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 CONTENTS

Sl. No. TOPICS Pg. No.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

1. Science And Technology In India .......................................................... 5-19

2. Health And Hygienc ............................................................................. 20-44

3. Electronics and Computers .................................................................. 45-79

4. Robotics Technology ............................................................................. 80-85

 SCIENCE AND CHRONICLE
TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Madras, Kanpur and Delhi, besides a number

DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
of regional engineering colleges. A number of
In 1947, with the emergence of a new institutions for specialized training such as the
politically independent nation, India continued National Institute of Foundry and Forge
to march ahead pursuing a programme of using Technology, School of Planning and
modern science and technology for national Architecture, the Institutes of Management and
development. Today India spends about 1.5 per the All India Institute of Medical Sciences were
cent of its GNP on science and technology. In set up. A similar expansion took place in science
this effort not only has India established education. The number of universities and
capabilities of its own but has also cooperated science graduates and post-graduates
with developed as well as developing countries multiplied. Nehru diversified the area of
in its progress towards the use of science and operation in science and technology. India was
technology for national development. the first country, originally on the foot-pound
system, to change over the metric system during
Soon after Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru became the present century. In 1948, Nehru directed the
the Prime Minister of India, he created a Ministry SCIR to prepare a National Register of Scientific
of Scientific Research and Natural Resources, and Technical Personnel. The Defence Science
and actively supported the atomic energy Organisation was set up in 1948, on the advice
programme for peaceful purposes. In 1948, the of Professor P.M.S. Blackett, for the scientific
Atomic Energy Act was passed and the evaluation of weapons and equipment,
Department of Atomic Energy was directly operational research and special studies using
under his charge. Till his death in 1964, he was scientific technique.
the Chairman of the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research. His long association with Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi gave the
the India Science Congress Association is well highest priority to self- reliance in science and
known. Under the farsighted leadership of technology and the achievement of self-
Nehru, the nation, the government and the sufficiency in food. In 1971, recognizing the
public leaders became committed to the importance of developing integrated and self-
promotion of science and technology for reliant electronic capabilities in the country, she
national development in a phased manner. set up the Electronics Commission. There have
been many accomplishments in the field. To
The enthusiastic efforts of Mr. Shanti Swarup ensure that developmental activities took place
Bhatnagar led to the expansion of the Council
in harmony with the environment, Mrs. Gandhi
of Scientific and Industrial Research into a chain
created a new Department of Environment at
of national laboratories spanning a wide
the Centre in 1980. It was at her initiative that
spectrum of science, technology, engineering
the first Indian scientific expedition to Antarctica
and biomedical sciences. The vision of Homi J.
took place in December 1981. She was deeply
Bhabha led to advanced research in nuclear
aware of the great importance of energy for
energy and other fundamental areas through the
development and, in particular, the pressing
creation of the Tata Institute of Fundamental
needs in rural areas. Accordingly, she set up a
Research (TIFR) and what has now come to be
Commission on Additional Sources of Energy in
known as the Bhabha Atomic Research Center
March 1981, and thereafter a Department of
(BARC), and the entire gamut of activities today
coming under the Atomic Energy Commission. Non-Conventional Energy Source.

Soon after assuming office, Nehru appointed India’s development plans have consistently
a Scientific Man-power Committee and had the emphasised the need for sustained investment
satisfaction of seeing five Institutes of in research and related activities leading to
Technology come up at Kharagpur, Bombay, creation of substantial capacity and capabilities

Chronicle IAS Academy [5]

 in science and technology (S&T). The fruits of increasing the share of global scientific
this effort are evident in India’s nuclear and publications from 3.5 per cent to over 7
space programmes, information and per cent and quadrupling the number of
communication technology services, automotive papers in top 1 per cent journals from the
and pharmaceuticals industries and other areas. current levels).
As the Indian economy continues on the
Linking contributions of Science Research
path of rapid, more inclusive and sustainable and innovation system with the inclusive
growth, it will be necessary to ensure that India’s economic growth agenda and combining
capabilities in S&T grow in strength. This is priorities of excellence and relevance.
especially important if India is to become one of
the major economies of the world over the next
Creating an environment for enhanced
20 years. private sector participation in R &D.
The country needs to move up from investing
Enabling conversion of R & D output with
1 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) in societal and commercial applications by
the R&D sector to 2 per cent of GDP and more, replicating hitherto successful models, as
as has been the case with several developed and well as establishing of new PPP structures.
emerging economies for quite some time now.

Seeking S&T based high risk innovation
This must be achieved not only through an
additional government effort, but also a much through new mechanisms.
increased private sector effort.
Fostering resource optimized cost-effective
innovation across size and technology
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND domains.
INNOVATION POLICY 2013
Triggering in the mindset and value
New Science, Technology and Innovation systems to recognize respect and reward
(STI) policy has been formulated and enunciated performances which create wealth from
in 2013 and was formally released at the 100th S&T derived knowledge.
Session of Indian Science Congress at Kolkata
Creating a robust national innovation
on 3rd January, 2013 by the Prime Minister Dr. system.
Manmohan Singh. The policy seeks to focus on
both STI for people and people for STI. It aims
Establishing linkages between discovery
to bring all the benefits of Science, Technology processes of science and developmental
& Innovation to the national development and priorities of the country in agriculture,
sustainable and more inclusive growth. It seeks manufacturing, services and infrastructure
the right sizing of the gross expenditure on sector.
research and development by encouraging and
incentivizing private sector participation in R & SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
D, technology and innovation activities. Main
features of the STI policy 2013 include: POLICY-2003

Promoting the spread of scientific temper The “Science and Technology Policy-2003”
amongst all sections of society. envisages an implementation strategy for

Enhancing skills for applications of science revitalization of the Science & Technology
among the young from all social sectors. institutions in the country. The key elements of

Making careers in science, research and the strategy include:
innovation attractive enough for talented (i) S&T governance and investment;
and bright minds.
(ii) Strengthening of infrastructure for

Establishing world class infrastructure for Science and Technology in academic
R&D for gaining global leadership in some institutions;
select frontier areas of science.
(iii) New funding mechanisms for basic

Positioning India among the top five research;
global scientific powers by 2020 (by (iv) Human resource development;

Chronicle IAS Academy [6]

