsection. Thus, only the functions that are referenced in the application are linked into the final
executable. This can result in an overall code size reduction.

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In addition to placing each function in a separate subsection, the compiler also annotates that subsection
with a conditional linking directive, .clink. This directive marks the section as a candidate to be removed if
it is not referenced by any other section in the program. The compiler does not place a .clink directive in a
subsection for a trap or interrupt function, as these may be needed by a program even though there is no
symbolic reference to them anywhere in the program.
If a section that has been marked for conditional linking is never referenced by any other section in the
program, that section is removed from the program. Conditional linking is disabled when performing a
partial link or when relocation information is kept with the output of the link. Conditional linking can also be
disabled with the --disable_clink link option.

4.4 Controlling the Linking Process

Regardless of the method you choose for invoking the linker, special requirements apply when linking
C/C++ programs. You must:
• Include the compiler's run-time-support library
• Specify the type of initialization
• Determine how you want to allocate your program into memory
This section discusses how these factors are controlled and provides an example of the standard default
linker command file.
For more information about how to operate the linker, see the linker description in the MSP430 Assembly
Language Tools User's Guide.

4.4.1 Including the Run-Time-Support Library

You must include a run-time-support library in the linker process. The following sections describe two
methods for including the run-time-support library.

4.4.1.1 Manual Run-Time-Support Library Selection

You must link all C/C++ programs with a run-time-support library. The library contains standard C/C++
functions as well as functions used by the compiler to manage the C/C++ environment. You must use the
--library linker option to specify which MSP430 run-time-support library to use. The --library option also
tells the linker to look at the --search_path options and then the MSP430_C_DIR environment variable to
find an archive path or object file. To use the --library linker option, type on the command line:
cl430 --run_linker {--rom_model | --ram_model} filenames --library=libraryname

Generally, you should specify the run-time-support library as the last name on the command line because
the linker searches libraries for unresolved references in the order that files are specified on the command
line. If any object files follow a library, references from those object files to that library are not resolved.
You can use the --reread_libs option to force the linker to reread all libraries until references are resolved.
Whenever you specify a library as linker input, the linker includes and links only those library members
that resolve undefined references.
By default, if a library introduces an unresolved reference and multiple libraries have a definition for it, then
the definition from the same library that introduced the unresolved reference is used. Use the --priority
option if you want the linker to use the definition from the first library on the command line that contains
the definition.

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4.4.1.2 Automatic Run-Time-Support Library Selection
If the --rom_model or --ram_model option is specified during the linker and the entry point for the program
(normally c_int00) is not resolved by any specified object file or library, the linker attempts to automatically
include the best compatible run-time-support library for your program. The chosen run-time-support library
is linked in as if it was specified with the --library option last on the command line. Alternatively, you can
always force the linker to choose an appropriate run-time-support library by specifying “libc.a” as an
argument to the --library option, or when specifying the run-time-support library name explicitly in a linker
command file.
The automatic selection of a run-time-support library can be disabled with the --disable_auto_rts option.
If the --issue_remarks option is specified before the --run_linker option during the linker, a remark is
generated indicating which run-time support library was linked in. If a different run-time-support library is
desired, you must specify the name of the desired run-time-support library using the --library option and in
your linker command files when necessary.
For example:
cl430 --issue_remarks main.c --run_linker --rom_model

<Linking>

remark: linking in "libc.a"

remark: linking in "rts430.lib" in place of "libc.a"

4.4.2 Run-Time Initialization

You must link all C/C++ programs with code to initialize and execute the program called a bootstrap
routine. The bootstrap routine is responsible for the following tasks:
• Set up the stack
• Process the .cinit run-time initialization table to autoinitialize global variables (when using the
--rom_model option)
• Call all global constructors (.pinit) for C++
• Call main.com
• Call exit when main returns
A sample bootstrap routine is _c_int00, provided in boot.obj in the run-time-support libraries. The entry
point is usually set to the starting address of the bootstrap routine.

Note: The _c_int00 Symbol

If you use the --ram_model or --rom_model link option, _c_int00 is automatically defined as
the entry point for the program.

4.4.3 Initialization by the Interrupt Vector

If your program begins running from load time, you must set up the reset vector to branch to _c_int00.
This causes boot.obj to be loaded from the library and your program is initialized correctly. The boot.obj
places the address of _c_int00 into a section named .reset. This section can then be allocated at the reset
vector location using the linker.

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4.4.4 Global Object Constructors

Global C++ variables that have constructors and destructors require their constructors to be called during
program initialization and their destructors to be called during program termination. The C++ compiler
produces a table of constructors to be called at startup.
The constructors are invoked in the order that they occur in the table.
Global constructors are called after initialization of other global variables and before main( ) is called.
Global destructors are invoked during exit( ), similar to functions registered through atexit( ).
Section 6.9.5 discusses the format of the global constructor table.

4.4.5 Specifying the Type of Global Variable Initialization

The C/C++ compiler produces data for initializing global variables. Section 6.9.5 discusses the format of
these initialization tables. The initialization tables are used in one of the following ways:
• Global variables are initialized at run time. Use the --rom_model linker option (see Section 6.9.6).
• Global variables are initialized at load time. Use the --ram_model linker option (see Section 6.9.7).
When you link a C/C++ program, you must use either the --rom_model or --ram_model option. These
options tell the linker to select initialization at run time or load time.
When you compile and link programs, the --rom_model option is the default. If used, the --rom_model
option must follow the --run_linker option (see Section 4.1). The following list outlines the linking
conventions used with --rom_model or --ram_model:
• The symbol _c_int00 is defined as the program entry point; it identifies the beginning of the C/C++ boot
routine in boot.obj. When you use --rom_model or --ram_model, _c_int00 is automatically referenced,
ensuring that boot.obj is automatically linked in from the run-time-support library.
• The initialization output section is padded with a termination record so that the loader (load-time
initialization) or the boot routine (run-time initialization) knows when to stop reading the initialization
tables.
• The global constructor output section is padded with a termination record.
• When initializing at load time (the --ram_model option), the following occur:
– The linker sets the initialization table symbol to -1. This indicates that the initialization tables are not
in memory, so no initialization is performed at run time.
– The STYP_COPY flag is set in the initialization table section header. STYP_COPY is the special
attribute that tells the loader to perform autoinitialization directly and not to load the initialization
table into memory. The linker does not allocate space in memory for the initialization table.
• When autoinitializing at run time (--rom_model option), the linker defines the initialization table symbol
as the starting address of the initialization table. The boot routine uses this symbol as the starting point
for autoinitialization.
• The linker defines the starting address of the global constructor table. The boot routine uses this
symbol as the beginning of the table of global constructors.

Note: Boot Loader

A loader is not included as part of the C/C++ compiler tools.

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4.4.6 Specifying Where to Allocate Sections in Memory
The compiler produces relocatable blocks of code and data. These blocks, called sections, are allocated
in memory in a variety of ways to conform to a variety of system configurations.
The compiler creates two basic kinds of sections: initialized and uninitialized. Table 4-1 summarizes the
initialized sections. Table 4-2 summarizes the uninitialized sections.

Table 4-1. Initialized Sections Created by the Compiler

Name Contents
.cinit Tables for explicitly initialized global and static variables
.const Global and static const variables that are explicitly initialized and contain string
literals
.pinit Table of constructors to be called at startup
.text Executable code and constants

Table 4-2. Uninitialized Sections Created by the Compiler

Name Contents
.args Linker-created section used to pass arguments from the command line of the
loader to the program
.bss Global and static variables
.stack Stack
.sysmem Memory for malloc functions (heap)

When you link your program, you must specify where to allocate the sections in memory. In general,
initialized sections are linked into ROM or RAM; uninitialized sections are linked into RAM. With the
exception of .text, the initialized and uninitialized sections created by the compiler cannot be allocated into
internal program memory. See Section 6.1.3 for a complete description of how the compiler uses these
sections.
The linker provides MEMORY and SECTIONS directives for allocating sections. For more information
about allocating sections into memory, see the MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.

4.4.7 A Sample Linker Command File

Example 4-1 shows a typical linker command file that links a 32-bit C program. The command file in this
example is named lnk32.cmd and lists several link options:
––rom_model Tells the linker to use autoinitialization at run
time
--stack_size Tells the linker to set the C stack size at 0x140
bytes
--heap_size Tells the linker to set the heap size to 0x120
bytes
--library Tells the linker to use an archive library file,
rts430.lib

To link the program, enter:

cl430 --run_linker object_file(s) --output_file=file --map_file=file lnk.cmd

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Example 4-1. Linker Command File

--rom_model
--stack_size=0x0140
--heap_size=0x120
--library=rts430.lib

/*****************************************************************************/
/* SPECIFY THE SYSTEM MEMORY MAP */
/*****************************************************************************/

MEMORY
{
SFR(R) : origin = 0x0000, length = 0x0010
PERIPHERALS_8BIT : origin = 0x0010, length = 0x00F0
PERIPHERALS_16BIT: origin = 0x0100, length = 0x0100
RAM(RW) : origin = 0x0200, length = 0x0800
INFOA : origin = 0x1080, length = 0x0080
INFOB : origin = 0x1000, length = 0x0080
FLASH : origin = 0x1100, length = 0xEEE0
VECTORS(R) : origin = 0xFFE0, length = 0x001E
RESET : origin = 0xFFFE, length = 0x0002
}
/****************************************************************************/
/* SPECIFY THE SECTIONS ALLOCATION INTO MEMORY */
/****************************************************************************/

SECTIONS
{
.bss : {} > RAM /* GLOBAL & STATIC VARS */
.sysmem : {} > RAM /* DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION AREA */
.stack : {} > RAM /* SOFTWARE SYSTEM STACK */
.text : {} > FLASH /* CODE */
.cinit : {} > FLASH /* INITIALIZATION TABLES */
.const : {} > FLASH /* CONSTANT DATA */
.cio : {} > RAM /* C I/O BUFFER */
.pinit : {} > RAM /* C++ CONSTRUCTOR TABLES */
.intvecs : {} > VECTORS /* MSP430 INTERRUPT VECTORS */
.reset : {} > RESET /* MSP430 RESET VECTOR */

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 Chapter 5
SLAU132B – March 2008

MSP430 C/C++ Language Implementation

The C/C++ compiler supports the C/C++ language standard that was developed by a committee of the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI/ISO) to standardize the C programming language.
The C++ language supported by the MSP430 is defined by the ANSI/ISO/IEC 14882-1998 standard with
certain exceptions.

Topic .................................................................................................. Page

5.1 Characteristics of MSP430 C ...................................................... 66

5.2 Characteristics of MSP430 C++ ................................................... 66
5.3 Data Types ............................................................................... 67
5.4 Keywords ................................................................................. 68
5.5 C++ Exception Handling ............................................................ 70
5.6 Register Variables and Parameters ............................................. 70
5.7 The asm Statement ................................................................... 71
5.8 Pragma Directives ..................................................................... 72
5.9 The _Pragma Operator ............................................................... 80
5.10 Generating Linknames ............................................................... 80
5.11 Initializing Static and Global Variables ......................................... 81
5.12 Changing the ANSI/ISO C Language Mode ................................... 82
5.13 GNU C Compiler Extensions....................................................... 84
5.14 Compiler Limits ........................................................................ 85

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5.1 Characteristics of MSP430 C

The compiler supports the C language as defined by ISO 9899, which is equivalent to American National
Standard for Information Systems-Programming Language C X3.159-1989 (C89). The compiler does not
support C99.
Unsupported features of the C library are:
• The run-time library has minimal support for wide and multi-byte characters. The type wchar_t is
implemented as int. The wide character set is equivalent to the set of values of type char. The library
includes the header files <wchar.h> and <wctype.h>, but does not include all the functions specified in
the standard. So-called multi-byte characters are limited to single characters. There are no shift states.
The mapping between multi-byte characters and wide characters is simple equivalence; that is, each
wide character maps to and from exactly a single multi-byte character having the same value.
• The run-time library includes the header file <locale.h>, but with a minimal implementation. The only
supported locale is the C locale. That is, library behavior that is specified to vary by locale is
hard-coded to the behavior of the C locale, and attempting to install a different locale by way of a call
to setlocale() will return NULL.

5.2 Characteristics of MSP430 C++

The MSP430 compiler supports C++ as defined in the ANSI/ISO/IEC 14882:1998 standard, including
these features:
• Complete C++ standard library support, with exceptions noted below.
• Templates
• Exceptions, which are enabled with the --exceptions option; see Section 5.5.
• Run-time type information (RTTI), which can be enabled with the --rtti compiler option.
The exceptions to the standard are as follows:
• The <complex> header and its functions are not included in the library.
• The library supports wide chars, in that template functions and classes that are defined for char are
also available for wide char. For example, wide char stream classes wios, wiostream, wstreambuf and
so on (corresponding to char classes ios, iostream, streambuf) are implemented. However, there is no
low-level file I/O for wide chars. Also, the C library interface to wide char support (through the C++
headers <cwchar> and <cwctype>) is limited as described above in the C library.
• If the definition of an inline function contains a static variable, and it appears in multiple compilation
units (usually because it’s a member function of a class defined in a header file), the compiler
generates multiple copies of the static variable rather than resolving them to a single definition. The
compiler emits a warning (#1369) in such cases.
• The reinterpret_cast type does not allow casting a pointer-to-member of one class to a
pointer-to-member of another class if the classes are unrelated.
• Two-phase name binding in templates, as described in [tesp.res] and [temp.dep] of the standard, is not
implemented.
• Template parameters are not implemented.
• The export keyword for templates is not implemented.
• A typedef of a function type cannot include member function cv-qualifiers.
• A partial specialization of a class member template cannot be added outside of the class definition.

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5.3 Data Types

Table 5-1 lists the size, representation, and range of each scalar data type for the MSP430 compiler.
Many of the range values are available as standard macros in the header file limits.h.

Table 5-1. MSP430 C/C++ Data Types

Range
Type Size Representation Minimum Maximum
char, signed char 8 bits ASCII -128 -127
unsigned char, bool 8 bits ASCII 0 255
short, signed short 16 bits 2s complement -32 768 32 767
unsigned short, wchar_t 16 bits Binary 0 65 535
int, signed int 16 bits 2s complement -32 768 32 767
unsigned int 16 bits Binary 0 65 535
long, signed long 32 bits 2s complement -2 147 483 648 2 147 483 647
unsigned long 32 bits Binary 0 4 294 967 295
enum 16 bits 2s complement -32 768 32 767
float 32 bits IEEE 32-bit 1.175 495e-38 (1) 3.40 282 35e+38
(1)
double 32 bits IEEE 32-bit 1.175 495e-38 3.40 282 35e+38
long double 32 bits IEEE 32-bit 1.175 495e-308 (1) 3.40 282 35e+38
pointers, references, 16 bits Binary 0 0xFFFF
pointer to data members
MSP430X large-data 20 bits Binary 0 0xFFFFF
model pointers,
references, pointer to
data members (2)
MSP430 function pointers 16 bits Binary 0 0xFFFF
MSP430X function 20 bits Binary 0 0xFFFFF
pointers (3)

(1)
Figures are minimum precision.
(2)
MSP430X large-data model is specified by --silicon_version=mspx --large_memory_model
(3)
MSP430X devices are specified by --silicon_version=mspx

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5.4 Keywords
The MSP430 C/C++ compiler supports the standard const, register, and volatile keywords. In addition, the
MSP430 C/C++ compiler extends the C/C++ language through the support of the interrupt keyword.

5.4.1 The const Keyword

The C/C++ compiler supports the ANSI/ISO standard keyword const. This keyword gives you greater
optimization and control over allocation of storage for certain data objects. You can apply the const
qualifier to the definition of any variable or array to ensure that its value is not altered.
If you define an object as const, the .const section allocates storage for the object. The const data storage
allocation rule has two exceptions:
• If the keyword volatile is also specified in the definition of an object (for example, volatile const int x).
Volatile keywords are assumed to be allocated to RAM. (The program does not modify a const volatile
object, but something external to the program might.)
• If the object has automatic storage (function scope).
In both cases, the storage for the object is the same as if the const keyword were not used.
The placement of the const keyword within a definition is important. For example, the first statement below
defines a constant pointer p to a variable int. The second statement defines a variable pointer q to a
constant int:
int * const p = &x;
const int * q = &x;

Using the const keyword, you can define large constant tables and allocate them into system ROM. For
example, to allocate a ROM table, you could use the following definition:
const int digits[] = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9};

5.4.2 The interrupt Keyword

The compiler extends the C/C++ language by adding the interrupt keyword, which specifies that a function
is treated as an interrupt function.
Functions that handle interrupts follow special register-saving rules and a special return sequence. When
C/C++ code is interrupted, the interrupt routine must preserve the contents of all machine registers that
are used by the routine or by any function called by the routine. When you use the interrupt keyword with
the definition of the function, the compiler generates register saves based on the rules for interrupt
functions and the special return sequence for interrupts.
You can only use the interrupt keyword with a function that is defined to return void and that has no
parameters. The body of the interrupt function can have local variables and is free to use the stack or
global variables. For example:
interrupt void int_handler()
{
unsigned int flags;
...
}

The name c_int00 is the C/C++ entry point. This name is reserved for the system reset interrupt. This
special interrupt routine initializes the system and calls the function main. Because it has no caller, c_int00
does not save any registers.
Use the alternate keyword, __interrupt, if you are writing code for strict ANSI/ISO mode (using the
--strict_ansi compiler option).

HWI Objects and the interrupt Keyword

Note: The interrupt keyword must not be used when BIOS HWI objects are used in conjunction
with C functions. The HWI_enter/HWI_exit macros and the HWI dispatcher contain this
functionality, and the use of the C modifier can cause catastrophic results.

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5.4.3 The restrict Keyword

To help the compiler determine memory dependencies, you can qualify a pointer, reference, or array with
the restrict keyword. The restrict keyword is a type qualifier that can be applied to pointers, references,
and arrays. Its use represents a guarantee by you, the programmer, that within the scope of the pointer
declaration the object pointed to can be accessed only by that pointer. Any violation of this guarantee
renders the program undefined. This practice helps the compiler optimize certain sections of code
because aliasing information can be more easily determined.
In Example 5-1, the restrict keyword is used to tell the compiler that the function func1 is never called with
the pointers a and b pointing to objects that overlap in memory. You are promising that accesses through
a and b will never conflict; therefore, a write through one pointer cannot affect a read from any other
pointers. The precise semantics of the restrict keyword are described in the 1999 version of the ANSI/ISO
C Standard.
Example 5-1. Use of the restrict Type Qualifier With Pointers

void func1(int * restrict a, int * restrict b)

{
/* func1's code here */
}

Example 5-2 illustrates using the restrict keyword when passing arrays to a function. Here, the arrays c
and d should not overlap, nor should c and d point to the same array.
Example 5-2. Use of the restrict Type Qualifier With Arrays

void func2(int c[restrict], int d[restrict])

{
int i;

for(i = 0; i < 64; i++)

{
c[i] += d[i];
d[i] += 1;
}
}

5.4.4 The volatile Keyword

The compiler analyzes data flow to avoid memory accesses whenever possible. If you have code that
depends on memory accesses exactly as written in the C/C++ code, you must use the volatile keyword to
identify these accesses. A variable qualified with a volatile keyword is allocated to an uninitialized section
(as opposed to a register). The compiler does not optimize out any references to volatile variables.
In the following example, the loop waits for a location to be read as 0xFF:
unsigned int *ctrl;
while (*ctrl !=0xFF);

In this example, *ctrl is a loop-invariant expression, so the loop is optimized down to a single-memory
read. To correct this, define *ctrl as:
volatile unsigned int *ctrl;

Here the *ctrl pointer is intended to reference a hardware location, such as an interrupt flag.