 (v) Optimal Utilization of Existing ies which improve the performance of
Infrastructure and Competence; selected industries and their
competitiveness.
(vi) Technology Development, Transfer and
(c) Focus attention on certain emerging and
Diffusion;
frontier technologies.
(vii) Indigenous Resources and Traditional
Knowledge; SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(viii) Technologies for Mitigation and INFRASTRUCTURE
Management of Natural Hazards;
Besides having the third largest scientific
(ix) Promotion of Innovation; manpower, India also possess a large
infrastructural network. Scientific and
(x) Generation and Management of
technological activities in India can be classified
Intellectual Property; into these sectors, viz., (i) Central government;
(xi) Industry and scientific R&D; (ii) State government; (iii) higher education
sector; (iv) public sector industry and; (v) non-
(xii) Public Awareness of Science and profit institutions/associations. These
Technology; and institutional structures comprise mainly of major
(xii) International Science and Technology scientific departments of the Central
cooperation. Government, with their research laboratories,
institutions, which are the main contributors to
the research activities being carried out in the
TECHNOLOGY MISSIONS
country. These are the Indian Council of
The “Technology Missions” were the brain Agricultural Research (ICAR), Indian Council
child of Mr. Rajiv Gandhi. The missions started of Medical Research (ICMR), the Department of
in 1985 and were an offshoot of the Seventh Plan. Atomic Energy (DAE), Defence Research and
Launched in the fields of literacy, immunization, Development Organisation (DRDO),
oilseeds, drinking water, dairy products and Department of Ocean Development (DOD),
telecommunication, it had the following aims: Department of Environment (DOE), and
Ministry of Science and Technology comprising
1. Make a substantial improvement in the of three departments-Science and Technology,
literacy level of the population. Scientific and Industrial Research and
2. Immunize all infants against six diseases and Biotechnology. Besides, there are other Central
women against tetanus. Government ministries/departments and
3. Cut down imports of edible oils. number of research institutions under their
4. Improve the availability and quality of administrative and financial control. In addition,
there are in-house R & D units of public-sector
drinking water in rural areas.
undertakings. The private sector industries have
5. Improve milk production and rural established their own in-house R & D units,
employment. which are responsible for undertaking R & D
6. Extend and improve the telecommunication activities for their respective industries. The state
network especially in the rural areas. governments have their own research institution,
In the light of the new industrial and which mainly comprise agriculture universities
economic policies adopted by the Government, and their research stations besides having other
the approach to technology development has research institutions directly under different
had to be fine-tuned. Besides enhancing the flow departments of the state governments.
of technology from abroad, the Department of Infrastructure for education, research and
Electronics has decided to launch a series of development has expanded enormously over the
years.
Technology Missions, essentially to meet the
following three objectives: 1. Department of Science and Technology
(a) Strengthening the technology base
The Department of Science and Technology,
infrastructure.
set up in 1971, has been concerned with various
(b) Commercializing indigenous technolog-

Chronicle IAS Academy [7]

 facets of promoting Science and Technology in our sub-continent, the Department has set
the Country. In this process, it has evolved policy up a National Centre for Medium Range
statements and guidelines, provided mechanisms Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) with the
of coordination of areas of science and installation of a sophisticated supercompu-
technology for which a number of institutions ter at its premises in New Delhi. The centre
and departments have interests and capabilities, is involved in developing models, which will
supported grants-in-aid of scientific research hopefully be able to predict the behaviour
institutions and professional bodies. of monsoons at least seven to ten days in
By the very nature of the activities of the advance.
department, it has to play a catalytic and
Survey of India (SOI): The information
coordinating role, and, in this process over the obtained from accurate surveys are
past few years, the efforts at promoting science enormously useful for various development
and technology in the states and union territories and strategic needs. The Survey of India
have also gathered considerable momentum. (SOI), another premier organisation, is
The programmes of Department of Science responsible for the production of
and Technology are summarized below: topographical maps and providing services
to defence forces and also to other users for

Formulation of policies relating to S&T
various developmental activities. Modern

Promotion of new areas of S&T facilities for map making, including the

Support and Grants-in-aid to Scientific setting up of modern cartographical centre,
Research Institutions, Scientific Associations digital mapping centre, etc. are some of the
and Bodies. important schemes undertaken by the SOI.

R & D Promotion Programme
National Atlas and Thematic Mapping

Technology Development Organisation (NATMO): While Survey of

S & T Programmes for Socio-economic India meets the national needs in
Development cartography, etc., some specialized thematic
maps required to meet the needs of specific

Natural Resources Data Management
users are taken care of by the National Atlas
System (NRDMS)
and Thematic Mapping Organisation

S & T Entrepreneurship Development (NATMO), operating under the Department.

S & T Communication and Popularization
Autonomous Scientific Institutions: As part

Promotion of S&T at the State, District, and of its programmes for supporting science
Village levels for grassroots development and technology activities in the country, the
through State S&T Councils and other Department provides grants-in-aid to 13
mechanisms. autonomous scientific research institutions

All other measures needed for the promotion and the four national academies, including,
of S&T and their application to the the Indian National Science Academy, New
development and security of the nation. Delhi and the India Academy of Science,
Kolkata. Thirteen autonomous research
2. India Meteorological Department (IMD)
institutions take up programme, which are
The objectives of the India Meteorological in the frontline areas of life sciences,
Department (IMD) are to provide and forecast physical sciences and engineering sciences.
meteorological information on weather sensitive These institutions, having a large body of
activities, warning against severe weather scientists carrying out research, have made
phenomena, and provide meteorological very valuable contribution in the form of
statistical data. The Department has its research publication in prominent national
observatory and offices in different parts of the and international journals.
country.
3. Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)

National Centre for Medium Range
Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF): In order India embarked on an ambitious nuclear
to study and analyze the weather and power programme over four decades ago. The
climate behaviour of particular interest to Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) set up in

Chronicle IAS Academy [8]

 1948, is the apex body, which lays down policies (PREEFREE) and Waste Immobilisation
pertaining to atomic energy programmes. To Plant at Tarapur, and a seismic station at
execute these policies, the Department of Atomic Gauribidanur (Karnataka). The Radiation
Energy (DAE) was formed in 1954. The activities Medicine Centre at Mumbai uses
of DAE are grouped under research and radioisotopes for diagnostic and therapeutic
development, nuclear power production and applications.
industries and minerals. The Department also

Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
extends financial support to several institutions
Research: Set up in 1971, at Kalpakkam,
carrying out basic research in nuclear and allied
near Madras, the Centre carries out R and
sciences.
D activities relating to fast breeder

Nuclear Power Programme: To use the development. It has set up a FBTR, which
country’s uranium and vast thorium is presently operating at a power level of 1
resources, a three stage atomic power MWe, which will be gradually raised to the
programme was envisaged in 1940s. The design value. Based on the experience
ongoing first stage uses natural uranium gained from FBTR, this Centre has evolved
fuelled pressurized heavy water reactors a design for the prototype 500 MWe reactor
(PHWRs) for producing electricity. The (PFBR). The Centre is equipped with
spent fuel when reprocessed yields modern laboratories for carrying out work
plutonium, which can be used as fuel and in metallurgy, radiochemistry and fuel
results in production of more plutonium and reprocessing related to fast reactors.
uranium-233 when thorium is used as a
blanket. The third stage reactors will be Over the years, the centre has established
using uranium-233 in the thorium cycle. comprehensive R & D facilities covering the
entire spectrum of FBR technology related to

Research and Development Units: R & D Sodium Technology, Reactor Engineering,
activities of DAE, are concentrated at four Reactor Physics, Metallurgy and Materials,
research centres namely the Bhabha Atomic Chemistry of Fuels and its materials, Fuel
Research Centre, Kalpakkam; Mumbai; Reprocessing, Reactor Safety, Control and
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Instrumentation, Computer Applications, etc.
Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore, and has developed a strong base in a variety of
and Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre, disciplines related to this advanced technology.
Kolkata.
Centre for Advanced Technology: The

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC): centre, set up in 1984 at Indore, Madhya
Set up in 1957, the Bhabha Atomic Research Pradesh, has been developing technologies
Centre (BARC) is a premier research in the area of lasers and accelerators. The
institution of the country working in nuclear synchrotron radiation facility is being set
sciences and related fields. The country’s up here which will be a major research
first 1- MW research reactor APSARA was facility in the country.
built indigenously in 1956. In 1960, a 40
Variable Energy Cyclotron: It is a premier
MW research reactor ‘CIRUS’ R & D setup in 1980, a unit of the
commissioned at Bombay for developmental Department of Atomic Energy and one of
work, including production of isotopes, the constituent institution of Homi Bhahba
experimentation, and training. ‘CIRUS’ is National Institute. This centre is dedicated
still in operation. A new high flux to carryout frontier research and
indigenous 100 MW reactor ‘DHRUVA’ development in the feld of Accelerator
was commissioned in August 1985 for Science & Technology, Nuclear Science
research in advanced nuclear physics and (Theoretical and Experimental), material
production of isotopes. Other facilities of science & other relevant areas.
BARC include a research reactor PURNIMA
III using Uranium-233 as fuel, a neutron Public Sector Undertakings under DAE
source reactor KAMINI (at Kalpakkam), 5.5
Nuclear Power Corporation of India
MeV Van-de-Graaff accelerator set up in Limited (NPCIL): The Corporation is
collaboration with TIFR, a Beryllium Plant responsible for designing, constructing, and

Chronicle IAS Academy [9]

 operating nuclear power reactors. At Fundamental Research (TIFR), Saha Institute of
present it has eight reactors in operation, Nuclear Physics (SINP), Tata Memorial Centre
with a total installed capacity of 1500 MWe. (TMC) and Institute of Physics (IOP).

Uranium Corporation of India Limited:
The TIFR set up in 1945 at Colaba,
The Uranium Corporation of India Limited Bombay, is engaged in fundamental
(UCIL) was formed for mining, milling and research mainly in the fields of
processing of uranium ores. The mathematics, physics, astrophysics,
Corporation operates Uranium mill at molecular biology and computer science.
Jadugoda (Jharkhand) and two uranium The facilities under TIFR include: Balloon
mines at Jadugoda and Bhatin (Jharkhand).
Facility at Hyderabad, Radio Astronomy
It also has facilities to recover minerals such
Centre and National Image Processing
as copper concentrates and molybdenum
Facility for Astronomy at Ootacamund
from the ores. Major projects under
(Tamil Nadu) and FTNMR (Fourier
construction are at Narwapahar and
Transform Nuclear Magnetic Resonance)
Turamdih, both in Jharkhand, being set up
national facility at Bombay.
for mining and milling of uranium ores. In
1950, the India Rare Earths Limited was
The Tata Memorial Centre at Bombay is
incorporated as a company of DAE. It has the foremost institution in the country in
mineral sand separation plants at research, diagnosis and treatment of
Manavalakurichi (Tamil Nadu) and cancer. It is also a premier education centre
Chavara (Kerala), rare earths plant for in oncology.
Monazite processing at Alwaye (Kerala) and

The Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics,
the Orissa Sand Complex (OSCOM) at
Chhattarpur (Orissa). The major products established in 1951 at Calcutta, is a major
of IREL are: ilmenite, rutile, zircon, rare centre for advanced research in nuclear
earths chloride and others. It is a major and allied sciences.
exporter of rate earth minerals and value
The Institute of Physics at Bhubaneshwar
added products. has facilities for advanced research in

Electronics Corporation of India Limited: nuclear science. A 3 MV Pelletron
In operation since 1967, ECIL has pioneered accelerator is a major research facility of
in the production of wide ranging the institute.
indigenously developed sophisticated
electronic systems, instruments and systems Atomic Energy Regulatory Board
for use in the nuclear power programme The regulatory and safety function, as laid
and other industries. The Corporation is one down in the Atomic Energy Act, 1992, are
of the leading organisations of the country carried out by the Atomic Energy Regulatory
in the field of manufacture of computers, Board (AERB) constituted in 1983. The Board is
control and instrumentation, empowered to frame rules and regulations
communication system, and consumer relating to safety and regulatory requirement for
electronics. establishments engaged in works relating to and

Board of Radiation and Isotope use of radiation. Safety standards, codes and
Technology: Radioisotopes find extensive guides to be followed by DAE and non-DAE
use in medicine, crop improvement, food nuclear installations are regularly issued. The
irradiation, industry and research. To carry Department’s emergency preparedness and
out activities in the above fields on plans of all its nuclear installations are monitored
commercial lines, the Board of Radiation by AERB.
and Isotope Technology was set up in
4. Department of Space (DOS)
March 1988.
Support to Research In India, space programme was formally
organised in 1972 with the setting up of the
The Department has been funding four Space Commission and the Department of Space.
institutions namely the Tata Institute of The primary objective of the programme is to

Chronicle IAS Academy [10]

 provide space based services in areas of
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre
communication, meteorology and resources (LPSC) is the key centre for development
survey and management and, as integral to it, of liquid propulsion systems. With its
develop satellites, launch vehicles and associated facilities located at Thiruvananthapuram,
ground systems. The past two decades have Bangalore and Mahendragiri, the Centre
already seen the Indian space programme undertakes research, development and
making a remarkable progress through a well- testing of liquid propulsion systems for
integrated, self-reliant programme. Space ISRO’s launch vehicle and satellite
communication has not only enhanced the programmes.
communication capabilities in the country but
also it is now being widely deployed for 5. Department of Electronics (DOE)
providing advanced disaster warning, search
and rescue measures and distance education to Productions of electronic equipment and
remote areas. component has come a long way since the days
of radio receivers in 1940s. Electronics industry
Space Centre and Units in India has grown with domestic demand as a
Research and development activities under result of import substitution efforts. In order to
the space programme are carried out in various keep pace with developments in the
centres/units of ISRO/DOS. The major projects international scene and also considering the
of ISRO are executed by identified lead centres increasing importance of electronics for
depending upon the technology base established diversified applications the Department of
in them. Electronics was set up by the Government of

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), India in 1971. Since then, the Department has
Thiruvananthapuram, is the lead centre been coordinating development of electronics
for launch vehicle development and it in India and reviewing constantly the growth
pioneers in rocket research and the achieved in the industrial front and in the R and
planning and execution of launch vehicle D capabilities.
development projects. Manpower Development

ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bangalore,
The Department of Electronics has been
is responsible for the design, fabrication, supporting projects relating to manpower and
testing and management of satellite skill development. The programme on generation
systems for scientific, technological and of special manpower of computers aims at
application missions. bridging the gap between supply and demand

Space Application Centre (SAC), of trained manpower of computers. Activities
Ahmedabad, is ISRO’s research and under this programme include providing funds
for courses such as M. Tech., B. Tech., MCA,
development centre for conceiving,
PGDCA, etc and training for teachers of DCA,
organizing and building systems for
MCA and ITIs.
practical applications of space technology.
The major fields of activity cover satellite Seven Centres of Electronic Design and
communications, remote sensing, Technology (CEDT) have been set up for
meteorology and geodesy. imparting training in design and manufacturing
aspects of electronics products. The department

SHAR (Sriharikota High Altitude has launched a pilot programme for Computer
Rocket) Centre, Sriharikota, located on Literacy and Studies in Schools (CLASS) in
the east coast of Andhra Pradesh, is the participation with other PSUs like BEL, ECIL,
main launch centre of ISRO. This centre ITI, BHEL, etc.
also undertakes large scale production of
solid rocket propellant and ground testing
CMC Limited
of solid fuelled rocket stages of the Indian CMC Ltd., set up in 1976 is committed to
launch vehicles. the creative use of computers and information
technology tools in core sectors of the economy

Chronicle IAS Academy [11]

 through applications, which increase Intelligence based Script Technology); National
productivity and improve the quality of life. It Centre for Software Technology (NCST) set up
provides hardware maintenance support to in 1985 had also initiated work in Indian
various equipments supplied by over 30 Language Computing around the same period.
manufacturers. It coordinated implementation
Major focus of C-DAC was on consolidating
of project INCONET, which is an integrated and stabilizing its hardware products developed
information management and data processing in the first mission, commercialization of
facility spanning the entire country. products, carrying out R&D to enhance the
Electronics Trade and Technology throughput and power of the PARAM series of
parallel computers, conduct research in the state
Development Corporation Limited
of the art in advanced computing and develop
ET and T was set up with objectives of new products in the language technology area.
expanding foreign trade in electronics and C-DAC has today emerged as a premier third
undertaking developments of technology in key party R&D organization in IT&E (Information
areas. The Corporation has taken up a Technologies and Electronics) in the country
programme known as MTB programme to working on strengthening national technological
manufacture 17” B/W TV and 53 cm FST colour capabilities in the context of global developments
TV. Low cost PC project launched by ET and T in the field and responding to change in the
to spread education through electronic media in market need in selected foundation areas.
a wider sense viz., curricular, vocational,
community development, adult literacy and to 6. Department of Scientific and Industrial
make children available with educational video Research: (DSIR)
cassettes at an affordable price. It has also taken
over total management of the Software It is a part of Ministry of Science and
Technology Park at Gandhinagar. Technology. Apart from a number of its own
units, it includes the Council of Scientific and
Semiconductor Complex Limited Industrial Research (CSIR); National Research
Development Corporation, Central Electronics
Semiconductor Complex Limited (SCL) was
and National Information System for Science and
set up primarily to design, develop and
Technology (NISSAT). It has evolved
manufacture LS/VLSI circuits. SCL commenced
programmes for absorption by industry. A
commercial production in April 1984. Presently
National Register on Foreign Collaboration
SCL is concentrating on rebuilding its assembly,
(NRFC) was started in 1985-86 for the creation
test and wafer fabrication facilities and has
of a data bank on the import of technology,
expanded its product portfolio to keep pace with
analysis of financial, economic and legal matters
the current market trends. The company has also
pertaining to foreign collaborations (FCs), and
undertaken a turnkey project to set up a state-
preparation of reports on technology status in
of-the-art Gallium Arsenide Enabling
identified sectors/products. CEL has specialized
Technology Centre (GAETEC) at Hyderabad. It
in selected electronics components; specific
has achieved full capacity utilization in Quartz
electrical systems and Solar Photo-voltaic cells
Analog Watch-Chip on Board and Electronic
(SPV), modules and systems for a variety of
Circuit Block (QAW-COB and ECB) assembly
applications.
lines.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
Centre for Development of Advanced
(CSIR)
Computing (C-DAC)
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
In addition to the development of parallel
(CSIR), which was constituted in 1942 is an
computers and associated software, C-DAC has
also initiated development programmes in other autonomous body registered under the
areas, including knowledge based computer registration of Societies Act, 1860. Functions
systems (KBCS), language technology, VLSI assigned to the Council are: (i) promotion,
design and rural technology. C-DAC started guidance and coordination of scientific and
building Indian Language Computing Solutions industrial research in India, including the
with setting up of GIST group (Graphics and institution and financing of specific researchers;