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5.5 C++ Exception Handling

The compiler supports all the C++ exception handling features as defined by the ANSI/ISO 14882 C++
Standard. More details are discussed in The C++ Programming Language, Third Edition by Bjarne
Stroustrup.
The compiler --exceptions option enables exception handling. The compiler’s default is no exception
handling support.
For exceptions to work correctly, all C++ files in the application must be compiled with the --exceptions
option, regardless of whether exceptions occur in a particular file. Mixing exception-enabled object files
and libraries with object files and libraries that do not have exceptions enabled can lead to undefined
behavior. Also, when using --exceptions, you need to link with run-time-support libraries whose name
contains _eh. These libraries contain functions that implement exception handling.
Using --exceptions causes code size to increase.
See Section 7.1 for details on the run-time libraries.

5.6 Register Variables and Parameters

The C/C++ compiler treats register variables (variables defined with the register keyword) differently,
depending on whether you use the --opt_level (-O) option.
• Compiling with optimization
The compiler ignores any register definitions and allocates registers to variables and temporary values
by using an algorithm that makes the most efficient use of registers.
• Compiling without optimization
If you use the register keyword, you can suggest variables as candidates for allocation into registers.
The compiler uses the same set of registers for allocating temporary expression results as it uses for
allocating register variables.
The compiler attempts to honor all register definitions. If the compiler runs out of appropriate registers, it
frees a register by moving its contents to memory. If you define too many objects as register variables,
you limit the number of registers the compiler has for temporary expression results. This limit causes
excessive movement of register contents to memory.
Any object with a scalar type (integral, floating point, or pointer) can be defined as a register variable. The
register designator is ignored for objects of other types, such as arrays.
The register storage class is meaningful for parameters as well as local variables. Normally, in a function,
some of the parameters are copied to a location on the stack where they are referenced during the
function body. The compiler copies a register parameter to a register instead of the stack, which speeds
access to the parameter within the function.
For more information about register conventions, see Section 6.3.

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5.7 The asm Statement

The C/C++ compiler can embed assembly language instructions or directives directly into the assembly
language output of the compiler. This capability is an extension to the C/C++ language—the asm
statement. The asm (or __asm) statement provides access to hardware features that C/C++ cannot
provide. The asm statement is syntactically like a call to a function named asm, with one string constant
argument:
asm(" assembler text ");

The compiler copies the argument string directly into your output file. The assembler text must be
enclosed in double quotes. All the usual character string escape codes retain their definitions. For
example, you can insert a .byte directive that contains quotes as follows:
asm("STR: .byte \"abc\"");

The inserted code must be a legal assembly language statement. Like all assembly language statements,
the line of code inside the quotes must begin with a label, a blank, a tab, or a comment (asterisk or
semicolon). The compiler performs no checking on the string; if there is an error, the assembler detects it.
For more information about the assembly language statements, see the MSP430 Assembly Language
Tools User's Guide.
The asm statements do not follow the syntactic restrictions of normal C/C++ statements. Each can appear
as a statement or a declaration, even outside of blocks. This is useful for inserting directives at the very
beginning of a compiled module.
Use the alternate statement __asm("assembler text") if you are writing code for strict ANSI/ISO C mode
(using the --strict_ansi option).

Note: Avoid Disrupting the C/C++ Environment With asm Statements

Be careful not to disrupt the C/C++ environment with asm statements. The compiler does not
check the inserted instructions. Inserting jumps and labels into C/C++ code can cause
unpredictable results in variables manipulated in or around the inserted code. Directives that
change sections or otherwise affect the assembly environment can also be troublesome.
Be especially careful when you use optimization with asm statements. Although the compiler
cannot remove asm statements, it can significantly rearrange the code order near them and
cause undesired results.

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5.8 Pragma Directives

Pragma directives tell the compiler how to treat a certain function, object, or section of code. The MSP430
C/C++ compiler supports the following pragmas:
• BIS_IE1_INTERRUPT
• CODE_SECTION
• DATA_ALIGN
• DATA_SECTION
• FUNC_CANNOT_INLINE
• FUNC_EXT_CALLED
• FUNC_IS_PURE
• FUNC_NEVER_RETURNS
• FUNC_NO_GLOBAL_ASG
• FUNC_NO_IND_ASG
• INTERRUPT
• NO_HOOKS
For the pragmas that apply to functions or symbols, the syntax for the pragmas differs between C and
C++. In C, you must supply the name of the object or function to which you are applying the pragma as
the first argument. In C++, the name is omitted; the pragma applies to the declaration of the object or
function that follows it.

5.8.1 The BIS_IE1_INTERRUPT

The BIS_IE1_INTERRUPT pragma treats the named function as an interrupt routine. Additionally, the
compiler generates a BIS operation on the IE1 special function register upon function exit. The mask
value, which must be an 8-bit constant literal, is logically OR’ed with the IE1 SFR, just before the RETI
instruction. The compiler assumes the IE1 SFR is mapped to address 0x0000.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma BIS_IE1_INTERRUPT ( func , mask );

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma BIS_IE1_INTERRUPT ( mask );

In C, the argument func is the name of the function that is an interrupt. In C++, the pragma applies to the
next function declared.

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5.8.2 The CODE_SECTION Pragma

The CODE_SECTION pragma allocates space for the symbol in a section named section name.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma CODE_SECTION ( symbol , " section name ");

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma CODE_SECTION (" section name ");

The CODE_SECTION pragma is useful if you have code objects that you want to link into an area
separate from the .text section.
The following examples demonstrate the use of the CODE_SECTION pragma.

Example 5-3. Using the CODE_SECTION Pragma C Source File

#pragma CODE_SECTION(funcA,"codeA")
int funcA(int a)

{
int i;
return (i = a);
}

Example 5-4. Generated Assembly Code From Example 5-3

.sect "codeA"
.align 2
.clink
.global funcA
;*****************************************************************************
;* FUNCTION NAME: funcA *
;* *
;* Regs Modified : SP,SR,r12 *
;* Regs Used : SP,SR,r12 *
;* Local Frame Size : 0 Args + 4 Auto + 0 Save = 4 byte *
;*****************************************************************************
funcA:
;* --------------------------------------------------------------------------*
SUB.W #4,SP
MOV.W r12,0(SP) ; |4|
MOV.W 0(SP),2(SP) ; |6|
MOV.W 2(SP),r12 ; |6|
ADD.W #4,SP
RET

Example 5-5. Using the CODE_SECTION Pragma C++ Source File

#pragma CODE_SECTION("codeB")
int i_arg(int x) { return 1; }
int f_arg(float x) { return 2; }

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Example 5-6. Generated Assembly Code From Example 5-5

.sect "codeB"
.align 2
.clink
.global i_arg__Fi
;*****************************************************************************
;* FUNCTION NAME: i_arg(int) *
;* *
;* Regs Modified : SP,SR,r12 *
;* Regs Used : SP,SR,r12 *
;* Local Frame Size : 0 Args + 2 Auto + 0 Save = 2 byte *
;*****************************************************************************
i_arg__Fi:
;* --------------------------------------------------------------------------*
SUB.W #2,SP
MOV.W r12,0(SP) ; |2|
MOV.W #1,r12 ; |2|
ADD.W #2,SP
RET
.sect ".text"
.align 2
.clink
.global f_arg__Ff

;*****************************************************************************
;* FUNCTION NAME: f_arg(float) *
;* *
;* Regs Modified : SP,SR,r12 *
;* Regs Used : SP,SR,r12,r13 *
;* Local Frame Size : 0 Args + 4 Auto + 0 Save = 4 byte *
;*****************************************************************************
f_arg__Ff:
;* --------------------------------------------------------------------------*
SUB.W #4,SP
MOV.W r12,0(SP) ; |3|
MOV.W r13,2(SP) ; |3|
MOV.W #2,r12 ; |3|
ADD.W #4,SP
RET

5.8.3 The DATA_ALIGN Pragma

The DATA_ALIGN pragma aligns the symbol to an alignment boundary. The alignment boundary is the
maximum of the symbol's default alignment value or the value of the constant in bytes. The constant must
be a power of 2.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma DATA_ALIGN ( symbol , constant );

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma DATA_ALIGN ( constant );

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5.8.4 The DATA_SECTION Pragma

The DATA_SECTION pragma allocates space for the symbol in a section named section name.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma DATA_SECTION ( symbol , " section name ");

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma DATA_SECTION (" section name ");

The DATA_SECTION pragma is useful if you have data objects that you want to link into an area separate
from the .bss section. If you allocate a global variable using a DATA_SECTION pragma and you want to
reference the variable in C code, you must declare the variable as extern far.
Example 5-7 through Example 5-9 demonstrate the use of the DATA_SECTION pragma.
Example 5-7. Using the DATA_SECTION Pragma C Source File

#pragma DATA_SECTION(bufferB, "my_sect")

char bufferA[512];
char bufferB[512];

Example 5-8. Using the DATA_SECTION Pragma C++ Source File

char bufferA[512];
#pragma DATA_SECTION("my_sect")
char bufferB[512];

Example 5-9. Using the DATA_SECTION Pragma Assembly Source File

.global bufferA
.bss bufferA,512,2
.global bufferB
bufferB: .usect "my_sect",512,2

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5.8.5 The FUNC_CANNOT_INLINE Pragma

The FUNC_CANNOT_INLINE pragma instructs the compiler that the named function cannot be expanded
inline. Any function named with this pragma overrides any inlining you designate in any other way, such as
using the inline keyword. Automatic inlining is also overridden with this pragma; see Section 2.11.
The pragma must appear before any declaration or reference to the function that you want to keep. In C,
the argument func is the name of the function that cannot be inlined. In C++, the pragma applies to the
next function declared.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma FUNC_CANNOT_INLINE ( func );

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma FUNC_CANNOT_INLINE;

5.8.6 The FUNC_EXT_CALLED Pragma

When you use the --program_level_compile option, the compiler uses program-level optimization. When
you use this type of optimization, the compiler removes any function that is not called, directly or indirectly,
by main. You might have C/C++ functions that are called by hand-coded assembly instead of main.
The FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma specifies to the optimizer to keep these C functions or any other
functions that these C/C++ functions call. These functions act as entry points into C/C++.
The pragma must appear before any declaration or reference to the function that you want to keep. In C,
the argument func is the name of the function that you do not want removed. In C++, the pragma applies
to the next function declared.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma FUNC_EXT_CALLED ( func );

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma FUNC_EXT_CALLED;

Except for _c_int00, which is the name reserved for the system reset interrupt for C/C++programs, the
name of the interrupt (the func argument) does not need to conform to a naming convention.
When you use program-level optimization, you may need to use the FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma with
certain options. See Section 3.3.2.

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5.8.7 The FUNC_IS_PURE Pragma

The FUNC_IS_PURE pragma specifies to the compiler that the named function has no side effects. This
allows the compiler to do the following:
• Delete the call to the function if the function's value is not needed
• Delete duplicate functions
The pragma must appear before any declaration or reference to the function. In C, the argument func is
the name of a function. In C++, the pragma applies to the next function declared.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma FUNC_IS_PURE ( func );

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma FUNC_IS_PURE;

5.8.8 The FUNC_NEVER_RETURNS Pragma

The FUNC_NEVER_RETURNS pragma specifies to the compiler that the function never returns to its
caller.
The pragma must appear before any declaration or reference to the function that you want to keep. In C,
the argument func is the name of the function that does not return. In C++, the pragma applies to the next
function declared.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma FUNC_NEVER_RETURNS ( func );

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma FUNC_NEVER_RETURNS;

5.8.9 The FUNC_NO_GLOBAL_ASG Pragma

The FUNC_NO_GLOBAL_ASG pragma specifies to the compiler that the function makes no assignments
to named global variables and contains no asm statements.
The pragma must appear before any declaration or reference to the function that you want to keep. In C,
the argument func is the name of the function that makes no assignments. In C++, the pragma applies to
the next function declared.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma FUNC_NO_GLOBAL_ASG ( func );

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma FUNC_NO_GLOBAL_ASG;

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5.8.10 The FUNC_NO_IND_ASG Pragma

The FUNC_NO_IND_ASG pragma specifies to the compiler that the function makes no assignments
through pointers and contains no asm statements.
The pragma must appear before any declaration or reference to the function that you want to keep. In C,
the argument func is the name of the function that makes no assignments. In C++, the pragma applies to
the next function declared.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma FUNC_NO_IND_ASG ( func );

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma FUNC_NO_IND_ASG;

5.8.11 The INTERRUPT Pragma

The INTERRUPT pragma enables you to handle interrupts directly with C code. In C, the argument func is
the name of a function. In C++, the pragma applies to the next function declared.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma INTERRUPT ( func );

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma INTERRUPT;

The code for the function will return via the IRP (interrupt return pointer).
Except for _c_int00, which is the name reserved for the system reset interrupt for C programs, the name
of the interrupt (the func argument) does not need to conform to a naming convention.

HWI Objects and the INTERRUPT Pragma

Note: The INTERRUPT pragma must not be used when BIOS HWI objects are used in conjunction
with C functions. The HWI_enter/HWI_exit macros and the HWI dispatcher contain this
functionality, and the use of the C modifier can cause catastrophic results.

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5.8.12 The NO_HOOKS Pragma

The NO_HOOKS pragma prevents entry and exit hook calls from being generated for a function.
The syntax of the pragma in C is:
#pragma NO_HOOKS( func );

The syntax of the pragma in C++ is:

#pragma NO_HOOKS;

See Section 2.13 for details on entry and exit hooks.

5.8.13 The vector Pragma

The vector pragma indicates that the function that follows is to be used as the interrupt vector routine for
the listed vectors. The syntax of the pragma is:
#pragma vector =vec1[, vec2, vec3, ...]

The vector pragma requires linker command file support. The command file must specify output sections
for each interrupt vector of the form .intxx where xx is the number of the interrupt vector. The output
sections mut map to the physical memory location of the appropriate interrupt vector. The standard linker
command files are set up to handle the vector pragma.
The __even_in_range intrinsic provides a hint to the compiler when generating switch statements for
interrupt vector routines. The intrinsic is usually used as follows:
switch (__even_in_range(x, NUM))
{
...
}

The __even_in_range intrinsic returns the value x to control the switch statement, but also tells the
compiler that x must be an even value in the range of 0 to NUM, inclusive.

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5.9 The _Pragma Operator

The MSP430 C/C++ compiler supports the C99 preprocessor _Pragma() operator. This preprocessor
operator is similar to #pragma directives. However, _Pragma can be used in preprocessing macros
(#defines).
The syntax of the operator is:
_Pragma (" string_literal ");

The argument string_literal is interpreted in the same way the tokens following a #pragma directive are
processed. The string_literal must be enclosed in quotes. A quotation mark that is part of the string_literal
must be preceded by a backward slash.
You can use the _Pragma operator to express #pragma directives in macros. For example, the
DATA_SECTION syntax:
#pragma DATA_SECTION( func ," section ");
Is represented by the _Pragma() operator syntax:
_Pragma ("DATA_SECTION( func ,\" section \")")
The following code illustrates using _Pragma to specify the DATA_SECTION pragma in a macro:
...

#define EMIT_PRAGMA(x) _Pragma(#x)

#define COLLECT_DATA(var) EMIT_PRAGMA(DATA_SECTION(var,"mysection"))

COLLECT_DATA(x)
int x;

...

The EMIT_PRAGMA macro is needed to properly expand the quotes that are required to surround the
section argument to the DATA_SECTION pragma.̀

5.10 Generating Linknames

The compiler transforms the names of externally visible identifiers when creating their linknames. The
algorithm used depends on the scope within which the identifier is declared. For objects and C functions,
an underscore (_) is prefixed to the identifier name. C++ functions are prefixed with an underscore also,
but the function name is modified further.
Mangling is the process of embedding a function's signature (the number and types of its parameters) into
its name. Mangling occurs only in C++ code. The mangling algorithm used closely follows that described
in The Annotated Reference Manual (ARM). Mangling allows function overloading, operator overloading,
and type-safe linking.
For example, the general form of a C++ linkname for a function named func is:
_func__F parmcodes
Where parmcodes is a sequence of letters that encodes the parameter types of func.
For this simple C++ source file:
int foo(int i){ } //global C++ function

This is the resulting assembly code:

_foo__Fi

The linkname of foo is _foo__Fi, indicating that foo is a function that takes a single argument of type int.
To aid inspection and debugging, a name demangling utility is provided that demangles names into those
found in the original C++ source. See Chapter 8 for more information.

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5.11 Initializing Static and Global Variables

The ANSI/ISO C standard specifies that global (extern) and static variables without explicit initializations
must be initialized to 0 before the program begins running. This task is typically done when the program is
loaded. Because the loading process is heavily dependent on the specific environment of the target
application system, the compiler itself makes no provision for preinitializing variables at run time. It is up to
your application to fulfill this requirement.

5.11.1 Initializing Static and Global Variables With the Linker

If your loader does not preinitialize variables, you can use the linker to preinitialize the variables to 0 in the
object file. For example, in the linker command file, use a fill value of 0 in the .bss section:
SECTIONS
{
...

.bss: {} = 0x00;
...
}

Because the linker writes a complete load image of the zeroed .bss section into the output COFF file, this
method can have the unwanted effect of significantly increasing the size of the output file (but not the
program).
If you burn your application into ROM, you should explicitly initialize variables that require initialization.
The preceding method initializes .bss to 0 only at load time, not at system reset or power up. To make
these variables 0 at run time, explicitly define them in your code.
For more information about linker command files and the SECTIONS directive, see the linker description
information in the MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.

5.11.2 Initializing Static and Global Variables With the const Type Qualifier
Static and global variables of type const without explicit initializations are similar to other static and global
variables because they might not be preinitialized to 0 (for the same reasons discussed in Section 5.11).
For example:
const int zero; /* may not be initialized to 0 */

However, the initialization of const global and static variables is different because these variables are
declared and initialized in a section called .const. For example:
const int zero = 0 /* guaranteed to be 0 */

This corresponds to an entry in the .const section:

.sect .const
_zero
.word 0

This feature is particularly useful for declaring a large table of constants, because neither time nor space
is wasted at system startup to initialize the table. Additionally, the linker can be used to place the .const
section in ROM.
You can use the DATA_SECTION pragma to put the variable in a section other than .const. For example,
the following C code:
#pragma DATA_SECTION (var, ".mysect");
const int zero=0;

is compiled into this assembly code:

.sect .mysect
_zero
.word 0

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5.12 Changing the ANSI/ISO C Language Mode

The --kr_compatible, --relaxed_ansi, and --strict_ansi options let you specify how the C/C++ compiler
interprets your source code. You can compile your source code in the following modes:
• Normal ANSI/ISO mode
• K&R C mode
• Relaxed ANSI/ISO mode
• Strict ANSI/ISO mode
The default is normal ANSI/ISO mode. Under normal ANSI/ISO mode, most ANSI/ISO violations are
emitted as errors. Strict ANSI/ISO violations (those idioms and allowances commonly accepted by C/C++
compilers, although violations with a strict interpretation of ANSI/ISO), however, are emitted as warnings.
Language extensions, even those that conflict with ANSI/ISO C, are enabled.
K&R C mode does not apply to C++ code.