Chronicle IAS Academy [12]

 ORGANISATIONS UNDER CSIR
CBRI Central Building Research Institute Roorkee (Uttarakhand)
CCMB Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology Hyderabad
CDRI Central Drug Research Institute Lucknow
CECRI Central Electro Chemical Research Institute Karaikudi (T.N.)
CEERI Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute Pilani (Raj)
CFRI Central Fuel Research Institute Dhanbad
CFTRI Central Food Technological Research Institute Mysore
CGCRI Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute Kolkata
CIMAP Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Lucknow
CLRI Central Leather Research Institute Chennai
CMERI Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute Durgapur (W.B.)
CMRI Central Mining Research Institute Dhanbad
CRRI Central Road Research Institute New Delhi
CSIO Central Scientific Instruments Organization Chandigarh
CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research New Delhi
IHBT Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology Palampur (H.P.)
CSMCI Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute Bhavnagar (Guj.)
ERDA Electronics Research and Development Association Vadodara
IICB Indian Institute of Chemical Biology Kolkata
IICT Indian Institute of Chemical Technology Hyderabad
IIP Indian Institute of Petroleum Dehradun
IMT Institute of Microbial Technology Chandigarh
INSDOC Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre New Delhi
ITRC Industrial Toxicology Research Centre Lucknow
NAL National Aerospace Laboratory Bangalore
NBRI National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow
NCL National Chemical Laboratory Pune
NEERI National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Nagpur
NGRI National Geophysical Research Institute Hyderabad
NIO National Institute of Oceanography and Development Studies Panaji, Goa
NISTADS National Institute of Science, Technology and New Delhi
Development Studies
NML National Metallurgical Laboratory Jamshedpur
NPL National Physical Laboratory New Delhi
PID Publication and Information Directorate Delhi
RRL Regional Research Laboratory Bhopal, Jorhat,
Thiruvananthapuram,
Jammu, Bhubaneswar
TES Tocklai Experimental Station
SERC Structural Engineering Research Centre Chennai

Chronicle IAS Academy [13]

 (ii) establishment of and assistance to special state-of-art-reports, and (xiii) feasibility studies
institutions for scientific study of problems and projects report and analysis.
affecting particular industries and trades; (iii) 7. Department of Ocean Development
establishment and award of research
studentships and fellowships; (iv) utilization of India’s coastline is more than 6000 km long
the result of researches conducted under the and its territory includes 1256 islands. Its
auspices of the Council towards development of exclusive economic zone covers an area of 24
industries; (v) establishment, maintenance and lakh sq km and the continental shelf extends upto
management of laboratories, workshops, 350 nautical miles from the coast. Indeed, the
institutes and organisations to further scientific domain for the development of oceanic resources
and industrial research. (vi) Publication of and protection of the marine environment
scientific papers and journals, and (vii) any other extends from the coastal lands and islands to the
activity or activities to promote generally the wide Indian Ocean. Recognizing the crucial role
objectives of the resolution. that the ocean plays in influencing our climate,
environment and resource base, the Government
Technological Boom to Industries: Ranging of India set up the Department of Ocean
from antenatal oxygen analysis to a rapid test Development in 1981 to promote and coordinate
for presence of viruses in water, the CSIR’s the multifaceted endeavor needed to accomplish
Madras complex (CMC) has come out with a the task as well as to develop the new emerging
bunch of technologies which will be a boon to area of Antarctic research and deep seabed
different industries. mining.
A conglomerate of the extension centres of National Institute of Oceanography: The
six major laboratories, CMC, setup on a National Institute of Oceanography was
sprawling campus at Taramani on the outskirts established in 1966 under the Council of
of Madras, has more than met the objectives with Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi.
which it was formed to develop new process and The main objective of the Institute is to develop
products, especially import substitutes, fight adequate knowledge related to physical,
pollution in industry and environment, upgrade chemical, biological, geological and engineering
traditional crafts into productive and drudgery- aspects of the seas around India through: (i)
free operations and assist in quality certification. study of physical process in the ocean, including
monsoon; (ii) exploration of living resources of
Assistance to Industry: The inter-
the sea; (iii) sea-farming technology; (iv) deep
disciplinary expertise generated over the year by
sea exploration for minerals; (v) coastal zone and
CSIR helps industry in various ways. Some of
harbour development; (vi) studies for effective
them are: (i) assessment of technology options, control of marine pollution; (vii) ocean modeling;
including technology assessment and choice of (viii) processing of satellite imagery data and
technology; (ii) absorption, adaptation and (ix) acoustic topography.
updating of imported technology;
(iii) identification or areas of R&D that will 8. Department of Biotechnology (DBT)
maximize returns, including R and D project
definition, planning and programming; To promote R and D and manufacturing
(iv) productivity improvement through cost activities in the area of biotechnology, the
reduction, energy conservation and waste Government set up the National Biotechnology
utilization; (v) substitution of imported raw Board in 1982. In February 1986, a separate
materials, components and process; (vi) pollution Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in the
and effluents control, including location of safe Ministry of Science and Technology replaced the
discharge points; (vii) repair and maintenance; Board. The main responsibilities entrusted to the
(viii) trouble shooting, condition monitoring and Department include planning, promotion and
maintenance scheduling, computer simulation coordination of biotechnological programmes in
and modeling; (ix) optimization of novel the country.
technological designs; (x) analysis, interpretation
and validation of tests results and data; (xi) laying The Department since its inception has been
down of standards and test-protocols and functioning with the advice of two advisory
quality assurance; (xii) survey of literature and committees i.e. Scientific Advisory Committee

Chronicle IAS Academy [14]

 (SAC-DBT) and Standing Advisory Committee- Adviser to the Defence Minister who is also the
Overseas (SACO). With the advice of SAC-DBT, Secretary, Defence Research and Development.
13 task forces have been constituted in the areas Research and development activities at
of : (i) aquaculture and marine biotechnology; DRDO cover important demarcated disciplines
(ii) animal biotechnology, veterinary sciences, like aeronautics, rockets and missiles, electronics
animal husbandry and leather biotechnology; (iii) and instrumentation, combat vehicles,
basic research emerging areas and R and D engineering, naval systems, armament
facilities; (iv) biochemical engineering, technology, including explosives research,
downstream processing and instrumentation; (v) terrain research, advanced computing, artificial
bioinformatics; (vi) biological pests control, intelligence, robotics, works study, systems
analysis and life sciences, including high altitude
diseases and weeds; (vii) environmental
agriculture, physiology, food technology and
biotechnology; (viii) fuel, fodder, biomass,
nuclear medicine.
horticulture and plantation crops and
sericulture; (ix) industrial biotechnology; (x) DRDO offers specialized training at its two
microbial biotechnology; (xi) plant molecular premier training institutions called Institute of
biology and agricultural biotechnology. Armament Technology, Pune and Defence
Institute of Work Study, Musoorie. The courses
Initiatives have been taken to promote at these institutes have been evolved to meet the
transgenic research in plants with emphasis on needs of DRDO, Department of Defence
pest and disease resistance, nutritional quality, Production and Supplies and the three services.
silk-worm genome analysis, molecular biology
of human genetic disorders, brain research, plant AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTIONS
genome research, development, validation and
The Department has set up under its
commercialisation of diagnostic kits and vaccines
administrative control two autonomous
for communicable diseases, food biotechnology, institutions in the country. These are the National
biodiversity conservation and bioprospecting, Institute of Immunology (NII) at New Delhi and
setting up of micropropagation parks and the National Facility for Animal Tissue and Cell
biotechnology based development for SC/ST, Culture (NFATCC) at Pune. Both these
rural areas, women and for different States. institutions have independent governing bodies
and scientific advisory committees. At NII,
9. Department of Defence Research and significant developments have been made in the
Development (DRDO) field of immunodiagnostics. The facility at
NFATCC acts as a cell repository, tissue bank in
Defence Research and Development the area of molecular biology, immunology and
Organization (DRDO) was established in 1958 cell products preparation. It has already supplied
by amalgamating Defence Science Organisation a number of consignments of cell lines to different
and some of the technical development laboratories in the country.
establishments. A separate Department of
Defence Research and Development was formed Indian Council of Agriculture Research
in 1980 which now administers DRDO and its (ICAR)
48 laboratories/establishments.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research
The Department of Defence Research and (ICAR) is a registered society and is the apex
Development formulates and executes
body responsible for promoting, conducting and
programme of scientific research, design and
coordinating research and education in the fields
development, fields of relevance to national
security leading to the induction of new weapons, of agriculture, including horticulture, animal
platforms and other equipment required by the science, fisheries and the allied sectors in the
Armed Forces. It also functions as the nodal country. With 99 ICAR institutes and 53
agency for the execution of major development agricultural universities spread across the
programmes of relevance to Defence through country this is one of the largest national
integration of research, development, public agricultural systems in the world.
sector undertakings and other agencies. It
functions under the control of the Scientific The ICAR has played a pioneering role in

Chronicle IAS Academy [15]

 ushering Green Revolution and subsequent The primary functions of the Council are
developments in agriculture in India through its discharged through its permanent research
research and technology development that has institutes/centres/units, regional medical
enabled the country to increase the production research centres, centres for advanced research,
of foodgrains by 4 times, horticultural crops by research units, task force projects and national
6 times, fish by 9 times (marine 5 times and inland multicentric collaborative projects in different
parts of the country. In addition, there are ad
17 times), milk 6 times and eggs 27 times since
hoc schemes and fellowships generated by active
1950-51, thus making a visible impact on the
scientists in biomedical institutions/universities
national food and nutritional security. It has
in different parts of the country. ICMR also
played a major role in promoting excellence in attempts to strengthen indigenous capabilities,
higher education in agriculture. It is engaged in promote a broad-based and balanced cadre of
cutting edge areas of science and technology research personnel in the country and develop
development and its scientists are internationally facilities to tackle the present and future health
acknowledged in their fields. problems.
In order to perform these functions in an CAPART
integrated manner, the ICAR has created a
The Council for Advancement of People’s
National Grid of Cooperatives Research in which
Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) was
ICAR institutes, state agricultural universities
registered under the Societies Registration Act,
and other educational and scientific institutions 1860, on 1 September, 1986, with headquarters
participate in their programmes as equal in New Delhi with the merger of People’s Acton
partners. In addition, the ICAR also operates 61 for Development India (PADI) and Council for
All India Coordinated Research Projects, which Advancement of Rural Technology (CART). It
are multi-locational and multi-disciplinary in aims at encouraging, promoting and assisting
nature on important commodities and research voluntary action for enhancement of rural
areas. The mechanism of this coordinated prosperity.
research has proved its efficacy and utility over
In pursuance of these objectives, CAPART
the last successive plan periods as an effective makes available financial assistance to voluntary
instrument to tackle the diverse problems organisations under the following schemes:
characteristic of Indian agriculture. (i) Promotion of voluntary action in rural
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) development (ii) Development of Women and
Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA); (iii)
The Indian Council of Medical Research Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programmes
(ICMR) is the apex body in India for the (ARWSP); (iv) Central Rural Sanitation
formulation, coordination and promotion of Programme (CRSP); (v) Organisation of
biomedical research. The Council’s research Beneficiaries of Anti-poverty Programme (OB);
priorities coincide with the National health (vi) Integrated Rural Development Programme
priorities such as control and management of (IRDP); (vii) Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY); and
communicable diseases, fertility control, (viii) Advancement of Rural Technology Scheme
maternal and child health, control of nutritional (ARTS).
disorders, developing alternative strategies for
health care delivery, containment within safety DEPARTMENT OF DEFENCE
limits of environmental and occupational health
problems; research on major non-communicable
PRODUCTION AND SUPPLIES
diseases like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, A substantial part of defence stores needed
blindness, diabetes and other metabolic and by the Services is now being developed and
haematological disorders; mental health research produced in the country. The responsibility for
and drug research (including traditional this has been entrusted to the Department of
remedies). All these efforts are undertaken with Defence Production and Supplies in the Ministry
a view to reduce the total burden of disease and of Defence. The Department directs and
to promote health and well-being of the coordinates production of material and
population. equipment required by the armed forces.