5.12.1 Compatibility With K&R C (--kr_compatible Option)

The ANSI/ISO C/C++ language is a superset of the de facto C standard defined in Kernighan and
Ritchie's The C Programming Language. Most programs written for other non-ANSI/ISO compilers
correctly compile and run without modification.
There are subtle changes, however, in the language that can affect existing code. Appendix C in The C
Programming Language (second edition, referred to in this manual as K&R) summarizes the differences
between ANSI/ISO C and the first edition's C standard (the first edition is referred to in this manual as
K&R C).
To simplify the process of compiling existing C programs with the ANSI/ISO C/C++ compiler, the compiler
has a K&R option (--kr_compatible) that modifies some semantic rules of the language for compatibility
with older code. In general, the --kr_compatible option relaxes requirements that are stricter for ANSI/ISO
C than for K&R C. The --kr_compatible option does not disable any new features of the language such as
function prototypes, enumerations, initializations, or preprocessor constructs. Instead, --kr_compatible
simply liberalizes the ANSI/ISO rules without revoking any of the features.
The specific differences between the ANSI/ISO version of C and the K&R version of C are as follows:
• The integral promotion rules have changed regarding promoting an unsigned type to a wider signed
type. Under K&R C, the result type was an unsigned version of the wider type; under ANSI/ISO, the
result type is a signed version of the wider type. This affects operations that perform differently when
applied to signed or unsigned operands; namely, comparisons, division (and mod), and right shift:
unsigned short u;
int i;
if (u < i) /* SIGNED comparison, unless --kr_compatible used */
• ANSI/ISO prohibits combining two pointers to different types in an operation. In most K&R compilers,
this situation produces only a warning. Such cases are still diagnosed when --kr_compatible is used,
but with less severity:
int *p;
char *q = p; /* error without --kr_compatible, warning with --kr_compatible */
• External declarations with no type or storage class (only an identifier) are illegal in ANSI/ISO but legal
in K&R:
a; /* illegal unless --kr_compatible used */
• ANSI/ISO interprets file scope definitions that have no initializers as tentative definitions. In a single
module, multiple definitions of this form are fused together into a single definition. Under K&R, each
definition is treated as a separate definition, resulting in multiple definitions of the same object and
usually an error. For example:
int a;
int a; /* illegal if --kr_compatible used, OK if not */
Under ANSI/ISO, the result of these two definitions is a single definition for the object a. For most K&R
compilers, this sequence is illegal, because int a is defined twice.
• ANSI/ISO prohibits, but K&R allows objects with external linkage to be redeclared as static:
extern int a;
static int a; /* illegal unless --kr_compatible used */

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• Unrecognized escape sequences in string and character constants are explicitly illegal under ANSI/ISO
but ignored under K&R:
char c = '\q'; /* same as 'q' if --kr_compatible used, error if not */
• ANSI/ISO specifies that bit fields must be of type int or unsigned. With --kr_compatible, bit fields can
be legally defined with any integral type. For example:
struct s
{
short f : 2; /* illegal unless --kr_compatible used */
};
• K&R syntax allows a trailing comma in enumerator lists:
enum { a, b, c, }; /* illegal unless --kr_compatible used */
• K&R syntax allows trailing tokens on preprocessor directives:
#endif NAME /* illegal unless --kr_compatible used */

5.12.2 Enabling Strict ANSI/ISO Mode and Relaxed ANSI/ISO Mode (--strict_ansi and
--relaxed_ansi Options)
Use the --strict_ansi option when you want to compile under strict ANSI/ISO mode. In this mode, error
messages are provided when non-ANSI/ISO features are used, and language extensions that could
invalidate a strictly conforming program are disabled. Examples of such extensions are the inline and asm
keywords.
Use the --relaxed_ansi option when you want the compiler to ignore strict ANSI/ISO violations rather than
emit a warning (as occurs in normal ANSI/ISO mode) or an error message (as occurs in strict ANSI/ISO
mode). In relaxed ANSI/ISO mode, the compiler accepts extensions to the ANSI/ISO C standard, even
when they conflict with ANSI/ISO C.

5.12.3 Enabling Embedded C++ Mode (--embedded_cpp Option)

The compiler supports the compilation of embedded C++. In this mode, some features of C++ are
removed that are of less value or too expensive to support in an embedded system. When compiling for
embedded C++, the compiler generates diagnostics for the use of omitted features.
Embedded C++ is enabled by compiling with the --embedded_cpp option.
Embedded C++ omits these C++ features:
• Templates
• Exception handling
• Run-time type information
• The new cast syntax
• The keyword mutable
• Multiple inheritance
• Virtual inheritance
Under the standard definition of embedded C++, namespaces and using-declarations are not supported.
The MSP430 compiler nevertheless allows these features under embedded C++ because the C++
run-time-support library makes use of them. Furthermore, these features impose no run-time penalty.

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5.13 GNU C Compiler Extensions

The GNU compiler, GCC, provides a number of language features not found in the ANSI standard C. The
definition and official examples of these extensions can be found at
http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-3.4.4/gcc/CExtensions. html#C-Extensions. To enable GNU extension
support, use the --gcc compiler option.
The extensions that the TI C compiler supports are listed in Table 5-2.

Table 5-2. GCC Extensions Supported

Extensions Descriptions
Statement expressions Putting statements and declarations inside expressions (useful for creating smart 'safe' macros)
Local labels Labels local to a statement expression
Naming types Giving a name to the type of an expression
typeof operator typeof referring to the type of an expression
Generalized lvalues Using question mark (?) and comma (,) and casts in lvalues
Conditionals Omitting the middle operand of a ? expression
long long Double long word integers and long long integers
Hex floats Hexadecimal floating-point constants
Zero length Zero-length arrays
Macro varargs Macros with a variable number of arguments
Subscripting Any array can be subscripted, even if it is not an lvalue.
Pointer arithmetic Arithmetic on void pointers and function pointers
Initializers Nonconstant initializers
Cast constructors Constructor expressions give structures, unions, or arrays as values
Labeled elements Labeling elements of initializers
Cast to union Casting to union type from any member of the union
Case ranges 'Case 1 ... 9' and such
Function attributes Declaring that functions have no side effects, or that they can never return
Function prototypes Prototype declarations and old-style definitions
C++ comments C++ comments are recognized.
Dollar signs A dollar sign is allowed in identifiers.
Character escapes The character ESC is represented as \'e'
Alignment Inquiring about the alignment of a type or variable
Variable attributes Specifying the attributes of variables
Type attributes Specifying the attributes of types
Inline Defining inline functions (as fast as macros)
Assembly labels Specifying the assembler name to use for a C symbol
Alternate keywords Header files can use __const__, __asm__, etc
Incomplete enums enum foo??
Function names Printable strings which are the name of the current function
Return address Getting the return or frame address of a function
__builtin_return_address
__builtin_frame_address
Other built-ins Other built-in functions include:
__builtin_constant_p
__builtin_expect

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5.13.1 Function Attributes

The GNU extension support provides a number of attributes about functions to help the C compiler’s
optimization. The TI compiler accepts only three of these attributes. All others are simply ignored.
Table 5-3 lists the attributes that are supported.

Table 5-3. TI-Supported GCC Function Attributes

Attributes Description
deprecated This function exists but the compiler generates a warning if it is used.
section Place this function in the specified section.
unused The function is meant to be possibly not used.

5.13.2 Built-In Functions

TI provides support for only the four built-in functions in Table 5-4.

Table 5-4. TI-Supported GCC Built-In Functions

Function Description
__builtin_constant_p(expr) Returns true only if expr is a constant at compile time.
__builtin_expect(expr, CONST) Returns expr. The compiler uses this function to optimize along paths determined by
conditional statements such as if-else. While this function can be used anywhere in your code,
it only conveys useful information to the compiler if it is the entire predicate of an if statement
and CONST is 0 or 1. For example, the following indicates that you expect the predicate "a ==
3" to be true most of the time:
if (__builtin_expect(a == 3, 1))
__builtin_return_address(int level) Returns 0.
__builtin_frame_address(int level) Returns 0.

5.14 Compiler Limits

Due to the variety of host systems supported by the C/C++ compiler and the limitations of some of these
systems, the compiler may not be able to successfully compile source files that are excessively large or
complex. In general, exceeding such a system limit prevents continued compilation, so the compiler aborts
immediately after printing the error message. Simplify the program to avoid exceeding a system limit.
Some systems do not allow filenames longer than 500 characters. Make sure your filenames are shorter
than 500.
The compiler has no arbitrary limits but is limited by the amount of memory available on the host system.
On smaller host systems such as PCs, the optimizer may run out of memory. If this occurs, the optimizer
terminates and the shell continues compiling the file with the code generator. This results in a file compiled
with no optimization. The optimizer compiles one function at a time, so the most likely cause of this is a
large or extremely complex function in your source module. To correct the problem, your options are:
• Don't optimize the module in question.
• Identify the function that caused the problem and break it down into smaller functions.
• Extract the function from the module and place it in a separate module that can be compiled without
optimization so that the remaining functions can be optimized.

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 Chapter 6
SLAU132B – March 2008

Run-Time Environment

This chapter describes the MSP430 C/C++ run-time environment. To ensure successful execution of
C/C++ programs, it is critical that all run-time code maintain this environment. It is also important to follow
the guidelines in this chapter if you write assembly language functions that interface with C/C++ code.

Topic .................................................................................................. Page

6.1 Memory Model .......................................................................... 88

6.2 Object Representation ............................................................... 91
6.3 Register Conventions ................................................................ 94
6.4 Function Structure and Calling Conventions ................................ 95
6.5 Interfacing C and C++ With Assembly Language .......................... 97
6.6 Interrupt Handling ................................................................... 100
6.7 Intrinsic Run-Time-Support Arithmetic and Conversion Routines . 101
6.8 Using Intrinsics to Access Assembly Language Statements......... 102
6.9 System Initialization................................................................. 104
6.10 Compiling for 20-Bit MSP430X Devices ...................................... 108

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6.1 Memory Model

The MSP430 compiler treats memory as a single linear block that is partitioned into subblocks of code and
data. Each subblock of code or data generated by a C program is placed in its own continuous memory
space. The compiler assumes that a full 16-bit address space is available in target memory.

6.1.1 Large-Code Memory Model

When the --silicon_version=mspx option is specified, the compiler supports a large-code memory model
while generating code for MSP430X devices. The size of function pointers is 20-bits. As for MSP430
devices, the size of data pointers is 16-bits. A large-code memory model allows unrestricted placement of
programs in the 20-bit address space with the exception of interrupt service routines (see Section 6.6.5).
However, data is still required to be placed into the low 64K of memory. Accessing data located in
memory above 64K requires interfacing to assembly routines from C.
Modules assembled/compiled for 16-bit MSP430 devices are not compatible with modules that are
assembled/compiled for 20-bit MSPX devices. The linker generates errors if an attempt is made to
combine incompatible object files.

6.1.2 Large-Data Memory Model

When the --silicon_version=mspx and --large_memory_model options are specified, the compiler supports
a large-data memory model for MSP430X devices. The large-data memory model allows data to be
located anywhere in the 20-bit address space of the device. This permits applications with larger amounts
of data to be run on the MSP430X. The option is only available with a MSP430X device.
Large-data model programs frequently require the use of larger instructions, and require more space to
store data pointers. Consequently, large-data model programs are larger than equivalent small-data model
programs and small-data model should still be used when possible.
Object files compiled using the large-data model are not compatible with small model object files.
Therefore, when building large-data model applications all files must be compiled using the large-data
model option. Large-data model run-time-support libraries must be used as well (rts430xl.lib and
rts430xl_eh.lib).
The maximum size of an object (size_t) and the maximum difference between two pointers (ptrdiff_t) are
increased from 16-bits to 32-bits in large-data model. Applications that rely on size_t or ptrdiff_t to be a
specific size may need to be updated.

Note: The Linker Defines the Memory Map

The linker, not the compiler, defines the memory map and allocates code and data into target
memory. The compiler assumes nothing about the types of memory available, about any
locations not available for code or data (holes), or about any locations reserved for I/O or
control purposes. The compiler produces relocatable code that allows the linker to allocate
code and data into the appropriate memory spaces.
For example, you can use the linker to allocate global variables into on-chip RAM or to
allocate executable code into external ROM. You can allocate each block of code or data
individually into memory, but this is not a general practice (an exception to this is
memory-mapped I/O, although you can access physical memory locations with C/C++
pointer types).

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6.1.3 Sections
The compiler produces relocatable blocks of code and data called sections. The sections are allocated
into memory in a variety of ways to conform to a variety of system configurations. For more information
about sections and allocating them, see the introductory object module information in the MSP430
Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.
There are two basic types of sections:
• Initialized sections contain data or executable code. The C/C++ compiler creates the following
initialized sections:
– The .cinit section and the .pinit section contain tables for initializing variables and constants.
– The .const section contains string constants, switch tables, and data defined with the C/C++
qualifier const (provided the constant is not also defined as volatile).
– The .text section contains executable code as well as string literals and compiler-generated
constants.
• Uninitialized sections reserve space in memory (usually RAM). A program can use this space at run
time to create and store variables. The compiler creates the following uninitialized sections:
– The .bss section reserves space for global and static variables. At boot or load time, the C/C++
boot routine or the loader copies data out of the .cinit section (which can be in ROM) and uses it for
initializing variables in the .bss section.
– The .stack section reserves memory for the C/C++ software stack.
– The .sysmem section reserves space for dynamic memory allocation. The reserved space is used
by dynamic memory allocation routines, such as malloc, calloc, realloc, or new. If a C/C++ program
does not use these functions, the compiler does not create the .sysmem section.
The assembler creates the default sections .text, .bss, and .data. The C/C++ compiler, however, does not
use the .data section. You can instruct the compiler to create additional sections by using
DATA_SECTION pragma (see Section 5.8.4).
The linker takes the individual sections from different modules and combines sections that have the same
name. The resulting output sections and the appropriate placement in memory for each section are listed
in Table 6-1. You can place these output sections anywhere in the address space as needed to meet
system requirements.

Table 6-1. Summary of Sections and Memory Placement

Section Type of Memory Section Type of Memory
.bss RAM .pinit ROM or RAM
.cinit ROM or RAM .stack RAM
.const ROM or RAM .sysmem RAM
.data ROM or RAM .text ROM or RAM

You can use the SECTIONS directive in the linker command file to customize the section-allocation
process. For more information about allocating sections into memory, see the linker description chapter in
the MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.

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6.1.4 C/C++ Software Stack

The C/C++ compiler uses a stack to:
• Allocate local variables
• Pass arguments to functions
• Save register contents
The run-time stack grows from the high addresses to the low addresses. The compiler uses the R1
register to manage this stack. R1 is the stack pointer (SP), which points to the next unused location on the
stack.
The linker sets the stack size, creates a global symbol, __STACK_SIZE, and assigns it a value equal to
the stack size in bytes. The default stack size is 128 bytes. You can change the stack size at link time by
using the --stack_size option with the linker command. For more information on the --stack_size option,
see Section 4.2.

Save-On-Entry Registers and C/C+ Stack Size

Note: Since register sizes increase for MSP430X devices (specified with --silicon_version=mspx),
saving and restoring save-on-entry registers requires 32-bits of stack space for each register
saved on the stack. When you are porting code originally written for 16-bit MSP430 devices,
you may need to increase the C stack size from previous values.

At system initialization, SP is set to a designated address for the top of the stack. This address if the first
location past the end of the .stack section. Since the position of the stack depends on where the .stack
section is allocated, the actual address of the stack is determined at link time.
The C/C++ environment automatically decrements SP at the entry to a function to reserve all the space
necessary for the execution of that function. The stack pointer is incremented at the exit of the function to
restore the stack to the state before the function was entered. If you interface assembly language routines
to C/C++ programs, be sure to restore the stack pointer to the same state it was in before the function
was entered.
For more information about using the stack pointer, see Section 6.3; for more information about the stack,
see Section 6.4.

Note: Stack Overflow

The compiler provides no means to check for stack overflow during compilation or at run
time. A stack overflow disrupts the run-time environment, causing your program to fail. Be
sure to allow enough space for the stack to grow.

6.1.5 Dynamic Memory Allocation

The run-time-support library supplied with the MSP430 compiler contains several functions (such as
malloc, calloc, and realloc) that allow you to allocate memory dynamically for variables at run time.
Memory is allocated from a global pool, or heap, that is defined in the .sysmem section. You can set the
size of the .sysmem section by using the --heap_size=size option with the linker command. The linker also
creates a global symbol, __SYSMEM_SIZE, and assigns it a value equal to the size of the heap in bytes.
The default size is 128 bytes. For more information on the --heap_size option, see Section 4.2.
Dynamically allocated objects are not addressed directly (they are always accessed with pointers) and the
memory pool is in a separate section (.sysmem); therefore, the dynamic memory pool can have a size
limited only by the amount of available memory in your system. To conserve space in the .bss section,
you can allocate large arrays from the heap instead of defining them as global or static. For example,
instead of a definition such as:
struct big table[100];

use a pointer and call the malloc function:

struct big *table
table = (struct big *)malloc(100*sizeof(struct big));

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6.1.6 Initialization of Variables
The C/C++ compiler produces code that is suitable for use as firmware in a ROM-based system. In such a
system, the initialization tables in the .cinit section are stored in ROM. At system initialization time, the
C/C++ boot routine copies data from these tables (in ROM) to the initialized variables in .bss (RAM).
In situations where a program is loaded directly from an object file into memory and run, you can avoid
having the .cinit section occupy space in memory. A loader can read the initialization tables directly from
the object file (instead of from ROM) and perform the initialization directly at load time instead of at run
time. You can specify this to the linker by using the --ram_model link option. For more information, see
Section 6.9.

6.2 Object Representation

This section explains how various data objects are sized, aligned, and accessed.

6.2.1 Data Type Storage

Table 6-2 lists register and memory storage for various data types:

Table 6-2. Data Representation in Registers and Memory

Data Type Register Storage Memory Storage
char, signed char Bits 0-7 of register (1) 8 bits aligned to 8-bit boundary
unsigned char, bool Bits 0-7 of register 8 bits aligned to 8-bit boundary
short, signed short Bits 0-15 of register (1) 16 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
unsigned short, wchar_t Bits 0-15 of register 16 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
int, signed int Bits 0-15 of register 16 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
unsigned int Bits 0-15 of register 16 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
enum Bits 0-15 of register 16 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
long. signed long Register pair 32 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
unsigned long Register pair 32 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
float Register pair 32 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
double Register pair 32 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
long double Register pair 32 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
struct Members are stored as their individual types Members are stored as their individual types
require. require; aligned according to the member with the
most restrictive alignment requirement.
array Members are stored as their individual types Members are stored as their individual types
require. require; aligned to 32-bit (word) boundary. All
arrays inside a structure are aligned according to
the type of each element in the array.
pointer to data member Bits 0-15 of register 16 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
MSP430X large-data model Bits 0-20 of register 32 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
pointer to data member (2)
MSP430 pointer to function Bits 0-15 of register 16 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
MSP430X (3) pointer to function Bits 0-20 of register 32 bits aligned to 16-bit (word) boundary
(1)
Negative values are sign-extended to bit 15.
(2)
MSP430X large-data model is specified by --silicon_version=mspx --large_memory_model
(3)
MSP430X is specified with the ––silicon_version=mspx option.

6.2.1.1 Pointer to Member Function Types

Pointer to member function objects are stored as a structure with three members, and the layout is
equivalent to:
struct {
short int d;
short int I;
union {

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void (f) ();
long 0; }
};

The parameter d is the offset to be added to the beginning of the class object for this pointer. The
parameter I is the index into the virtual function table, offset by 1. The index enables the NULL pointer to
be represented. Its value is -1 if the function is nonvirtual. The parameter f is the pointer to the member
function if it is nonvirtual, when I is 0. The 0 is the offset to the virtual function pointer within the class
object.

6.2.1.2 Structure and Array Alignment

Structures are aligned according to the member with the most restrictive alignment requirement.
Structures do not contain padding after the last member. Arrays are always word aligned. Elements of
arrays are stored in the same manner as if they were individual objects.

6.2.1.3 Field/Structure Alignment

When the compiler allocates space for a structure, it allocates as many words as are needed to hold all of
the structure’s members.
When a structure contains a 32-bit (long) member, the long is aligned to a 1-word (16-bit) boundary. This
may require padding before, inside, or at the end of the structure to ensure that the long is aligned
accordingly and that the sizeof value for the structure is an even value.
All non-field types are aligned on either word or byte boundaries. Fields are allocated as many bits as
requested. Adjacent fields are packed into adjacent bits of a word, but they do not overlap words; if a field
would overlap into the next word, the entire field is placed into the next word.
Fields are packed as they are encountered; the least significant bits of the structure word are filled first.
Example 6-1 shows the C code definition of var while Figure 6-1 shows the memory layout of var.
Example 6-1. C Code Definition of var

struct example {
char c;
long l;
int bf1:1;
int bf2:2;
int bf3:3;
int bf4:4;
int bf5:5;
int bf6:6;
};

Figure 6-1. Memory Layout of var

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

var + 0 <pad> char c

var + 2 long (low)
var + 4 long (high)
var + 6 1 5 4 3 2 1
var + 8 <pad 10 bits> 6

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6.2.2 Character String Constants

In C, a character string constant is used in one of the following ways:
• To initialize an array of characters. For example:
char s[] = "abc";
When a string is used as an initializer, it is simply treated as an initialized array; each character is a
separate initializer. For more information about initialization, see Section 6.9.
• In an expression. For example:
strcpy (s, "abc");
When a string is used in an expression, the string itself is defined in the .const section with the .string
assembler directive, along with a unique label that points to the string; the terminating 0 byte is
included. For example, the following lines define the string abc, and the terminating 0 byte (the label
SL5 points to the string):
.sect ".const"
SL5: .string "abc",0
String labels have the form SLn, where n is a number assigned by the compiler to make the label
unique. The number begins at 0 and is increased by 1 for each string defined. All strings used in a
source module are defined at the end of the compiled assembly language module.
The label SLn represents the address of the string constant. The compiler uses this label to reference
the string expression.
Because strings are stored in the .const section (possibly in ROM) and shared, it is bad practice for a
program to modify a string constant. The following code is an example of incorrect string use:
const char *a = "abc"
a[1] = 'x'; /* Incorrect! */

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6.3 Register Conventions

Strict conventions associate specific registers with specific operations in the C/C++ environment. If you
plan to interface an assembly language routine to a C/C++ program, you must understand and follow
these register conventions.
The register conventions dictate how the compiler uses registers and how values are preserved across
function calls. Table 6-3 shows the types of registers affected by these conventions.Table 6-4 summarizes
how the compiler uses registers and whether their values are preserved across calls. For information
about how values are preserved across calls, see Section 6.4.

Table 6-3. How Register Types Are Affected by the Conventions

Register Type Description
Argument register Passes arguments during a function call
Return register Holds the return value from a function call
Expression register Holds a value
Argument pointer Used as a base value from which a function's parameters (incoming
arguments) are accessed
Stack pointer Holds the address of the top of the software stack
Program counter Contains the current address of code being executed

Table 6-4. Register Usage and Preservation Conventions

Register Alias Usage Preserved by Function (1)
R0 PC Program counter N/A
R1 SP Stack pointer N/A (2)
R2 SR Status register N/A
R3 Constant generator N/A
R4-R10 Expression register Child
R11 Expression register Parent
R12 Expression register, argument pointer, Parent
return register
R13 Expression register, argument pointer, Parent
return register
R14 Expression register, argument pointer Parent
R15 Expression register, argument pointer Parent

(1)
The parent function refers to the function making the function call. The child function refers to the function being called.
(2)
The SP is preserved by the convention that everything pushed on the stack is popped off before returning.

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6.4 Function Structure and Calling Conventions

The C/C++ compiler imposes a strict set of rules on function calls. Except for special run-time support
functions, any function that calls or is called by a C/C++ function must follow these rules. Failure to adhere
to these rules can disrupt the C/C++ environment and cause a program to fail.

The following sections use this terminology to describe the function-calling conventions of the C/C++
compiler:
• Argument block. The part of the local frame used to pass arguments to other functions. Arguments
are passed to a function by moving them into the argument block rather than pushing them on the
stack. The local frame and argument block are allocated at the same time.
• Register save area. The part of the local frame that is used to save the registers when the program
calls the function and restore them when the program exits the function.
• Save-on-call registers. Registers R11-R15. The called function does not preserve the values in these
registers; therefore, the calling function must save them if their values need to be preserved.
• Save-on-entry registers. Registers R4-R10. It is the called function's responsibility to preserve the
values in these registers. If the called function modifies these registers, it saves them when it gains
control and preserves them when it returns control to the calling function.
Figure 6-2 illustrates a typical function call. In this example, arguments are passed to the function, and the
function uses local variables and calls another function. The first four arguments are passed to registers
R12-R15. This example also shows allocation of a local frame and argument block for the called function.
Functions that have no local variables and do not require an argument block do not allocate a local frame.

Figure 6-2. Use of the Stack During a Function Call

Move arguments
to argument block; Allocate new frames
Before call call function and argument block

Low Low Low

Callee’s SP
argument
block
Callee’s
local variables

Register
save area

Caller’s SP SP
Argument 5... Argument 5...
argument argument n Argument 1 ® register R12 argument n
block
Argument 2 ® register R13
Caller’s Caller’s Argument 3 ® register R14 Caller’s
local variables local variables Argument 4 ® register R15 local variables

Register Register Register

High save area High save area High save area

Legend: SP: stack pointer

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6.4.1 How a Function Makes a Call

A function (parent function) performs the following tasks when it calls another function (child function):
1. The calling function (parent) is responsible for preserving any save-on-call registers across the call that
are live across the call. (The save-on-call registers are R11-R15.)
2. If the called function (child) returns a structure, the caller allocates space for the structure and passes
the address of that space to the called function as the first argument.
3. The caller places the first arguments in registers R12-R15, in that order. The caller moves the
remaining arguments to the argument block in reverse order, placing the leftmost remaining argument
at the lowest address. Thus, the leftmost remaining argument is placed at the top of the stack.
4. The caller calls the function.

6.4.2 How a Called Function Responds

A called function (child function) must perform the following tasks:
1. If the function is declared with an ellipsis, it can be called with a variable number of arguments. The
called function pushes these arguments on the stack if they meet both of these criteria:
• The argument includes or follows the last explicitly declared argument.
• The argument is passed in a register.
2. The called function pushes register values of all the registers that are modified by the function and that
must be preserved upon exit of the function onto the stack. Normally, these registers are the
save-on-entry registers (R4-R10) if the function contains calls. If the function is an interrupt, additional
registers may need to be preserved. For more information, see Section 6.6.
3. The called function allocates memory for the local variables and argument block by subtracting a
constant from the SP. This constant is computed with the following formula:
size of all local variables + max = constant
The max argument specifies the size of all parameters placed in the argument block for each call.
4. The called function executes the code for the function.
5. If the called function returns a value, it places the value in R12 (or R12 and R13 values).
6. If the called function returns a structure, it copies the structure to the memory block that the first
argument, R12, points to. If the caller does not use the return value, R12 is set to 0. This directs the
called function not to copy the return structure.
In this way, the caller can be smart about telling the called function where to return the structure. For
example, in the statement s = f(x), where s is a structure and f is a function that returns a structure, the
caller can simply pass the address of s as the first argument and call f. The function f then copies the
return structure directly into s, performing the assignment automatically.
You must be careful to properly declare functions that return structures, both at the point where they
are called (so the caller properly sets up the first argument) and at the point where they are declared
(so the function knows to copy the result).
7. The called function deallocates the frame and argument block by adding the constant computed in
Step 3.
8. The called function restores all registers saved in Step 2.
9. The called function ( _f) returns.
The following example is typical of how a called function responds to a call:
func: ; Called function entry point
PUSH.W r10
PUSH.W r9 ; Save SOE registers
SUB.W #2,SP ; Allocate the frame
:
: ; Body of function
:
ADD.W #2,SP ; Deallocate the frame
POP r9 ; Restore SOE registers
POP r10
RET ; Return

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6.4.3 Accessing Arguments and Local Variables
A function accesses its local nonregister variables indirectly through the stack pointer (SP or R1) and its
stack arguments. The SP always points to the top of the stack (points to the most recently pushed value).
Since the stack grows toward smaller addresses, the local data on the stack for the C/C++ function is
accessed with a positive offset from the SP register.

6.5 Interfacing C and C++ With Assembly Language

The following are ways to use assembly language with C/C++ code:
• Use separate modules of assembled code and link them with compiled C/C++ modules (see
Section 6.5.1).
• Use assembly language variables and constants in C/C++ source (see Section 6.5.2).
• Use inline assembly language embedded directly in the C/C++ source (see Section 6.5.4).

6.5.1 Using Assembly Language Modules With C/C++ Code

Interfacing C/C++ with assembly language functions is straightforward if you follow the calling conventions
defined in Section 6.4, and the register conventions defined in Section 6.3. C/C++ code can access
variables and call functions defined in assembly language, and assembly code can access C/C++
variables and call C/C++ functions.
Follow these guidelines to interface assembly language and C:
• You must preserve any dedicated registers modified by a function. Dedicated registers include:
– Save-on-entry registers (R4-R10)
– Stack pointer (SP or R1)
If the SP is used normally, it does not need to be explicitly preserved. In other words, the assembly
function is free to use the stack as long as anything that is pushed onto the stack is popped back off
before the function returns (thus preserving SP).
Any register that is not dedicated can be used freely without first being saved.
• Interrupt routines must save all the registers they use. For more information, see Section 6.6.
• When you call a C/C++ function from assembly language, load the designated registers with
arguments and push the remaining arguments onto the stack as described in Section 6.4.1.
Remember that a function can alter any register not designated as being preserved without having to
restore it. If the contents of any of these registers must be preserved across the call, you must
explicitly save them.
• Functions must return values correctly according to their C/C++ declarations. Double values are
returned in R12 and R13, and structures are returned as described in Step 1 of Section 6.4.1. Any
other values are returned in R12.
• No assembly module should use the .cinit section for any purpose other than autoinitialization of global
variables. The C/C++ startup routine assumes that the .cinit section consists entirely of initialization
tables. Disrupting the tables by putting other information in .cinit can cause unpredictable results.
• The compiler assigns linknames to all external objects. Thus, when you are writing assembly language
code, you must use the same linknames as those assigned by the compiler. See Section 5.10 for more
information.
For identifiers to be used only in an assembly language module, ensure that they do not conflict with a
C/C++ identifier. Use a $ or a consistent prefix naming convention to create a different namespace for
assembly identifiers.
• Any object or function declared in assembly language that is accessed or called from C/C++ must be
declared with the .def or .global directive in the assembly language modifier. This declares the symbol
as external and allows the linker to resolve references to it.
Likewise, to access a C/C++ function or object from assembly language, declare the C/C++ object with
the .ref or .global directive in the assembly language module. This creates an undeclared external
reference that the linker resolves.

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• Any assembly routines that interface with MSP430X C programs are required to conform to the
large-code model:
– Use CALLA/RETA instead of CALL/RET
– Use PUSHM.A/POPM.A to save and restore any used save-on-entry registers. The entire 20-bit
register must be saved/restored.
– Manipulation of function pointers requires 20-bit operations (OP.A)
– If interfacing with C code compiled for the large-data model, data pointer manipulation must be
performed using 20-bit operations (OP.A).
Example 6-2 illustrates a C++ function called main, which calls an assembly language function called
asmfunc, Example 6-3. The asmfunc function takes its single argument, adds it to the C++ global variable
called gvar, and returns the result.
Example 6-2. Calling an Assembly Language Function From C/C++ C Program

extern "C" {
extern int asmfunc(int a); /* declare external asm function */
int gvar = 0; /* define global variable */
}

void main()
{
int I = 5;

I = asmfunc(I); /* call function normally */

Example 6-3. Assembly Language Program Called by Example 6-2

.global asmfunc
.global gvar
asmfunc:
MOV &gvar,R11
ADD R11,R12
RET

In the C++ program in Example 6-2, the extern "C" declaration tells the compiler to use C naming
conventions (i.e., no name mangling). When the linker resolves the .global asmfunc reference, the
corresponding definition in the assembly file will match.
The parameter I is passed in R12, and the result is returned in R12.

6.5.2 Accessing Assembly Language Variables From C/C++

It is sometimes useful for a C/C++ program to access variables or constants defined in assembly
language. There are several methods that you can use to accomplish this, depending on where and how
the item is defined: a variable defined in the .bss section, a variable not defined in the .bss section, or a
constant.

6.5.2.1 Accessing Assembly Language Global Variables

Accessing uninitialized variables from the .bss section or a section named with .usect is straightforward:
1. Use the .bss or .usect directive to define the variable.
2. Use the .def or .global directive to make the definition external.
3. Use the appropriate linkname in assembly language.
4. In C/C++, declare the variable as extern and access it normally.
Example 6-5 and Example 6-4 show how you can access a variable defined in .bss.

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Example 6-4. Assembly Language Variable Program

* Note the use of underscores in the following lines

.bss var,4,4 ; Define the variable

.global var ; Declare it as external

Example 6-5. C Program to Access Assembly Language From Example 6-4

extern int var; /* External variable */

var = 1; /* Use the variable */

6.5.2.2 Accessing Assembly Language Constants

You can define global constants in assembly language by using the .set, .def, and .global directives, or
you can define them in a linker command file using a linker assignment statement. These constants are
accessible from C/C++ only with the use of special operators.
For normal variables defined in C/C++ or assembly language, the symbol table contains the address of
the value of the variable. For assembler constants, however, the symbol table contains the value of the
constant. The compiler cannot tell which items in the symbol table are values and which are addresses.
If you try to access an assembler (or linker) constant by name, the compiler attempts to fetch a value from
the address represented in the symbol table. To prevent this unwanted fetch, you must use the & (address
of) operator to get the value. In other words, if x is an assembly language constant, its value in C/C++ is
&x.
You can use casts and #defines to ease the use of these symbols in your program, as in Example 6-6 and
Example 6-7.
Example 6-6. Accessing an Assembly Language Constant From C

extern int table_size; /*external ref */

#define TABLE_SIZE ((int) (&table_size))
. /* use cast to hide address-of */
.
.
for (I=0; i<TABLE_SIZE; ++I) /* use like normal symbol */

Example 6-7. Assembly Language Program for Example 6-6

_table_size .set 10000 ; define the constant

.global _table_size ; make it global

Because you are referencing only the symbol's value as stored in the symbol table, the symbol's declared
type is unimportant. In Example 6-6, int is used. You can reference linker-defined symbols in a similar
manner.

6.5.3 Sharing C/C++ Header Files With Assembly Source

You can use the .cdecls assembler directive to share C headers containing declarations and prototypes
between C and assembly code. Any legal C/C++ can be used in a .cdecls block and the C/C++
declarations will cause suitable assembly to be generated automatically, allowing you to reference the
C/C++ constructs in assembly code. For more information, see the C/C++ header files chapter in the
MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.

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6.5.4 Using Inline Assembly Language

Within a C/C++ program, you can use the asm statement to insert a single line of assembly language into
the assembly language file created by the compiler. A series of asm statements places sequential lines of
assembly language into the compiler output with no intervening code. For more information, see
Section 5.7.
The asm statement is useful for inserting comments in the compiler output. Simply start the assembly
code string with a semicolon (;) as shown below:
asm(";*** this is an assembly language comment");

Note: Using the asm Statement

Keep the following in mind when using the asm statement:
• Be extremely careful not to disrupt the C/C++ environment. The compiler does not check
or analyze the inserted instructions.
• Avoid inserting jumps or labels into C/C++ code because they can produce
unpredictable results by confusing the register-tracking algorithms that the code
generator uses.
• Do not change the value of a C/C++ variable when using an asm statement. This is
because the compiler does not verify such statements. They are inserted as is into the
assembly code, and potentially can cause problems if you are not sure of their effect.
• Do not use the asm statement to insert assembler directives that change the assembly
environment.
• Avoid creating assembly macros in C code and compiling with the --symdebug:dwarf (or
-g) option. The C environment’s debug information and the assembly macro expansion
are not compatible.

6.6 Interrupt Handling

As long as you follow the guidelines in this section, you can interrupt and return to C/C++ code without
disrupting the C/C++ environment. When the C/C++ environment is initialized, the startup routine does not
enable or disable interrupts. If the system is initialized by way of a hardware reset, interrupts are disabled.
If your system uses interrupts, you must handle any required enabling or masking of interrupts. Such
operations have no effect on the C/C++ environment and are easily incorporated with asm statements or
calling an assembly language function.

6.6.1 Saving Registers During Interrupts

When C/C++ code is interrupted, the interrupt routine must preserve the contents of all machine registers
that are used by the routine or by any functions called by the routine. Register preservation must be
explicitly handled by the interrupt routine.

6.6.2 Using C/C++ Interrupt Routines

A C/C++ interrupt routine is like any other C/C++ function in that it can have local variables and register
variables. Except for software interrupt routines, an interrupt routine must be declared with no arguments
and must return void. For example:
interrupt void example (void)
{
...
}

If a C/C++ interrupt routine does not call any other functions, only those registers that the interrupt handler
uses are saved and restored. However, if a C/C++ interrupt routine does call other functions, these
functions can modify unknown registers that the interrupt handler does not use. For this reason, the
routine saves all the save-on-call registers if any other functions are called. (This excludes banked
registers.) Do not call interrupt handling functions directly.
Interrupts can be handled directly with C/C++ functions by using the interrupt pragma or the interrupt
keyword. For information, see Section 5.8.11 and Section 5.4.2, respectively.

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6.6.3 Using Assembly Language Interrupt Routines

You can handle interrupts with assembly language code as long as you follow the same register
conventions the compiler does. Like all assembly functions, interrupt routines can use the stack, access
global C/C++ variables, and call C/C++ functions normally. When calling C/C++ functions, be sure that
any save-on-call registers are preserved before the call because the C/C++ function can modify any of
these registers. You do not need to save save-on-entry registers because they are preserved by the called
C/C++ function.

6.6.4 Interrupt Vectors

The interrupt vectors for the MSP430 and MSP430X devices are 16 bits. Therefore, interrupt service
routines (ISR’s) must be placed into the low 64K of memory. Convenience macros are provided in the
MSP430X device headers file to declare interrupts to ensure 16-bit placement when linking.
Alternatively, use the CODE_SECTIONS pragma to place the code for ISRs into sections separate from
the default .text sections. Use the linker command file and the SECTIONS directive to ensure the code
sections associated with ISRs are placed into low memory.

6.6.5 Other Interrupt Information

An interrupt routine can perform any task performed by any other function, including accessing global
variables, allocating local variables, and calling other functions.
When you write interrupt routines, keep the following points in mind:
• It is your responsibility to handle any special masking of interrupts.
• A C/C++ interrupt routine cannot be called explicitly.
• In a system reset interrupt, such as c_int00, you cannot assume that the run-time environment is set
up; therefore, you cannot allocate local variables, and you cannot save any information on the run-time
stack.
• In assembly language, remember to precede the name of a C/C++ interrupt with the appropriate
linkname. For example, refer to c_int00 as _c_int00.

6.7 Intrinsic Run-Time-Support Arithmetic and Conversion Routines

The intrinsic run-time-support library contains a number of assembly language routines that provide
arithmetic and conversion capability for C/C++ operations that the 32-bit and 16-bit instruction sets do not
provide. These routines include integer division, integer modulus, and floating-point operations.
The source files for these functions are in the rts.src library. The source code has comments that describe
the operation of the functions. You can extract, inspect, and modify any of these functions.
The run-time-support routines follow the register calling conventions described in Section 6.3, except for
the following:
• Integer modulus routines. The return value for 8 and 16-bit integer modulus is placed in R14. The
return value for 32-bit integer modulus is placed in R14/R15.
• Floating compare. The result of a floating point compare is represented by the status register.