Chronicle IAS Academy [16]

 Ordnance Factories has emerged as a leader in professional
electronics. The company has core
At present, 41 ordnance factories spread all competencies in the areas of Radars &
over India operate a wide-range of technologies Weapon Systems, Sonars, Communication,
and product mix. Some of the important products Electronic Warfare Systems, Electro Optics
are field guns, anti-aircraft guns, various small and Tank Electronics, etc. It has nine units
arms, ammunition for weapons and guns,
at Bangalore, Ghaziabad, Pune,
rockets, projectiles, pyrotechnics, bombs,
Machilipatnam, Taloja, Panchkula and
grenades, mines, demolition clothing, optical
Kotdwara. Two support centres also exist
and fire control instruments, engineering
at Hyderabad and Chennai. The products
equipment, supply dropping equipment,
including parachutes, rubberized items, various manufactured include low and high power
knitted and woven items like blankets, web communication equipment in the HF, UHF,
equipment and a wide range of general stoppers VHF and microwave ranges; high power
are produced by them. static and mobile radars, static and mobile
troposcatters with line of sight equipment,
Defence Undertakings broadcast transmitters, gun control
There are eight public sector undertakings equipment, weapons control system for
under the Department of Defence Production frigates and electronic voting machines. BEL
and Supplies. These are Hindustan Aeronautics has been conferred the Navratna status on
Ltd. (HAL), Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), June 22, 2007.
Bharat Earth Movers Ltd. (BEML), Mishra • Bharat Earth Movers Ltd. (BEML),
Dhatu Nigam Ltd. (MIDHANI) and others. incorporated in 1964, commenced
Seven of these undertakings are wholly owned operations in January 1965. BEML is
by the Government of India. engaged in the design, manufacturing,
• Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd., set up in marketing and after sales service of a wide
1964, has 19 production divisions, 10 R & range of mining and construction
D Centres and one Facility Management equipment, defence and aerospace products
Division spread across various locations at and rail and metro products such as
Bengaluru, Nashik, Hyderabad, Lucknow, excavators, bulldozers, dumpers, loaders,
Kanpur, Korwa, Koraput and Barrackpore, scrapers, cranes, etc.
with its corporate office at Bangalore. The BEML has its corporate headquarters and
principal function of the company is to central marketing division at Bengaluru and 4
design, manufacture, repair and overhaul manufacturing complexes with 9 production
various types of aircrafts, helicopters and units located in Bengaluru, Mysore, Kolar Gold
related aero engines avionics, instruments Fields and Palakkad. It also supplies aircraft
and accessories. towing tractors to the Air Force and at present
HAL is currently manufacturing SU-30MKI it is manufacturing transmissions and allied
multi-role fighter, Hawk – Advanced Jet Trainer, assemblies for combat vehicles. The Company’s
Light Combat Aircraft (LCA), Intermediate Jet International Business covers over 58 countries
Trainer (IJT), Jaguar, Dornier 228 – Light in Asia, Africa, Europe and Latin America.
Transport Aircraft, Dhruv (Advanced Light • Mazgaon Dock Ltd., Mumbai, Goa
Helicopter), and Chetak, Cheetah and Cheetal Shipyard Ltd., Goa and Garden Reach Ship
helicopters and various types of aero-engines. Builders and Engineers Ltd., Kolkata, are
HAL is also participating in future acquisitions leading ship building and ship repairing
planned by IAF and other Defence Services. units in the defence public sector having
These are Medium Multi-role Combat Aircraft facilities to build sophisticated warships like
(MMRCA), Multi-role Transport Aircraft (MTA), frigates, seaward defence boats, survey
Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft (FGFA) and vessels, offshore and onshore patrol vessels.
Indian Multi Role Helicopters (IMRH) and Naval MDL has constructed three indigenously
Multi-role Helicopter (NMRH). designed Godavari class frigates.
• Bharat Electronics Ltd. was established in • Bharat Dynamics Limited was incorporated
1954 at Jalahalli, Bangalore. Since then, it at Hyderabad as a public sector

Chronicle IAS Academy [17]

 undertaking in 1970 with the prime addresses the national priority for sustainable,
objective of establishing a production base inclusive and accelerated growth taking along
for guided missiles and for the development the education, research and corporate sectors.
of missile production technology in the The corporate sector, in particular, must play a
country. The company undertook the much larger role in building research capability
manufacture of SSIIBI, the first generation as happens in other countries.
anti tank missile, under license agreement A competitive knowledge economy must be
with M/s Aerospatiale of France. The built on the pillars of: (i) an educational system
company has commenced the manufacture that produces human resources which are
of second generation anti tank missiles.
employable and globally benchmarked; (ii) S&T
• Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited, located in pursued on an enormous scale to generate
Hyderabad, was incorporated in 1973. The knowledge for long-term use and (iii) strategic
commercial production of the company translational research inspired by national
started in July 1983. MIDHANI’s product needs and global opportunities. In pursuit of
range includes super alloys, titanium alloys, these objectives the Twelfth Plan should be
maraging steels, heat resistant alloys, soft geared to achieve the following:
magnetic alloys, controlled expansion alloys,
tungsten, molybdenum, etc., in a wide • Evolve a new Science, Technology and
variety of mill forms. It is a unique, modern Innovation policy to bring in more
and integrated metallurgical plant for resources from both public and private
manufacturing a wide range of special sector for R&D for socially and
metals and alloys for meeting the critical strategically relevant projects and
requirement of strategic industries such as mainstream innovation- related activities
space, defence, power, aeronautical, with a focus on affordable and sustainable
automobile, electrical, telecommunications, innovations;
petrochemicals, lamp and general • Catalyse a radical but participative
engineering industries. transformation of the Indian S&T system
by refocusing the efforts of the designated
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Departments/Agencies at:
APPROACH TO TWELFTH PLAN
– National Focus—build partnership
India had made substantial investments in with identified players of the National
the R&D sector during the Eleventh Plan period Innovation System to build the
laying a strong foundation for building a vibrant scientific, technological and human
and dynamic S&T sector in the country. Average resource niches for the country;
growth rate of publications from India in – Organisational Focus—address the
scientific journals is about 14 per cent during the needs of each Department/Agency
last three years of the Eleventh Plan period. This for achieving the goals in national
is against the global average of 4.1 per cent focus and rigorously review the
during the same period. The share of scientific ongoing projects/programmes to
publications emanating from universities phase out those which have by and
increased from 15 per cent in 2003 to 31 per cent large fulfilled their goals; and
in 2012.
– Leadership Focus—stimulate the
To face up to the increasing challenges in the Department/Agency’s leadership in
new world order, the Indian S&T landscape identified domains of science,
needs to undergo a paradigm shift. It needs to technology and human resource
evolve new delivery mechanisms for innovative development.
deployment of technologies and business models
– Ensure that S&T becomes an
for financing deployment of innovations. This
integral component of the national
calls for a well enunciated Science, Technology
developmental processes by
and Innovation policy. The Twelfth Plan should
interconnecting competencies and
therefore work to develop an ecosystem that