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6.8 Using Intrinsics to Access Assembly Language Statements

The compiler recognizes a number of intrinsic operators. Intrinsics are used like functions and produce
assembly language statements that would otherwise be inexpressible in C/C++. You can use C/C++
variables with these intrinsics, just as you would with any normal function. The intrinsics are specified with
a leading underscore, and are accessed by calling them as you do a function. For example:
short state;
:
state = _get_SR_register();

No declaration of the intrinsic functions is necessary.

6.8.1 MSP430 Intrinsics

Table 6-5 lists all of the intrinsic operators in the MSP430 C/C++ compiler. A function-like prototype is
presented for each intrinsic that shows the expected type for each parameter. If the argument type does
not match the parameter, type conversions are performed on the argument.
For more information on the resulting assembly language mnemonics, see the MSP430x1xx Family User’s
Guide, the MSP430x3xx Family User’s Guide, and the MSP430x4xx Family User’s Guide.

Table 6-5. MSP430 Intrinsics

Intrinsic Generated Assembly
unsigned short __bcd_add_short(unsigned short op1, unsigned short op2) MOV op1, dst
CLRC
DADD op2, dst
unsigned long __bcd_add_long(unsigned long, unsigned long) MOV op1_low, dst_low
MOV op1_hi, dst_hi
CLRC
DADD op2_low, dst_low
DADD op2_hi, dst_hi
unsigned short __bic_SR_register(unsigned short mask) BIC mask, SR
unsigned short __bic_SR_register_on_exit(unsigned short mask) BIC mask, saved_SR
unsigned short __bis_SR_register(unsigned short mask) BIS mask, SR
unsigned short __bis_SR_register_on_exit(unsigned short mask) BIS mask, saved_SR
unsigned char __data20_read_char(unsigned long); (1) MOVA addr, Rx
MOVX.B 0(Rx), dst
unsigned long __data20_read_long(unsigned long); (1) MOVA addr, Rx
MOVX.W 0(Rx), dst.lo
MOVX.W 2(Rx), dst.hi
unsigned short __data20_read_short(unsigned long); (1) MOVA addr, Rx
MOVX.W 0(Rx), dst
void __data20_write_char(unsigned long, unsigned char); (1) MOVA addr, Rx
MOVX.B src, 0(Rx)
void __data20_write_long(unsigned long, unsigned long); (1) MOVA addr, Rx
MOVX.W src.lo, 0(Rx)
MOVX.W src.hi, 2(Rx)
void __data20_write_short(unsigned long, unsigned short); (1) MOVA addr, Rx
MOVX.W src, 0(Rx)
void __disable_interrupt(void) DINT
OR
_disable_interrupts(void)
void __enable_interrupt(void) EINT
OR
_enable_interrupt(void)
OR
_enable_interrupts(void)
unsigned int __even_in_range(unsigned int, unsigned int); See Section 5.8.13.
unsigned short __get_interrupt_state(void); MOV SR, dst

(1)
Instrinsic encodes multiple instructions depending on the code. The most common instructions produced are presented here.

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Table 6-5. MSP430 Intrinsics (continued)

Intrinsic Generated Assembly
unsigned short __get_SP_register(void); MOV SP, dst
unsigned short __get_SR_register(void)
unsigned short __get_SR_register_on_exit(void); MOV saved_SR, dst
void __never_executed( ) See Section 6.8.2.
void __no_operation(void); NOP
void __op_code(unsigned short); Encodes whatever instruction
corresponds to the argument.
void __set_interrupt_state(void); MOV src, SR
void __set_SP_register(unsigned short); MOV src, SP
unsigned short __swap_bytes(unsigned short a) MOV a, dst
SWPB dst

6.8.2 The _never_executed Intrinsic

The MSP430 C/C++ Compiler supports a _never_executed( ) intrinsic that can be used to assert that a
default label in a switch block is never executed. If you assert that a default label is never executed the
compiler can generate more efficient code based on the values specified in the case labels within a switch
block.

6.8.2.1 Using _never_executed With a Vector Generator

The _never_executed( ) intrinsic is specifically useful for testing the values of an MSP430 interrupt vector
generator such as the vector generator for Timer A (TAIV). MSP430 vector generator values are mapped
to an interrupt source and are characterized in that they fall within a specific range and can only take on
even values. A common way to handle a particular interrupt source represented in a vector generator is to
use a switch statement. However, a compiler is constrained by the C language in that it can make no
assumptions about what values a switch expression may have. The compiler will have to generate code to
handle every possible value, which leads to what would appear to be inefficient code.
The _never_executed( ) intrinsic can be used to assert to the compiler that a switch expression can only
take on values represented by the case labels within a switch block. Having this assertion, the compiler
can avoid generating test code for handling values not specified by the switch case labels. Having this
assertion is specifically suited for handling values that characterize a vector generator.
Example 6-8 illustrates a switch block that handles the values of the Timer B (TBIV) vector generator.
Example 6-8. TBIV Vector Generator

__interrupt void Timer_B1 (void)

{
switch( TBIV )
{
case 0: break; /* Do nothing */
case 2: TBCCR1 += 255;
state +=1;
break;
case 4: TBCCR0 = 254;
TBCCR1 = 159;
state =200;
break;
case 6: break;
case 8: break;
case 10: break;
case 12: break;
case 14: break;
default: _never_executed();
}
}

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In Example 6-8 using the _never_executed( ) intrinsic asserts that the value of TBIV can only take on the
values specified by the case labels, namely the even values from 0 to 14. Normally, the compiler would
have to generate code to handle any value which would result in extra range checks. Instead, for this
example, the compiler will generate a switch table where the value of TBIV is simply added to the PC to
jump to the appropriate code block handling each value represented by the case labels.

6.8.2.2 Using _never_executed With General Switch Expressions

Using the _never_executed( ) intrinsic at the default label can also improve the generated switch code for
more general switch expressions that do not involve vector generator type values.
Example 6-9. General Switch Statement

switch( val)
{
case 0:
case 5: action(a); break;

case 14: action(b); break;

default: _never_executed();
}

Normally, for the switch expression values 0 and 5, the compiler generates code to test for both 0 and 5
since the compiler must handle the possible values 1–4. The _never_executed( ) intrinsic in Example 6-9
asserts that val cannot take on the values 1–4 and therefore the compiler only needs to generate a single
test (val < 6) to handle both case labels.
Additionally, using the _never_executed( ) intrinsic results in the assertion that if val is not 0 or 5 then it
has to be 14 and the compiler has no need to generate code to test for val == 14.
The _never_executed( ) intrinsic is only defined when specified as the single statement following a default
case label. The compiler ignores the use of the intrinsic in any other context.

6.9 System Initialization

Before you can run a C/C++ program, the C/C++ run-time environment must be created. The C/C++ boot
routine performs this task using a function called c_int00 (or _c_int00). The run-time-support source library
contains the source to this routine in a module named boot.c (or boot.asm).
To begin running the system, the _c_int00 function can be called by reset hardware. You must link the
_c_int00 function with the other object modules. This occurs automatically when you use the
––rom_model or ––ram_model linker function option and include the run-time library as one of the linker
input files.
When C/C++ programs are linked, the linker sets the entry point value in the executable output module to
the symbol _c_int00. The _c_int00 function performs the following tasks to initialize the C/C++
environment:
1. Reserves space for the user mode run-time stack, and sets up the initial value of the stack pointer (SP)
2. It initializes global variables by copying the data from the initialization tables to the storage allocated for
the variables in the .bss section. If you are initializing variables at load time (--ram_model option), a
loader performs this step before the program runs (it is not performed by the boot routine). For more
information, see Section 6.9.3.
3. Executes the global constructors found in the global constructors table. For more information, see
Section 6.9.4.
4. Calls the function main to run the C/C++ program
You can replace or modify the boot routine to meet your system requirements. However, the boot routine
must perform the operations listed above to correctly initialize the C/C++ environment.

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6.9.1 System Pre-Initialization
The _c_int00( ) initialization routine also provides a mechanism for an application to perform the MSP430
setup (set I/O registers, enable/disable timers, etc.) before the C/C++ environment is initialized.
Before calling the routine that initializes C/C++ global data and calls any C++ constructors, the boot
routine makes a call to the function _system_pre_init( ). A developer can implement a customized version
of _system_pre_init( ) to perform any application-specific initialization before proceeding with C/C++
environment setup. In addition, the default C/C++ data initialization can be bypassed if _system_pre_init( )
returns a 0. By default, _system_pre_init( ) should return a non-zero value.
In order to perform application-specific initializations, you can create a customized version of
_system_pre_init( ) and add it to the application project. The customized version will replace the default
definition included in the run-time library if it is linked in before the run-time library.
The default stubbed version of _system_pre_init( ) is included with the run-time library. It is located in the
file pre_init.c and is included in the run-time source library (rts.src). The archiver utility (ar430) can be
used to extract pre_init.c from the source library.

6.9.2 Run-Time Stack

The run-time stack is allocated in a single continuous block of memory and grows down from high
addresses to lower addresses. The SP points to the top of the stack.
The code does not check to see if the run-time stack overflows. Stack overflow occurs when the stack
grows beyond the limits of the memory space that was allocated for it. Be sure to allocate adequate
memory for the stack.
The stack size can be changed at link time by using the --stack_size link option on the linker command
line and specifying the stack size as a constant directly after the option.
The C/C++ boot routine shipped with the compiler sets up the user/thread mode run-time stack. If your
program uses a run-time stack when it is in other operating modes, you must also allocate space and set
up the run-time stack corresponding to those modes.

6.9.3 Automatic Initialization of Variables

Any global variables declared as preinitialized must have initial values assigned to them before a C/C++
program starts running. The process of retrieving these variables’ data and initializing the variables with
the data is called autoinitialization.
The compiler builds tables in a special section called .cinit that contains data for initializing global and
static variables. Each compiled module contains these initialization tables. The linker combines them into
a single table (a single .cinit section). The boot routine or a loader uses this table to initialize all the
system variables.

Note: Initializing Variables

In ANSI/ISO C, global and static variables that are not explicitly initialized must be set to 0
before program execution. The C/C++ compiler does not perform any preinitialization of
uninitialized variables. Explicitly initialize any variable that must have an initial value of 0.

Global variables are either autoinitialized at run time or at load time. For information, see Section 6.9.6
and Section 6.9.7. Also see Section 5.11.

6.9.4 Global Constructors

All global C++ variables that have constructors must have their constructor called before main (). The
compiler builds a table of global constructor addresses that must be called, in order, before main () in a
section called .pinit. The linker combines the .pinit section form each input file to form a single table in the
.pinit section. The boot routine uses this table to execute the constructors.

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6.9.5 Initialization Tables

The tables in the .cinit section consist of variable-size initialization records. Each variable that must be
autoinitialized has a record in the .cinit section. Figure 6-3 shows the format of the .cinit section and the
initialization records.

Figure 6-3. Format of Initialization Records in the .cinit Section

.cinit section
Initialization record 1
Initialization record 2
Initialization record
Initialization record 3
Size in Pointer to Initialization
• bytes .bss area data
•
•
Initialization record n

The fields of an initialization record contain the following information:

• The first field of an initialization record contains the size (in bytes) of the initialization data. The width of
this field is one word (16 bits).
• The second field contains the starting address of the area within the .bss section where the
initialization data must be copied. The width of this field is one word.
• The third field contains the data that is copied into the .bss section to initialize the variable. The width
of this field is variable.
Each variable that must be autoinitialized has an initialization record in the .cinit section.
Example 6-10 shows initialized global variables defined in C. Example 6-11 shows the corresponding
initialization table.
Example 6-10. Initialized Variables Defined in C

int i = 23;
int a[5] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };

Example 6-11. Initialized Information for Variables Defined in Example 6-10

.sect ".cinit"
.align 2
.field 2,16
.field i+0,16
.field 23,16 ; i @ 0

.sect ".cinit"
.align 2
.field $C$IR_1,16
.field a+0,16
.field 1,16 ; a[0] @ 0
.field 2,16 ; a[1] @ 16
.field 3,16 ; a[2] @ 32
.field 4,16 ; a[3] @ 48
.field 5,16 ; a[4] @ 64
$C$IR_1: .set 10
.global i
.bss i,2,2
.global a
.bss a,10,2

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The .cinit section must contain only initialization tables in this format. When interfacing assembly language
modules, do not use the .cinit section for any other purpose.
The table in the .pinit section simply consists of a list of addresses of constructors to be called (see
Figure 6-4). The constructors appear in the table after the .cinit initialization.

Figure 6-4. Format of Initialization Records in the .pinit Section

.pinit section

Address of constructor 1
Address of constructor 2
Address of constructor 3

•
•
•
Address of constructor n

When you use the --rom_model or --ram_model option, the linker combines the .cinit sections from all the
C modules and appends a null word to the end of the composite .cinit section. This terminating record
appears as a record with a size field of 0 and marks the end of the initialization tables.
Likewise, the --rom_model or --ram_model link option causes the linker to combine all of the .pinit sections
from all C/C++ modules and append a null word to the end of the composite .pinit section. The boot
routine knows the end of the global constructor table when it encounters a null constructor address.
The const-qualified variables are initialized differently; see Section 5.4.1.

6.9.6 Autoinitialization of Variables at Run Time

Autoinitializing variables at run time is the default method of autoinitialization. To use this method, invoke
the linker with the --rom_model option.
Using this method, the .cinit section is loaded into memory along with all the other initialized sections, and
global variables are initialized at run time. The linker defines a special symbol called cinit that points to the
beginning of the initialization tables in memory. When the program begins running, the C/C++ boot routine
copies data from the tables (pointed to by .cinit) into the specified variables in the .bss section. This allows
initialization data to be stored in ROM and copied to RAM each time the program starts.
Figure 6-5 illustrates autoinitialization at run time. Use this method in any system where your application
runs from code burned into ROM.

Figure 6-5. Autoinitialization at Run Time

Object file Memory

cint Initialization
.cinit
Loader tables
section
(EXT_MEM)
Boot
routine
.bss
section
(D_MEM)

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6.9.7 Initialization of Variables at Load Time

Initialization of variables at load time enhances performance by reducing boot time and by saving the
memory used by the initialization tables. To use this method, invoke the linker with the --ram_model
option.
When you use the --ram_model link option, the linker sets the STYP_COPY bit in the .cinit section's
header. This tells the loader not to load the .cinit section into memory. (The .cinit section occupies no
space in the memory map.) The linker also sets the cinit symbol to -1 (normally, cinit points to the
beginning of the initialization tables). This indicates to the boot routine that the initialization tables are not
present in memory; accordingly, no run-time initialization is performed at boot time.
A loader (which is not part of the compiler package) must be able to perform the following tasks to use
initialization at load time:
• Detect the presence of the .cinit section in the object file
• Determine that STYP_COPY is set in the .cinit section header, so that it knows not to copy the .cinit
section into memory
• Understand the format of the initialization tables
Figure 6-6 illustrates the initialization of variables at load time.

Figure 6-6. Initialization at Load Time

Object file Memory

.cinit Loader

.bss

Regardless of the use of the --rom_model or --ram_model options, the .pinit section is always loaded and
processed at run time.

6.10 Compiling for 20-Bit MSP430X Devices

The MSP430 tools support compiling and linking code for MSP430 and MSP430X (MSP430X) devices.
See the following for more information on options and topics that apply to compiling for the MSP430X
devices:
• Use the --silicon_version=mspx option to compile for MSP430X devices. See Section 2.3.2.
• Function pointers are 20-bits. See Table 5-1 and Table 6-2.
• The compiler supports a large-code memory model while generating code for MSP430X devices. See
Section 6.1.1.
• The compiler supports a large-data memory model while generating code for MSP430X devices. See
Section 6.1.2.
• Any assembly routines that interface with MSP430X C programs must fit the large code model. See
Section 6.5.1.
• Interrupt service routines must be placed into low memory. See Section 6.6.4.
• Link with the rts430x.lib or rts430x_eh.lib run-time-support library.

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 Chapter 7
SLAU132B – March 2008

Using Run-Time-Support Functions and Building Libraries

Some of the tasks that a C/C++ program performs (such as I/O, dynamic memory allocation, string
operations, and trigonometric functions) are not part of the C/C++ language itself. However, the ANSI/ISO
C standard defines a set of run-time-support functions that perform these tasks. The C/C++ compiler
implements the complete ISO standard library except for those facilities that handle exception conditions
and locale issues (properties that depend on local language, nationality, or culture). Using the ANSI/ISO
standard library ensures a consistent set of functions that provide for greater portability.
In addition to the ANSI/ISO-specified functions, the run-time-support library includes routines that give you
processor-specific commands and direct C language I/O requests. These are detailed in Section 7.1 and
Section 7.2.
A library-build process is provided with the code generation tools that lets you create customized
run-time-support libraries. This process is described in Section 7.4 .

Topic .................................................................................................. Page

7.1 C and C++ Run-Time Support Libraries ...................................... 110

7.2 The C I/O Functions ................................................................. 113
7.3 Handling Reentrancy (_register_lock() and _register_unlock()
Functions) .............................................................................. 121
7.4 Library-Build Process .............................................................. 121

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7.1 C and C++ Run-Time Support Libraries

The standard run-time library includes code for both the C and C++ libraries, as well as compiler helper
functions and initialization code. The library includes all the features of the C++ Library, including the
Standard Template Library (STL), streams, and strings. The following exceptions and caveats are noted:
• The <complex> header and its functions are not included in the library.
• The C++ library supports wide chars, in that template functions and classes that are defined for char
are also available for wide char. For example, wide char stream classes wios, wiostream, wstreambuf
and so on (corresponding to char classes ios, iostream, streambuf) are implemented. However, there
is no low-level file I/O for wide chars. Also, the C library interface to wide char support (through the
C++ headers <cwchar> and <cwctype>) is limited as described in Section 5.1.
The C++ library included with the compiler is licensed from Dinkumware, Ltd. The Dinkumware C++ library
is a fully conforming, industry-leading implementation of the standard C++ library.
Table 7-1 summarizes the functionality of the C++ standard library.

Table 7-1. C++ Standard Library Outline

Header Description Notes
C Library API
<cassert> Assertions
<cctype> Character Classifications
<cerrno> Error indicator
<cfloat> Floating-point properties
<ciso646> Named logical operators
<climits> Data type properties
<clocale> Locale support Supports C locale only
<cmath> Floating-point math functions
<csetjmp> Non-local jumps
<csignal> Signal and raise
<cstdarg> Variadic arguments
<cstddef> Standard C definitions
<cstdio> C standard I/O
<cstdlib> Utility functions
<cstring> C character strings
<ctime> C time manipulation
<cwchar> Wide char functions Not fully supported
<cwctype> Wide char classification Not fully supported
Standard Template Library
<algorithm> Search, sort, etc.
<deque> Double-ended queue
<functional> Function objects
<hash_map> Map keys to values Extension
<hash_set> Map keys to mulivalues Extension
<iterator> Iterators for standard containers
<list> Linked list
<map> Associative array container
<memory> Container memory management
<numeric> Various numeric functions
<queue> Queue container
<rope> Null-terminated array Extension

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Table 7-1. C++ Standard Library Outline (continued)

Header Description Notes
<set> General container
<slist> Singly-linked list Extension
<stack> Stack container
<utility> Operators and pairs
<valarray> Numeric vectors
<vector> One-dimensional array
I/O Streams
<fstream> I/O streams to/from files
<iomanip> Manipulate I/O streams
<ios> I/O stream base class
<iosfwd> Forward declarations of I/O classes
<iostream> Standard I/O stream operators
<istream> Input stream template
<ostream> Output stream template
<sstream> I/O streams operations on allocated arrays
<streambuf> I/O buffer base class
<strstream> I/O streams to/from strings
Strings
<string> C++ style string objects
Language / Utility
<bitset> Array of booleans
<exception> Exception handling control
<limits> Data type properties
<locale> Customizing I/O and other facilities
<new> Dynamic memory allocation operators
<stdexcept> Exception reporting objects

TI does not provide documentation that covers the functionality of the C++ library. We suggest referring to
one of the following sources:
• The Standard C++ Library: A Tutorial and Reference,Nicolai M. Josuttis, Addison-Wesley, ISBN
0-201-37926-0
• The C++ Programming Language (Third or Special Editions), Bjarne Stroustrup, Addison-Wesley,
ISBN 0-201-88954-4 or 0-201-70073-5
• Dinkumware's online reference at http://dinkumware.com/manuals

7.1.1 Linking Code With the Object Library

When you link your program, you must specify the object library as one of the linker input files so that
references to the I/O and run-time-support functions can be resolved. You can either specify the library or
allow the compiler to select one for you. See Section 4.4.1 for further information.
You should specify libraries last on the linker command line because the linker searches a library for
unresolved references when it encounters the library on the command line. You can also use the
--reread_libs linker option to force repeated searches of each library until the linker can resolve no more
references.
When a library is linked, the linker includes only those library members required to resolve undefined
references. For more information about linking, see the MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.

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C, C++, and mixed C and C++ programs can use the same run-time-support library. Run-time-support
functions and variables that can be called and referenced from both C and C++ will have the same
linkage.

7.1.2 Header Files

To include the correct set of header files depending on which library you are using, you can set the
MSP430_C_DIR environment variable to the specific include directory: "include\lib". The source support
for libraries is included in the rtssrc.zip file. See Section 7.4 for details on rebuilding libraries.

7.1.3 Modifying a Library Function

You can inspect or modify library functions by unzipping the source file (rtssrc.zip), changing the specific
function file, and rebuilding the library. When extracted (with any standard unzip tool on windows, linux, or
unix), this zip file will recreate the run-time source tree for the run-time library.
You can also build a new library this way, rather than rebuilding into rts430.lib. See Section 7.4.

7.1.4 Changes to the Run-Time-Support Libraries

The following changes and additions apply to the runtime support libraries in the /lib subdirectory of the
release package.

7.1.4.1 Minimal Support for Internationalization

The library now includes the header files <locale.h>, <wchar.h>, and <wctype.h>, which provide APIs to
support non-ASCII character sets and conventions. Our implementation of these APIs is limited in the
following ways:
• The library has minimal support for wide and multi-byte characters. The type wchar_t is implemented
as int. The wide character set is equivalent to the set of values of type char. The library includes the
header files <wchar.h> and <wctype.h> but does not include all the functions specified in the standard.
So-called multi-byte characters are limited to single characters. There are no shift states. The mapping
between multi-byte characters and wide characters is simple equivalence; that is, each wide character
maps to and from exactly a single multi-byte character having the same value.
• The C library includes the header file <locale.h> but with a minimal implementation. The only
supported locale is the C locale. That is, library behavior that is specified to vary by locale is
hard-coded to the behavior of the C locale, and attempting to install a different locale via a call to
setlocale() will return NULL.

7.1.4.2 Allowable Number of Open Files

In the <stdio.h> header file, the value for the macro FOPEN_MAX has been changed from 12 to the value
of the macro _NFILE, which is set to 10. The impact is that you can only have 10 files simultaneously
open at one time (including the pre-defined streams - stdin, stdout, stderr).
The C standard requires that the minimum value for the FOPEN_MAX macro is 8. The macro determines
the maximum number of files that can be opened at one time. The macro is defined in the stdio.h header
file and can be modified by changing the value of the _NFILE macro.

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www.ti.com The C I/O Functions

7.2 The C I/O Functions

The C I/O functions make it possible to access the host's operating system to perform I/O. The capability
to perform I/O on the host gives you more options when debugging and testing code.
To use the I/O functions, include the header file stdio.h, or cstdio for C++ code, for each module that
references a C I/O function.

For example, given the following C program in a file named main.c:

#include <stdio.h>;

main()
{
FILE *fid;

fid = fopen("myfile","w");
fprintf(fid,"Hello, world\n");
fclose(fid);

printf("Hello again, world\n");

}

Issuing the following compiler command compiles, links, and creates the file main.out from the
run-time-support library:
cl430 main.c --run_linker --heap_size=400 --library=rts430.lib --output_file=main.out

Executing main.out results in

Hello, world

being output to a file and

Hello again, world

being output to your host's stdout window.

With properly written device drivers, the library also offers facilities to perform I/O on a user-specified
device.

Note: C I/O Buffer Failure

If there is not enough space on the heap for a C I/O buffer, buffered operations on the file
will fail. If a call to printf() mysteriously fails, this may be the reason. Check the size of the
heap. To set the heap size, use the --heap_size option when linking (see Section 4.2).

7.2.1 Overview of Low-Level I/O Implementation

The code that implements I/O is logically divided into layers: high level, low level, and device level.
The high-level functions are the standard C library of stream I/O routines (printf, scanf, fopen, getchar, and
so on). These routines map an I/O request to one or more of the I/O commands that are handled by the
low-level routines.
The low-level routines are comprised of basic I/O functions: open, read, write, close, lseek, rename, and
unlink. These low-level routines provide the interface between the high-level functions and the device-level
drivers that actually perform the I/O command on the specified device.
The low-level functions also define and maintain a stream table that associates a file descriptor with a
device. The stream table interacts with the device table to ensure that an I/O command performed on a
stream executes the correct device-level routine.
The data structures interact as shown in Figure 7-1.

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Figure 7-1. Interaction of Data Structures in I/O Functions

Stream table Device table
file_descriptor1 open
file_descriptor2 read

open
read

The first three streams in the stream table are predefined to be stdin, stdout, and stderr and they point to
the host device and associated device drivers.

Figure 7-2. The First Three Streams in the Stream Table

Stream table Device table
file_descriptor1 stdin open
file_descriptor2 stdout Host read
file_descriptor3 stderr
open
read

At the next level are the user-definable device-level drivers. They map directly to the low-level I/O
functions. The run-time-support library includes the device drivers necessary to perform I/O on the host on
which the debugger is running.
The specifications for writing device-level routines to interface with the low-level routines follow. Each
function must set up and maintain its own data structures as needed. Some function definitions perform no
action and should just return.

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www.ti.com add_device — Add Device to Device Table

add_device Add Device to Device Table

Syntax for C #include <file.h>

int add_device(char *name,
unsigned flags,
int (*dopen)( ),
int (*dclose)( ),
int (*dread)( ),
int (*dwrite)( ),
fpos_t (*dlseek)( ),
int (*dunlink)( ),
int (*drename)( ));
Defined in lowlev.c in rtssrc.zip
Description The add_device function adds a device record to the device table allowing that device to
be used for input/output from C. The first entry in the device table is predefined to be the
host device on which the debugger is running. The function add_device() finds the first
empty position in the device table and initializes the fields of the structure that represent
a device.
To open a stream on a newly added device use fopen( ) with a string of the format
devicename:filename as the first argument.
• The name is a character string denoting the device name. The name is limited to 8
characters.
• The flags are device characteristics. The flags are as follows:
_SSA Denotes that the device supports only one open stream at a time
_MSA Denotes that the device supports multiple open streams
More flags can be added by defining them in stdio.h.
• The dopen, dclose, dread, dwrite, dlseek, dunlink, and drename specifiers are
function pointers to the device drivers that are called by the low-level functions to
perform I/O on the specified device. You must declare these functions with the
interface specified in Section 7.2.1. The device drivers for the host that the MSP430
debugger is run on are included in the C I/O library.
Return Value The function returns one of the following values:
0 if successful
1 if fails

Example Example 7-1 does the following:

• Adds the device mydevice to the device table
• Opens a file named test on that device and associates it with the file *fid
• Writes the string Hello, world into the file
• Closes the file

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close — Close File or Device for I/O www.ti.com

close Close File or Device for I/O

Syntax for C #include <stdio.h>

#include <file.h>
int close (int file_descriptor );
Syntax for C++ #include <cstdio>
#include <file.h>
int std::close (int file_descriptor );
Description The close function closes the device or file associated with file_descriptor.
The file_descriptor is the stream number assigned by the low-level routines that is
associated with the opened device or file.
Return Value The return value is one of the following:
0 if successful
1 if fails

lseek Set File Position Indicator

Syntax for C #include <stdio.h>

#include <file.h>
long lseek (intfile_descriptor, long offset, intorigin);
Syntax for C++ #include <cstdio>
#include <file.h>
long std::lseek (int file_descriptor , long offset , int origin );
Description The lseek function sets the file position indicator for the given file to origin + offset. The
file position indicator measures the position in characters from the beginning of the file.
• The file_descriptor is the stream number assigned by the low-level routines that the
device-level driver must associate with the opened file or device.
• The offset indicates the relative offset from the origin in characters.
• The origin is used to indicate which of the base locations the offset is measured from.
The origin must be a value returned by one of the following macros:
SEEK_SET (0x0000) Beginning of file
SEEK_CUR (0x0001) Current value of the file position indicator
SEEK_END (0x0002) End of file
Return Value The return function is one of the following:
# new value of the file-position indicator if successful
EOF if fails

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www.ti.com open — Open File or Device for I/O

open Open File or Device for I/O

Syntax for C #include <stdio.h>

#include <file.h>
int open (const char * path , unsigned flags , int file_descriptor );
Syntax for C++ #include <cstdio>
#include <file.h>
int std::open (const char * path , unsigned flags , int file_descriptor );
Description The open function opens the device or file specified by path and prepares it for I/O.
• The path is the filename of the file to be opened, including path information.
• The flags are attributes that specify how the device or file is manipulated. The flags
are specified using the following symbols:
O_RDONLY (0x0000) /* open for reading */
O_WRONLY (0x0001) /* open for writing */
O_RDWR (0x0002) /* open for read & write */
O_APPEND (0x0008) /* append on each write */
O_CREAT (0x0200) /* open with file create */
O_TRUNC (0x0400) /* open with truncation */
O_BINARY (0x8000) /* open in binary mode */
These parameters can be ignored in some cases, depending on how data is
interpreted by the device. However, the high-level I/O calls look at how the file was
opened in an fopen statement and prevent certain actions, depending on the open
attributes.
• The file_descriptor is the stream number assigned by the low-level routines that is
associated with the opened file or device.
The next available file_descriptor (in order from 3 to 20) is assigned to each new
device opened. You can use the finddevice() function to return the device structure
and use this pointer to search the _stream array for the same pointer. The
file_descriptor number is the other member of the _stream array.
Return Value The function returns one of the following values:
#-1 if successful
-1 if fails

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read — Read Characters from Buffer www.ti.com

read Read Characters from Buffer

Syntax for C #include <stdio.h>

#include <file.h>
int read (int file_descriptor , char * buffer , unsigned count );
Syntax for C++ #include <cstdio>
#include <file.h>
int std::read (int file_descriptor , char *buffer , unsigned count );
Description The read function reads the number of characters specified by count to the buffer from
the device or file associated with file_descriptor.
• The file_descriptor is the stream number assigned by the low-level routines that is
associated with the opened file or device.
• The buffer is the location of the buffer where the read characters are placed.
• The count is the number of characters to read from the device or file.
Return Value The function returns one of the following values:
0 if EOF was encountered before the read was complete
# number of characters read in every other instance
-1 if fails

rename Rename File

Syntax for C #include <stdio.h>

#include <file.h>
int rename (const char * old_name , const char * new_name );
Syntax for C++ #include <cstdio>
#include <file.h>
int std::rename (const char * old_name , const char * new_name );
Description The rename function changes the name of a file.
• The old_name is the current name of the file.
• The new_name is the new name for the file.
Return Value The function returns one of the following values:
0 if successful
Non-0 if not successful

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www.ti.com unlink — Delete File

unlink Delete File

Syntax for C #include <stdio.h>

#include <file.h>
int unlink (const char * path );
Syntax for C++ #include <cstdio>
#include <file.h>
int std::unlink (const char * path );
Description The unlink function deletes the file specified by path.
The path is the filename of the file to be opened, including path information.
Return Value The function returns one of the following values:
0 if successful
1 if fails

write Write Characters to Buffer

Syntax for C #include <stdio.h>

#include <file.h>
int write (int file_descriptor , const char * buffer , unsigned count );
Syntax for C++ #include <cstdio>
#include <file.h>
int write (int file_descriptor , const char * buffer , unsigned count );
Description The write function writes the number of characters specified by count from the buffer to
the device or file associated with file_descriptor.
• The file_descriptor is the stream number assigned by the low-level routines. It is
associated with the opened file or device.
• The buffer is the location of the buffer where the write characters are placed.
• The count is the number of characters to write to the device or file.
Return Value The function returns one of the following values:
# number of characters written if successful
1 if fails

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7.2.2 Adding a Device for C I/O

The low-level functions provide facilities that allow you to add and use a device for I/O at run time. The
procedure for using these facilities is:
1. Define the device-level functions as described in Section 7.2.1.

Note: Use Unique Function Names

The function names open, close, read, and so on, are used by the low-level routines. Use
other names for the device-level functions that you write.

2. Use the low-level function add_device() to add your device to the device_table. The device table is a
statically defined array that supports n devices, where n is defined by the macro _NDEVICE found in
stdio.h/cstdio. The structure representing a device is also defined in stdio.h/cstdio and is composed of
the following fields:
name String for device name
flags Flags that specify whether the device supports multiple streams or not
function pointers Pointers to the device-level functions:
• CLOSE • RENAME
• LSEEK • WRITE
• OPEN • UNLINK
• READ
The first entry in the device table is predefined to be the host device on which the debugger is running.
The low-level routine add_device() finds the first empty position in the device table and initializes the
device fields with the passed-in arguments. For a complete description, see the add_device function .

3. Once the device is added, call fopen() to open a stream and associate it with that device. Use
devicename:filename as the first argument to fopen().
Example 7-1 illustrates adding and using a device for C I/O:
Example 7-1. Program for C I/O Device

#include <stdio.h>
/****************************************************************************/
/* Declarations of the user-defined device drivers */
/****************************************************************************/
extern int my_open(const char *path, unsigned flags, int fno);
extern int my_close(int fno);
extern int my_read(int fno, char *buffer, unsigned count);
extern int my_write(int fno, const char *buffer, unsigned count);
extern long my_lseek(int fno, long offset, int origin);
extern int my_unlink(const char *path);
extern int my_rename(const char *old_name, char *new_name);
main()
{
FILE *fid;
add_device("mydevice", _MSA, my_open, my_close, my_read, my_write, my_lseek,
my_unlink, my_rename);
fid = fopen("mydevice:test","w");
fprintf(fid,"Hello, world\n");

fclose(fid);
}

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www.ti.com Handling Reentrancy (_register_lock() and _register_unlock() Functions)

7.3 Handling Reentrancy (_register_lock() and _register_unlock() Functions)

The C standard assumes only one thread of execution, with the only exception being extremly narrow
support for signal handlers. The issue of reentrancy is avoided by not allowing you to do much of anything
in a signal handler. However, BIOS applications have multiple threads which need to modify the same
global program state, such as the CIO buffer, so reentrancy is a concern.
Part of the problem of reentrancy remains your responsibility, but the run-time-support environment does
provide rudimentary support for multi-threaded reentrancy by providing support for critical sections. This
implementation does not protect you from reentrancy issues such as calling run-time-support functions
from inside interrupts; this remains your responsibility.
The run-time-support environment provides hooks to install critical section primitives. By default, a
single-threaded model is assumed, and the critical section primitives are not employed. In a multi-threaded
system such as BIOS, the kernel arranges to install semaphore lock primitive functions in these hooks,
which are then called when the run-time-support enters code that needs to be protected by a critical
section.
Throughout the run-time-support environment where a global state is accessed, and thus needs to be
protected with a critical section, there are calls to the function _lock(). This calls the provided primitive, if
installed, and acquires the semaphore before proceeding. Once the critical section is finished, _unlock() is
called to to release the semaphore.
Usually BIOS is responsible for creating and installing the primitives, so you do not need to take any
action. However, this mechanism can be used in multi-threaded applications which do not use the BIOS
LCK mechanism.
You should not define the functions _lock() and _unlock() functions directly; instead, the installation
functions are called to instruct the run-time-support environment to use these new primitives:
void _register_lock (void ( *lock)());

void _register_unlock(void (*unlock)());

The arguments to _register_lock() and _register_unlock() should be functions which take no arguments
and return no values, and which implement some sort of global semaphore locking:
extern volatile sig_atomic_t *sema = SHARED_SEMAPHORE_LOCATION;
static int sema_depth = 0;
static void my_lock(void)
{
while (ATOMIC_TEST_AND_SET(sema, MY_UNIQUE_ID) != MY_UNIQUE_ID);
sema_depth++;
}
static void my_unlock(void)
{
if (!--sema_depth) ATOMIC_CLEAR(sema);
}

The run-time-support nests calls to _lock(), so the primitives must keep track of the nesting level.

7.4 Library-Build Process

When using the C/C++ compiler, you can compile your code under a number of different configurations
and options that are not necessarily compatible with one another. Because it would be cumbersome to
include all possible combinations in individual run-time-support libraries, this package includes a basic
run-time-support library, rts430.lib. Also included are library versions that support various MSP430 devices
and versions that support C++ exception handling.
You can also build your own run-time-support libraries using the self-contained run-time-support build
process, which is found in rtssrc.zip. This process is described in this chapter and the archiver described
in the MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User's Guide.

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7.4.1 Required Non-Texas Instruments Software

To use the self-contained run-time-support build process to rebuild a library with custom options, the
following support items are required:
• Perl version 5.6 or later available as perl
Perl is a high-level programming language designed for process, file, and text manipulation. It is:
– Generally available from http://www.perl.org/get.htm
– Available from ActiveState.com as ActivePerl for the PC
– Available as part of the Cygwin package for the PC
It must be installed and added to PATH so it is available at the command-line prompt as perl. To
ensure perl is available, open a Command Prompt window and execute:
perl -v
No special or additional Perl modules are required beyond the standard perl module distribution.
• GNU-compatible command-line make tool, such as gmake
More information is available from GNU at http://www.gnu.org/software/ make. This file requires a host
C compiler to build. GNU make (gmake) is shipped as part of Code Composer Studio on Windows.
GNU make is also included in some Unix support packages for Windows, such as the MKS Toolkit,
Cygwin, and Interix. The GNU make used on Windows platforms should explicitly report This program
built for Windows32 when the following is executed from the Command Prompt window:
gmake -h

7.4.2 Using the Library-Build Process

Once the perl and gmake tools are available, unzip the rtssrc.zip into a new, empty directory. See the
Makefile for additional information on how to customize a library build by modifying the LIBLIST and/or the
OPT_XXX macros
Once the desired changes have been made, simply use the following syntax from the command-line while
in the rtssrc.zip top level directory to rebuild the selected rtsname library.
gmake rtsname
To use custom options to rebuild a library, simply change the list of options for the appropriate base listed
in Section 7.4.3 and then rebuild the library. See the tables in Section 2.3 for a summary of available
generic and MSP430-specific options.
To build an library with a completely different set of options, define a new OPT_XXX base, choose the
type of library per Section 7.4.3, and then rebuild the library. Not all library types are supported by all
targets. You may need to make changes to targets_rts_cfg.pm to ensure the proper files are included in
your custom library.

7.4.3 Library Naming Conventions

The names of the MSP430 run-time support libraries have been changed to improve the clarity and
uniformity of the names given the large number of libraries that now exist. Library names from prior
releases will be deprecated, but still supplied for compatibility.
The classic run-time support libraries now have the following naming scheme:
rts430[x[l]][_eh].lib
rts430 Indicates an MSP430 library.
x Optional x indicates an MSP430X library.
l Optional l after x indicates a large-data model MSP430X library.
_eh Indicates the library has exception handling support

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 Chapter 8
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C++ Name Demangler

The C++ compiler implements function overloading, operator overloading, and type-safe linking by
encoding a function's signature in its link-level name. The process of encoding the signature into the
linkname is often referred to as name mangling. When you inspect mangled names, such as in assembly
files or linker output, it can be difficult to associate a mangled name with its corresponding name in the
C++ source code. The C++ name demangler is a debugging aid that translates each mangled name it
detects to its original name found in the C++ source code.
These topics tell you how to invoke and use the C++ name demangler. The C++ name demangler reads
in input, looking for mangled names. All unmangled text is copied to output unaltered. All mangled names
are demangled before being copied to output.

Topic .................................................................................................. Page

8.1 Invoking the C++ Name Demangler ............................................ 124

8.2 C++ Name Demangler Options .................................................. 124
8.3 Sample Usage of the C++ Name Demangler ................................ 124

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8.1 Invoking the C++ Name Demangler

The syntax for invoking the C++ name demangler is:
dem430 [options ] [filenames]

dem430 Command that invokes the C++ name demangler.

options Options affect how the name demangler behaves. Options can appear anywhere on the
command line. (Options are discussed in Section 8.2.)
filenames Text input files, such as the assembly file output by the compiler, the assembler listing file,
and the linker map file. If no filenames are specified on the command line, dem430 uses
standard in.

By default, the C++ name demangler outputs to standard out. You can use the -o file option if you want to
output to a file.

8.2 C++ Name Demangler Options

The following options apply only to the C++ name demangler:
-h Prints a help screen that provides an online summary of the C++ name demangler
options
-o file Outputs to the given file rather than to standard out
-u Specifies that external names do not have a C++ prefix
-v Enables verbose mode (outputs a banner)

8.3 Sample Usage of the C++ Name Demangler

The examples in this section illustrate the demangling process. Example 8-1 shows a sample C++
program. Example 8-2 shows the resulting assembly that is output by the compiler. In this example, the
linknames of all the functions are mangled; that is, their signature information is encoded into their names.
Example 8-1. C Code for calories_in_a_banana

class banana {
public:
int calories(void);
banana();
~banana();
};

int calories_in_a_banana(void)
{
banana x;
return x.calories();
}

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www.ti.com Sample Usage of the C++ Name Demangler

Example 8-2. Resulting Assembly for calories_in_a_banana

calories_in_a_banana__Fv:
;* ----------------------------------------------------------------------------*
SUB.W #4,SP
MOV.W SP,r12 ; |10|
ADD.W #2,r12 ; |10|
CALL #__ct__6bananaFv ; |10|
; |10|
MOV.W SP,r12 ; |11|
ADD.W #2,r12 ; |11|
CALL #calories__6bananaFv ; |11|
; |11|
MOV.W r12,0(SP) ; |11|
MOV.W SP,r12 ; |11|
ADD.W #2,r12 ; |11|
MOV.W #2,r13 ; |11|
CALL #__dt__6bananaFv ; |11|
; |11|
MOV.W 0(SP),r12 ; |11|
ADD.W #4,SP
RET

Executing the C++ name demangler demangles all names that it believes to be mangled. If you enter:
dem430 calories_in_a_banana.asm

the result is shown in Example 8-3. The linknames in Example 8-2 ___ct__6bananaFv,
_calories__6bananaFv, and ___dt__6bananaFv are demangled.
Example 8-3. Result After Running the C++ Name Demangler

calories_in_a_banana():
;* ----------------------------------------------------------------------------*
SUB.W #4,SP
MOV.W SP,r12 ; |10|
ADD.W #2,r12 ; |10|
CALL #banana::banana() ; |10|
; |10|
MOV.W SP,r12 ; |11|
ADD.W #2,r12 ; |11|
CALL #banana::calories() ; |11|
; |11|
MOV.W r12,0(SP) ; |11|
MOV.W SP,r12 ; |11|
ADD.W #2,r12 ; |11|
MOV.W #2,r13 ; |11|
CALL #banana::~banana() ; |11|
; |11|
MOV.W 0(SP),r12 ; |11|
ADD.W #4,SP
RET

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 Appendix A
SLAU132B – March 2008

Glossary

absolute lister— A debugging tool that allows you to create assembler listings that contain absolute
addresses.
alias disambiguation— A technique that determines when two pointer expressions cannot point to the
same location, allowing the compiler to freely optimize such expressions.
aliasing— The ability for a single object to be accessed in more than one way, such as when two pointers
point to a single object. It can disrupt optimization, because any indirect reference could refer to
any other object.
allocation— A process in which the linker calculates the final memory addresses of output sections.
ANSI— American National Standards Institute; an organization that establishes standards voluntarily
followed by industries.
archive library— A collection of individual files grouped into a single file by the archiver.
archiver— A software program that collects several individual files into a single file called an archive
library. With the archiver, you can add, delete, extract, or replace members of the archive library.
assembler— A software program that creates a machine-language program from a source file that
contains assembly language instructions, directives, and macro definitions. The assembler
substitutes absolute operation codes for symbolic operation codes and absolute or relocatable
addresses for symbolic addresses.
assignment statement— A statement that initializes a variable with a value.
autoinitialization— The process of initializing global C variables (contained in the .cinit section) before
program execution begins.
autoinitialization at run time— An autoinitialization method used by the linker when linking C code. The
linker uses this method when you invoke it with the --rom_model link option. The linker loads the
.cinit section of data tables into memory, and variables are initialized at run time.
BIS— Bit instruction set.
block— A set of statements that are grouped together within braces and treated as an entity.
.bss section— One of the default object file sections. You use the assembler .bss directive to reserve a
specified amount of space in the memory map that you can use later for storing data. The .bss
section is uninitialized.
byte— Per ANSI/ISO C, the smallest addressable unit that can hold a character.
C/C++ compiler— A software program that translates C source statements into assembly language
source statements.
code generator— A compiler tool that takes the file produced by the parser or the optimizer and produces
an assembly language source file.
COFF— Common object file format; a system of object files configured according to a standard developed
by AT&T. These files are relocatable in memory space.

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command file— A file that contains options, filenames, directives, or commands for the linker or hex
conversion utility.
comment— A source statement (or portion of a source statement) that documents or improves readability
of a source file. Comments are not compiled, assembled, or linked; they have no effect on the
object file.
compiler program— A utility that lets you compile, assemble, and optionally link in one step. The
compiler runs one or more source modules through the compiler (including the parser, optimizer,
and code generator), the assembler, and the linker.
configured memory— Memory that the linker has specified for allocation.
constant— A type whose value cannot change.
cross-reference listing— An output file created by the assembler that lists the symbols that were defined,
what line they were defined on, which lines referenced them, and their final values.
.data section— One of the default object file sections. The .data section is an initialized section that
contains initialized data. You can use the .data directive to assemble code into the .data section.
direct call— A function call where one function calls another using the function's name.
directives— Special-purpose commands that control the actions and functions of a software tool (as
opposed to assembly language instructions, which control the actions of a device).
disambiguation— See alias disambiguation
dynamic memory allocation— A technique used by several functions (such as malloc, calloc, and
realloc) to dynamically allocate memory for variables at run time. This is accomplished by defining a
large memory pool (heap) and using the functions to allocate memory from the heap.
ELF— Executable and linking format; a system of object files configured according to the System V
Application Binary Interface specification.
emulator— A hardware development system that duplicates the MSP430 operation.
entry point— A point in target memory where execution starts.
environment variable— A system symbol that you define and assign to a string. Environmental variables
are often included in Windows batch files or UNIX shell scripts such as .cshrc or .profile.
epilog— The portion of code in a function that restores the stack and returns.
executable module— A linked object file that can be executed in a target system.
expression— A constant, a symbol, or a series of constants and symbols separated by arithmetic
operators.
external symbol— A symbol that is used in the current program module but defined or declared in a
different program module.
file-level optimization— A level of optimization where the compiler uses the information that it has about
the entire file to optimize your code (as opposed to program-level optimization, where the compiler
uses information that it has about the entire program to optimize your code).
function inlining— The process of inserting code for a function at the point of call. This saves the
overhead of a function call and allows the optimizer to optimize the function in the context of the
surrounding code.
global symbol— A symbol that is either defined in the current module and accessed in another, or
accessed in the current module but defined in another.

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high-level language debugging— The ability of a compiler to retain symbolic and high-level language
information (such as type and function definitions) so that a debugging tool can use this
information.
indirect call— A function call where one function calls another function by giving the address of the called
function.
initialization at load time— An autoinitialization method used by the linker when linking C/C++ code. The
linker uses this method when you invoke it with the --ram_model link option. This method initializes
variables at load time instead of run time.
initialized section— A section from an object file that will be linked into an executable module.
integrated preprocessor— A C/C++ preprocessor that is merged with the parser, allowing for faster
compilation. Stand-alone preprocessing or preprocessed listing is also available.
interlist feature— A feature that inserts as comments your original C/C++ source statements into the
assembly language output from the assembler. The C/C++ statements are inserted next to the
equivalent assembly instructions.
intrinsics— Operators that are used like functions and produce assembly language code that would
otherwise be inexpressible in C, or would take greater time and effort to code.
ISO— International Organization for Standardization; a worldwide federation of national standards bodies,
which establishes international standards voluntarily followed by industries.
K&R C— Kernighan and Ritchie C, the de facto standard as defined in the first edition of The C
Programming Language (K&R). Most K&R C programs written for earlier, non-ISO C compilers
should correctly compile and run without modification.
label— A symbol that begins in column 1 of an assembler source statement and corresponds to the
address of that statement. A label is the only assembler statement that can begin in column 1.
linker— A software program that combines object files to form an object module that can be allocated into
system memory and executed by the device.
listing file— An output file, created by the assembler, that lists source statements, their line numbers, and
their effects on the section program counter (SPC).
loader— A device that places an executable module into system memory.
loop unrolling— An optimization that expands small loops so that each iteration of the loop appears in
your code. Although loop unrolling increases code size, it can improve the performance of your
code.
macro— A user-defined routine that can be used as an instruction.
macro call— The process of invoking a macro.
macro definition— A block of source statements that define the name and the code that make up a
macro.
macro expansion— The process of inserting source statements into your code in place of a macro call.
map file— An output file, created by the linker, that shows the memory configuration, section composition,
section allocation, symbol definitions and the addresses at which the symbols were defined for your
program.
memory map— A map of target system memory space that is partitioned into functional blocks.
name mangling— A compiler-specific feature that encodes a function name with information regarding the
function's arguments return types.
object file— An assembled or linked file that contains machine-language object code.

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object library— An archive library made up of individual object files.

object module— A linked, executable object file that can be downloaded and executed on a target
system.
operand— An argument of an assembly language instruction, assembler directive, or macro directive that
supplies information to the operation performed by the instruction or directive.
optimizer— A software tool that improves the execution speed and reduces the size of C programs.
options— Command-line parameters that allow you to request additional or specific functions when you
invoke a software tool.
output module— A linked, executable object file that is downloaded and executed on a target system.
output section— A final, allocated section in a linked, executable module.
parser— A software tool that reads the source file, performs preprocessing functions, checks the syntax,
and produces an intermediate file used as input for the optimizer or code generator.
pipelining— A technique where a second instruction begins executing before the first instruction has
been completed. You can have several instructions in the pipeline, each at a different processing
stage.
pragma— A preprocessor directive that provides directions to the compiler about how to treat a particular
statement.
preprocessor— A software tool that interprets macro definitions, expands macros, interprets header files,
interprets conditional compilation, and acts upon preprocessor directives.
program-level optimization— An aggressive level of optimization where all of the source files are
compiled into one intermediate file. Because the compiler can see the entire program, several
optimizations are performed with program-level optimization that are rarely applied during file-level
optimization.
prolog— The portion of code in a function that sets up the stack.
quiet run— An option that suppresses the normal banner and the progress information.
raw data— Executable code or initialized data in an output section.
run-time environment— The run time parameters in which your program must function. These
parameters are defined by the memory and register conventions, stack organization, function call
conventions, and system initialization.
run-time-support functions— Standard ISO functions that perform tasks that are not part of the C
language (such as memory allocation, string conversion, and string searches).
run-time-support library— A library file, rts.src, that contains the source for the run time-support
functions.
section— A relocatable block of code or data that ultimately will be contiguous with other sections in the
memory map.
sign extend— A process that fills the unused MSBs of a value with the value's sign bit.
simulator— A software development system that simulates MSP430 operation.
source file— A file that contains C/C++ code or assembly language code that is compiled or assembled to
form an object file.
stand-alone preprocessor— A software tool that expands macros, #include files, and conditional
compilation as an independent program. It also performs integrated preprocessing, which includes
parsing of instructions.

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static variable— A variable whose scope is confined to a function or a program. The values of static
variables are not discarded when the function or program is exited; their previous value is resumed
when the function or program is reentered.
storage class— An entry in the symbol table that indicates how to access a symbol.
string table— A table that stores symbol names that are longer than eight characters (symbol names of
eight characters or longer cannot be stored in the symbol table; instead they are stored in the string
table). The name portion of the symbol's entry points to the location of the string in the string table.
structure— A collection of one or more variables grouped together under a single name.
symbol— A string of alphanumeric characters that represents an address or a value.
symbolic debugging— The ability of a software tool to retain symbolic information that can be used by a
debugging tool such as a simulator or an emulator.
target system— The system on which the object code you have developed is executed.
.text section— One of the default object file sections. The .text section is initialized and contains
executable code. You can use the .text directive to assemble code into the .text section.
trigraph sequence— A 3-character sequence that has a meaning (as defined by the ISO 646-1983
Invariant Code Set). These characters cannot be represented in the C character set and are
expanded to one character. For example, the trigraph ??' is expanded to ^.
trip count— The number of times that a loop executes before it terminates.
uninitialized section— A object file section that reserves space in the memory map but that has no actual
contents. These sections are built with the .bss and .usect directives.
unsigned value— A value that is treated as a nonnegative number, regardless of its actual sign.
variable— A symbol representing a quantity that can assume any of a set of values.
veneer— A sequence of instructions that serves as an alternate entry point into a routine if a state
change is required.
word— A 16 bits-bit addressable location in target memory

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 Index

__DATE__ macro 29 allocation

__FILE__ macro 29 defined 127
__LARGE_CODE_MODEL__ macro 29 alt.h pathname 30
__LARGE_DATA_MODEL__ macro 29 ANSI
__LINE__ macro 29 C
__MSP430__ macro 29 changing the language mode 82
__MSP430X461X__ macro 29 compatibility with K&R C 82
__register_lock() function 121 ANSI/ISO
__register_unlock() function 121 MSP430 differences from
__signed_chars__ macro 29 from standard C++ 66
__STACK_SIZE -apd alias for --asm_dependency assembler option 25
using 90 -api alias for --asm_includes assembler option 25
__STDC__ macro 29 archive library
__TI_COMPILER_VERSION__ macro 29 defined 127
__TIME__ macro 29 linking 60
__unsigned_chars__ macro 29 archiver
_c_int00 described 62 defined 127
_INLINE macro 29 described 9
_never_executed intrinsic 51 --arg_size linker option 56
_SYSMEM_SIZE 90 -args alias for --arg_size linker option 56
.args section
A allocating in memory 63
-aa alias for --absolute_listing assembler option 25 arguments
-a alias for --absolute_exe linker option 56 accessing 97
--abs_directory compiler option 25 -ar linker option 56
-abs alias for --run_abs linker option 57 -as alias for --output_all_syms assembler option 26
.abs extension 23 --asm_define assembler option 25
abs function 37 --asm_dependency assembler option 25
--absolute_exe linker option 56 --asm_directory compiler option 25
--absolute_listing assembler option 25 --asm_extension compiler option 24
absolute lister --asm_file compiler option 24
defined 127 --asm_includes assembler option 25
described 9 --asm_listing assembler option 25
absolute listing --asm_undefine assembler option 25
creating 25 .asm extension 23
-ac alias for --syms_ignore_case assembler option 26 asm statement
-ad alias for --asm_define assembler option 25 described 71
add_device function 115 in optimized code 46
-ahc alias for --copy_file assembler option 26 using 100
-ahi alias for --include_file assembler option 26 assembler
-al alias for --asm_listing assembler option 25 controlling with compiler 25
alias disambiguation defined 127
defined 127 described 9
described 50 options summary 17
--aliased_variables compiler option 21, 46 assembly language
aliased variables 46 accessing
-@ alias for --cmd_file compiler option 19 constants 99
alias for --gen_func_subsections compiler option 59 global variables 98
aliasing 46 variables 98
defined 127 code interfacing 97
allocate memory embedding 71
sections 63 including 100

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interlisting with C/C++ code 38 defined 127
interrupt routines 101 described 9
module interfacing 97 C/C++ language
retaining output 20 accessing assembler constants 99
assembly listing file creation 25 accessing assembler global variables 98
assembly source debugging 23 accessing assembler variables 98
assignment statement const keyword 68
defined 127 global constructors and destructors 62
-au alias for --asm_undefine assembler option 25 interlisting with assembly 38
--auto_inline compiler option 47 interrupt keyword 68
autoinitialization placing assembler statements in 100
at run time pragma directives 72
defined 127 restrict keyword 69
described 107 volatile keyword 69
defined 127 .c extension 23
initialization tables 106 character
of variables 105 escape sequences in 83
types of 62 string constants 93
-ax alias for --cross_reference assembler option 26 .cinit section
allocating in memory 63
B assembly module use of 97
-b alias for --no_sym_merge linker option 57 described 89
banner suppressing 20 C I/O
bit fields library 113
size and type 83 cl6x command 55
block cl430 invoking 12
defined 127 cl430 --run_linker command 54
memory allocation 63 C language
branch optimizations 50 interrupt routines 100
.bss section C++ language characteristics 66
allocating in memory 63 close I/O function 116
defined 127 --cmd_fle compiler option 19
described 89 C++ name demangler
byte described 9, 10, 123
defined 127 example 124
invoking 124
C options 124
C++
CODE_SECTION pragma 73
standard library summary 110
code generator
--c_extension compiler option 24
defined 127
--c_file compiler option 24
COFF
c_int00 symbol 104
defined 127
C_OPTION 26
command file
--c_src_interlist compiler option 19, 47
appending to command line 19
--c_src_interlist option
defined 128
compiler 38
linker 63
-c alias for --compile_only compiler option 19
comments
-c alias for --rom_model linker option 57, 62, 107
defined 128
--call_assumptions compiler option 44
common object file format
calling conventions defined 127
accessing arguments and local variables 97 compatibility with K&R C 82
how a called function responds 96 --compile_only compiler option 19
how a function makes a call 96 compiler
calloc function defined 127
dynamic memory allocation 90
diagnostic messages 32
C/C++ compiler
diagnostic options 33

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frequently used options 19 described 9

invoking 12 cross-reference listing
optimizer 42 defined 128
options generating with assembler 26
assembler 17 generating with compiler shell 35
compiler 13
conventions 13 D
deprecated 26 -D alias for --define_name compiler option 19
diagnostics 16 DATA_ALIGN pragma 74
input file extension 14 DATA_SECTION pragma 75
input files 14 data flow optimizations 50
data object representation 91
linker 18, 19
.data section 89
optimizer 17
defined 128
output files 14
data types
parser 15
how stored in memory 91
profiling 14
list of 67
summary 13
storage 91
symbolic debugging 14 pointer to member function 91
overview 10, 12 debugging
preprocessor options 31 optimized code 49
sections 63 --define_name compiler option 19
setting default options with MSP430_C_OPTION 26 --define linker option 56
compiling C/C++ code dem430 124
after preprocessing 31 deprecated compiler options 26
compile only 21 development flow diagram 8
overview, commands, and options 12 device
with the optimizer 42 adding 120
--compress_dwarf linker option 56 functions 115
configured memory --diag_error compiler option 33
defined 128 --diag_error linker option 56
constant --diag_remark compiler option 33
accessing assembler constants from C/C++ 99 --diag_remark linker option 56
character strings 93 --diag_suppress compiler option 34
defined 128 --diag_suppress linker option 56
escape sequences in character constants 83 --diag_warning compiler option 34
string 83 --diag_warning linker option 56
const keyword 68 diagnostic identifiers in raw listing file 36
.const section diagnostic messages
allocating in memory 63 controlling 33
described 89 description 32
control-flow simplification 50 errors 32
controlling diagnostic messages 33 fatal errors 32
conventions format 32
function calls 95 generating 33
register 94 other messages 35
--copy_file assembler option 26
remarks 32
copy file using -ahc assembler option 26
suppressing 33
cost-based register allocation optimization 50
warnings 32
--cpp_default compiler option 24
direct call
--cpp_extension compiler option 24 defined 128
--cpp_file compiler option 24 directives
-cr alias for --ram_model linker option 57, 62, 108 defined 128
--create_pch compiler option 28 directories
--cross_reference assembler option 26 alternate for include files 30
cross-reference lister for include files 20, 30

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naming alternates with environment variables 27 -es alias for --listing_extension compiler option 24
specifying 25 escape sequences 83
disable establishing standard macro definitions 20
automatic inline expansion 47 exception handling
automatic selection of run-time-support library 61 --exceptions compiler option 19
conditional linking 56 --exceptions compiler option 19
linking 55 executable and linking format
merge of symbolic debugging information 57 defined 128
optimization information file 43 executable module
symbolic debugging 23 defined 128
--disable_auto_rts linker option 56, 61 --exit_hook compiler option 40
--disable_clink linker option 56 --exit_param compiler option 40
--disable_pp linker option 56 exit hooks
--exit_hook option 40
--display_error_number compiler option 34
exit hooks parameters
--display_error_number linker option 56
--exit_param option 40
display compiler syntax and options
expression
--help compiler option 20
display progress and toolset data defined 128
--verbose compiler option 21 simplification 50
DWARF debug format 23 extensions
dynamic memory allocation abs 23
defined 128 asm 23
described 90 c 23
cc 23
E cpp 23
-ea alias for --asm_extension compiler option 24 cxx 23
-e alias for --entry_point linker option 56 nfo 43
-ec alias for --c_extension compiler option 24 obj 23
ELF s 23
defined 128 sa 23
--embedded_cpp compiler option 83 specifying 24
embedded C++ mode 83 external declarations 82
emulator external symbol
defined 128 defined 128
--entry_hook compiler option 40
--entry_param compiler option 40 F
--entry_point linker option 56 -fa alias for --asm_file compiler option 24
entry hooks fabs function 37
--entry_hook option 40 -f alias for --fill_value linker option 56
entry hooks parameters fatal error 32
--entry_param option 40 -fb alias for --abs_directory compiler option 25
entry point -fc alias for --c_file compiler option 24
defined 128 -ff alias for --list_directory compiler option 25
environment variable -fg alias for --cpp_default compiler option 24
defined 128 file
MSP430_C_DIR 27, 30 copy 26
MSP430_C_OPTION 26 include 26
-eo alias for --obj_extension compiler option 24 file-level optimization 43
-ep alias for --cpp_extension compiler option 24 defined 128
epilog filename
defined 128 extension specification 24
EPROM programmer 9 specifying 23
error --fill_value linker option 56
messages 32 -fo alias for --obj_file compiler option 24
handling with options 34 --fp_mode compiler option 20
preprocessor 29 --fp_reassoc compiler option 20

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-fp alias for --cpp_file compiler option 24 --register_lock() and __register_unlock() 121
-fr alias for --obj_directory compiler option 25 -h C++ name demangler option 124
-fs alias for --asm_directory compiler option 25 heap
-ft alias for --temp_directory compiler option 25 described 90
FUNC_CANNOT_INLINE pragma 76 reserved space 89
FUNC_EXT_CALLED pragma --heap_size linker option 56
described 76 -heap alias for --heap_size linker option 56
use with --program_level_compile option 45 -help alias for --linker_help linker option 57
FUNC_IS_PURE pragma 77 --help compiler option 20
FUNC_NEVER_RETURNS pragma 77 hex conversion utility
FUNC_NO_GLOBAL_ASG pragma 77 described 9
FUNC_NO_IND_ASG pragma 78 high-level language debugging
function defined 129
call
conventions 95 I
using the stack 90 -I alias for --include_path compiler option 20, 30
inline expansion 37, 51 -i alias for --search_path linker option 57
inlining defined 128 -I compiler option 30
prototype #include
effects of --kr_compatible option 82 files
responsibilities of called function 96 adding a directory to be searched 20
responsibilities of calling function 96 specifying a search path 30
structure 95 preprocessor directive 30
generating list of files included 32
subsections 59
--include_file assembler option 26
G --include_path compiler option 20, 30
-g alias for --make_global linker option 57 include files using --include_file assembler option 26
-gcc compiler option 21 indirect call
GCC extensions to C defined 129
initialization
built-in functions 85
at load time
function attributes 85
defined 129
list supported by TI 84
-g compiler option 23 described 108
of variables 81
--gen_acp_raw compiler option 36
--gen_acp_xref compiler option 35 at load time 91
--gen_func_subsections compiler option 59 at run time 91
types 62
--gen_opt_info compiler option 43
initialization tables 106
--generate_dead_funcs_list linker option 56
initialized sections
generating
allocating in memory 63
linknames 80
defined 129
list of #include files 32
described 89
symbolic debugging directives 23
initializing static and global variables 81
global constructors and destructors 62
global symbol with const type qualifier 81
defined 128 with the linker 81
global variables inline
accessing assembler variables from C/C++ 98 assembly language 100
autoinitialization 105 automatic expansion 47
initializing 81 definition-controlled function expansion 37
reserved space 89 function expansion 37
GNU compiler extensions 84 intrinsic operators 37
keyword and alternate keyword __inline 37
H input file
-h alias for --help compiler option 20 changing default extensions 24
-h alias for --make_static linker option 57 changing interpretation of filenames 24
handling reentrancy default extensions 23

136 Index SLAU132B – March 2008

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extensions -k alias for --keep_asm compiler option 20
summary of options 14 K&R C
summary of options 14 compatibility with ANSI C 82
integrated preprocessor defined 129
defined 129 --keep_asm compiler option 20
interfacing C and assembly 97 keyword
interlist utility const 68
C/C++ source with generated assembly 19 interrupt 68
defined 129 restrict 69
described 9 volatile 69
invoking with compiler 38 --kr_compatible compiler option 82
optimizer comments or C/C++ source with assembly
21 L
used with the optimizer 47 label
interrupt case sensitivity
handling --syms_ignore_case compiler option 26
described 100 defined 129
saving registers 68, 100 retaining 26
routines labs function 37
assembly language 101 -l alias for --library linker option 57, 60
C/C++ language 100 --large_memory_model compiler option 21
interrupt keyword 68 libraries
INTERRUPT pragma 78 run-time support 110
intrinsic run-time-support routines 101 library
intrinsics building 112
defined 129 modifying a function 112
inlining operators 37 library-build process 121
invoking described 9
C++ name demangler 124 non-TI software 122
compiler 12 using 122
linker -library linker option 54, 57, 60
through compiler 54 linker
invoking the command file 63
library-build process 122 controlling 60
I/O defined 129
adding a device 120 described 9
functions disabling 55
close 116 invoking 20
lseek 116 invoking through the compiler 54
open 117 as part of the compile step 55
read 118 as separate step 54
rename 118 options 56
unlink 119 summary of options 18, 19
write 119 suppressing 19
implementation overview 113 --linker_help linker option 57
library 113 linking
ISO C/C++ code 53
defined 129 object library 111
standards overview 10 run-time-support libraries
--issue_remarks compiler option 34 automatic selection 61
--issue_remarks linker option 56 with run-time-support libraries 60
linknames
J and interrupts 101
-j alias for --disable_clink linker option 56 linknames generated by the compiler 80
-list_directory compiler option 25
K --listing_extension compiler option 24

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listing file described 9

creating cross-reference 26 name mangling
defined 129 defined 129
generating with preprocessor 36 .nfo extension 43
loader --no_demangle linker option 57
defined 129 NO_HOOKS pragma 79
using with linker 81 --no_inlining compiler option 37
local variables --no_sym_merge linker option 57
accessing 97 --no_sym_table option
loop-invariant optimizations 51 linker 57
loop rotation optimization 51 --no_warnings compiler option 34
loops --no_warnings linker option 57
optimization 51
loop unrolling O
defined 129 -O3 alias for --opt_level=3 compiler option 43
lseek I/O function 116 -O alias for --opt_level compiler option 42
-o alias for --output_file linker option 57
M --obj_directory compiler option 25
-ma alias for --aliased_variables compiler option 21, 46 --obj_extension compiler option 24
macro --obj_file compiler option 24
defined 129 object file
expansions 29 defined 129
macro call defined 129 object library
macro definition defined 129 defined 130
macro expansion defined 129 linking code with 111
predefined names 29 object module
--make_global linker option 57 defined 130
--make_static linker option 57 .obj extension 23
-m alias for --map_file linker option 57 -o C++ name demangler option 124
malloc function -oi alias for --auto_inline compiler option 47
dynamic memory allocation 90 -ol0 alias for --std_lib_func_redefined compiler option 43
--map_file linker option 57 -ol1 alias for --std_lib_func_defined compiler option 43
map file -ol2 alias for --std_lib_func_not_defined compiler option
defined 129 43
--mapfile_contents linker option 57 -on alias for --gen_opt_info compiler option 43
-mc alias for --plain_char compiler option 21 -op alias for --call_assumptions compiler option 44
-mc compiler option 21 open I/O function 117
memory map operand
defined 129 defined 130
memory model --opt_for_space compiler option 21
described 88 --opt_for_speed compiler option 21
dynamic memory allocation 90 --opt_level=3 compiler option 43
sections 89 --opt_level compiler option 42
stack 90 optimization
variable initialization 91 accessing aliased variables 46
memory pool optimizations
reserved space 89 alias disambiguation 50
-mf alias for --opt_for_speed compiler option 21 branch 50
-ml alias for --large_memory_model compiler option 21 considerations when mixing C/C++ and assembly 45
-ms alias for --opt_for_space compiler option 21 control-flow simplification 50
MSP430_C_DIR 27 controlling the level of 44
MSP430_C_DIR environment variable 30 cost based register allocation 50
MSP430_C_OPTION 26 data flow 50
expression simplification 50
N file-level
-n alias for --skip_assembler compiler option 21 defined 128
name demangler

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described 43 parser
induction variables 51 defined 130
information file options 43 summary of options 15
inline expansion 51 --pch_dir compiler option 28
levels 42 --pch_verbose compiler option 28
list of 49 --pch compiler option 28
loop-invariant code motion 51 -pdel alias for --set_error_limit compiler option 34
loop rotation 51 -pden alias for --diag_error_number compiler option 34
MSP430-specific -pdf alias for --write_diagnostics_file compiler option 34
integer division with constant divisor 51 -pdr alias for --issue_remarks compiler option 34
tail merging 51 -pds alias for --diag_suppress compiler option 34
program-level -pdse alias for --diag_error compiler option 33
defined 130 -pdsr alias for --diag_remark compiler option 33
described 44 -pdsw alias for --diag_warning compiler option 34
-specific -pdv alias for --verbose_diagnostics compiler option 34
Never_Executed intrinsic 51 -pdw alias for --no_warnings compiler option 34
strength reduction 51 -pe alias for --embedded_cpp compiler option 83
--optimize_with_debug compiler option 21 performing file-level optimization 43
optimized code -pi alias for --no_inlining compiler option 37
debugging 49 .pinit section
optimizer allocating in memory 63
defined 130 described 89
described 9 pinit symbol 62
invoking with compiler options 42 pipelining
defined 130
performing file-level optimization 43
-pk alias for --kr_compatible compiler option 82
summary of options 17
-pl alias for --gen_acp_raw compiler option 36
--optimizer_interlist compiler option 47
-pm alias for --program_level_compile compiler option
options
44
aliases
pointer combinations 82
compiler 13
-ppa alias for --preproc_with_compile compiler option 31
linker 56
-ppc alias for --preproc_with_comments compiler option
assembler 25 31
C++ name demangler 124 -ppd alias for --preproc_dependency compiler option 32
compiler summary 13 -ppd alias for --preproc_includes compiler option 32
controlling hooks 15 -ppl alias for --preproc_with_line compiler option 31
conventions 13 -ppo alias for --preproc_only compiler option 31
defined 130 pragma
diagnostics 16, 33 defined 130
linker 56 pragma directives 72
preprocessor 16, 31 CODE_SECTION 73
-os alias for --optimizer_interlist compiler option 47 DATA_ALIGN 74
output DATA_SECTION 75
file options summary 14 FUNC_CANNOT_INLINE 76
module FUNC_EXT_CALLED 76
defined 130 FUNC_IS_PURE 77
overview of files 10 FUNC_NEVER_RETURNS 77
section FUNC_NO_GLOBAL_ASG 77
defined 130 FUNC_NO_IND_ASG 78
--output_all_syms assembler option 26
INTERRUPT 78
-output_file linker option 54, 57
NO_HOOKS 79
overflow vector 79
run-time stack 105 -pr alias for --relaxed_ansi compiler option 83
precompiled header support 28
P automatic 28
parameters
manual 28
compiling register parameters 70

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predefining a constant 25 realloc function 90

--preinclude compiler option 20 reassociation of floating-point arithmetic
preinitialized variables --fp_reassoc option 20
global and static 81 reassociation of saturating arithmetic
--preproc_dependency compiler option 32 --sat_reassoc option 21
--preproc_includes compiler option 32 register parameters
--preproc_only compiler option 31 compiling 70
--preproc_with_comments compiler option 31 registers
--preproc_with_compile compiler option 31 allocation 94
--preproc_with_line compiler option 31 conventions 94
preprocessed listing file saving during interrupts 68, 100
assembly dependency lines 25 register variables
assembly include files 25 compiling 70
generating raw information 36 --relaxed_ansi compiler option 83
generating with comments 31 relaxed ANSI/ISO mode 83
generating with #line directives 31 relaxed ANSI mode 83
preprocessor relaxed floating-point mode
controlling 29 --fp_mode option 20
defined 130 --relocatable linker option 57
error messages 29 remarks 32
rename I/O function 118
options 31
--reread_libs linker option 57
predefining constant names for option 19
restrict keyword 69
symbols 29
--rom_model linker option 54, 57, 62, 107
--printf_support compiler option 22
--rom_model link option
printing tool version numbers
system initialization 104
--tool_version compiler option 21
--run_abs linker option 57
-priority alias for --priority linker option 57
--run_linker compiler option 20
--priority linker option 57
overriding with --rom_model compiler option 55
--program_level_compile compiler option 44
run-time environment
program-level optimization
defined 130
controlling 44
function call conventions 95
defined 130
performing 44 interfacing C with assembly language 97
interrupt handling
progress information suppressing 20
prolog described 100
defined 130 saving registers 68, 100
-ps alias for --strict_ansi compiler option 83 introduction 87
-px alias for --gen_acp_xref compiler option 35 memory model
during autoinitialization 91
Q dynamic memory allocation 90
-q alias for --quiet compiler option 20 sections 89
--quiet compiler option 20 register conventions 94
quiet run stack 90
defined 130 system initialization 104
run-time initialization
R of variables 91
-r alias for --relocatable linker option 57 run-time-support
--ram_model linker option 54, 57, 62, 108 functions
--ram_model link option defined 130
system initialization 104 introduction 109
raw data intrinsic arithmetic and conversion routines 101
defined 130 libraries
raw listing file described 110
generating with -pl option 36 functionality summarized 110
identifiers 36 library-build process 121
read I/O function 118 linking C code 54, 60

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library described 89
defined 130 stand-alone preprocessor
described 9 defined 130
static variable
S defined 131
.sa extension 23 initializing 81
-s alias for --no_sym_table linker option 57 --std_lib_func_defined compiler option 43
-s alias for --src_interlist compiler option 21 --std_lib_func_not_defined compiler option 43
--sat_reassoc compiler option 21 --std_lib_func_redefined compiler option 43
saving registers storage class
during interrupts 100 defined 131
saving registers during interrupts 68 strength reduction optimization 51
--scan_libraries linker option 57 --strict_ansi compiler option 83
--search_path linker option 57 --strict_compatibility linker option 58
section strict ANSI/ISO mode 83
allocating memory 63 strict ANSI mode 83
.bss 89 string constants 83
.cinit 89 structure
.const 89 defined 131
created by the compiler 63 STYP_COPY flag 62
.data 89 suppressing diagnostic messages 33
defined 130 symbol
described 89 defined 131
--symbol_map linker option 58
initialized 89
symbolic cross-reference in listing file 26
.pinit 89
symbolic debugging
.stack 89
defined 131
.sysmem 89
disabling 23
.text 89
minimal (default) 23
uninitialized 89
--set_error_limit compiler option 34 selecting DWARF format version 23
using DWARF format 23
--set_error_limit linker option 58
symbols
.s extension 23
case sensitivity 26
sign extend
symbol table
defined 130
creating labels 26
--silicon_version compiler option 22
--symdebug:dwarf compiler option 23
simulator
--symdebug:none compiler option 23
defined 130
--symdebug:skeletal compiler option 23
--skip_assembler compiler option 21
--syms_ignore_case assembler option 26
--small_enum compiler option 22
.sysmem section
software development tools overview 8
source file allocating in memory 63
described 89
defined 130
system constraints
extensions 24
_SYSMEM_SIZE 90
--src_interlist compiler option 21
system initialization
-ss alias for --c_src_interlist compiler option 19, 38, 47
described 104
stack
initialization tables 106
changing the size 105
stack 105
overflow
system stack 90
run-time stack 105
pointer 90, 105 T
reserved space 89
target system
--stack_size linker option 58 defined 131
--stack_size link option 105 -temp_directory compiler option 25
-stack alias for --stack_size linker option 58 .text section
.stack section
allocating in memory 63
allocating in memory 63
defined 131

SLAU132B – March 2008 Index 141

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described 89 autoinitialization 105

--tool_version compiler option 21 compiling register variables 70
trigraph sequence defined 131
defined 131 initializing
trip count global 81
defined 131 static 81
-v C++ name demangler option 124
U vector pragma 79
-u alias for --undef_sym linker option 58 veneer
-U alias for --undefine_name compiler option 21 defined 131
-u C++ name demangler option 124 --verbose_diagnostics compiler option 34
--undef_sym linker option 58 --verbose_diagnostics linker option 58
--undefine_name compiler option 21 --verbose compiler option 21
--undefine linker option 58 -version alias for --tool_version compiler option 21
undefining a constant 21, 25 volatile keyword 69
uninitialized sections
allocating in memory 63 W
defined 131 -w alias for --warn_sections linker option 58
list 89 --warn_sections linker option 58
unlink I/O function 119 warning messages 32
unsigned wildcards
defined 131 use
--use_pch compiler option 28 compiler 23
using smallest byte size for enum type word
--small_enum compiler option 22 defined 131
utilities --write_diagnostics_file compiler option 34
overview 10 write I/O function 119

V X
-v alias for --silicon_version compiler option 22 >> symbol 35
-v alias for --verbose compiler option 21 -x alias for --reread_libs linker option 57
variables -- xml_link_info linker option 58
accessing assembler variables from C/C++ 98
accessing local variables 97 Z
-z alias for --run_linker compiler option 20

142 Index SLAU132B – March 2008

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