Chronicle IAS Academy [18]

 research resources and strengthening Health, Water, Energy and Food through
interconnections with the weakly consortia of institutions and agencies
connected stakeholders to the R&D cutting across public and private sectors;
outputs; two major areas which require immediate
• Increase the number of full-time focus during Twelfth Five Year Plan are
researchers/scientists from the current Energy and Water;
level of 1.54 lakh to 2.50 lakh; the volume • Encourage large Indian industries to
of publication outputs in basic research establish globally benchmarked R&D
from a global share of 3 per cent to, say, centres on the lines of R&D centres set up
5 per cent; improve the global ranking by multinational companies (MNCs);
from 9th to 6th by the end of the Twelfth
Plan; focus on doubling the number of • Leverage the large-scale innovative
patents and increase the component of strategic research spin-offs
commercialization of patent portfolio to from defence, space and atomic energy
5–6 per cent from a level of less than 2 for civilian benefits in a much larger
per cent; segment.
• Increase R&D expenditure to 2 per cent • Create new Inter-University Centres
of GDP and significantly enhance (IUCs) and Inter-Institutional Centres
corporate sector R&D expenditure to at (IICs) in chosen areas of Science and
least 1 per cent of GDP by attracting Engineering, which will provide access to
investments and engaging the corporate state-of-the-art facilities and academic
sector in R&D through policy and reforms ambience for researchers in universities
processes; earmark 10–15 per cent of public and academic institutions;
investment exclusively for public–private
• Create new R&D institutions in trans-
partnership (PPP) R&D to private sector
disciplinary science and engineering to
through the competitive grant process
achieve leadership positions;
with a stipulation that comparable
provisions would be made by the private • Create Peta-scale supercomputing
sector under PPP model; facilities and provide high-performance
• Provide more flexibility to the younger computing for various applications such
generation of scientists to pursue their as climate modelling, weather prediction,
ideas and greater mobility between aerospace engineering, computational
industry, academia and R&D institutions; biology, nuclear applications, earthquake
strengthen gender parity in R&D by way simulations, animation in movies, national
of mobility and women re-entry security and finance;
programmes; consolidate on the gains • Create an independent institutional
achieved during the Eleventh Plan in arrangement for Technology Assessment
nurturing students to pursue science as a capability.
career;
• Partner with high-value global mega
• Build technology partnerships with States projects in the areas of contemporary
through new models of technological scientific interest and technological
solutions, design, development and relevance and enhance India’s role in
delivery; global mega projects; and
• Initiate Grand Challenge Programmes and • Enhance collaboration with reputed
launch PAN-India missions to address foreign universities/agencies towards
national priorities in various addressing the scientific aspects of
developmental sectors through bottom up common interest and global in nature.
approach, particularly in the areas of

Chronicle IAS Academy [19]

 HEALTH AND HYGIENE
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Health and human development form Greece, it was introduced by the Arabs in India.
integral components of overall socio-economic It also adopts holistic approach. Main types of
development of any nation. Under the treatment are regimen therapy, diet therapy,
Constitution, Public health and sanitation, pharmaco-therapy and surgery.

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hospitals and dispensaries fall in the state list.
Naturopathy is commonly known as

Y
Population control and family planning, medical
drugless treatment of disease and is based mainly
education, adulteration of food stuffs and other
on the ancient practices of the application of the
goods, drugs and poisons, medical profession,
simple laws of nature. It lays special emphasis

EM
vital statistics, including registration of births
and deaths, lunacy and mental deficiency are on eating and living habits, adoption of
C IC
in the concurrent list. Union Ministry of Health
and Family Welfare plays a vital role in the
national efforts to help citizens lead a healthy
purificatory measures, use of hydrotherapy, cold
packs, mud packs, baths, massage, etc.
Yoga is as old as Ayurveda. It was about
and happy life. The ministry is responsible for 2500 years back when Patanjali propounded it
implementing programmes of national in a systematic form, which consists of eight
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importance like family welfare, primary health components. Yoga helps in improving physical,
care services, prevention and control of disease, mental and social well-being as also builds up
etc. which form the main plank of our improved resistance to disease and endurance
development efforts.
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against stress.
A
INDIAN MEDICINE SYSTEMS
Homeopathy is based on the principle of
The traditional systems of medicine are of Simila Similibus Curantur, i.e., like cures, and
great relevance to the health care of the people. that too with minute doses of medicines, and was
It is calculated that majority of the world discovered by the German physician Dr.
population are still relying on traditional system. Christian Frederick Samuel Hannemann.
IA H

Kerala is the first state in the country, which Homeopathy has wide acceptability because of
separates the traditional systems of medicine into its holistic and intrinsic values, low cost medicines
Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Yoga & Naturopathy and absence of any side effects of the drug.
respectively. Indian systems of medicine (ISM)
C

include all the non-allopathic systems of Sowa-Rigpa Became Part Of Indian Medical
medicine and regimens, excluding Homeopathy, System:
viz. Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Nature Cure,
The Parliament on August 31, 2010 adopted
Yoga, Tibbia and Amchi.
a Bill to recognise within the definition of Indian
Ayurveda and Siddha are the most ancient medicine the Sowa-Rigpa system practised in
ISM practised in India. These deal with sub-Himalayan region of the country. The Indian
preventive, promotive and curative concepts of Medicine Central Council (Amendment) Bill,
health and are holistic systems of medicine 2010 was then passed by a voice vote by the Lok
dealing with body, mind, soul and the Sabha. Rajya Sabha had passed the Bill on
phenomena of nature. Ayurveda makes use of August 25.
the medicinal properties of plants. Siddha is
practised mainly in Tamil-speaking and nearby It is practiced in the sub-Himalayan region
areas and other parts of the country, besides Tibet,
Mongolia, Japan and some other countries. The
Unani system of medicine has a long and Bill seeks to include registered practitioners of
impressive record in India. Having its origin in Sowa-Rigpa in the Indian Medical Council. The

[20] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Indian Medicine Central Council (Amendment) In order to strengthen the AYUSH systems
Bill, 2010, seeks to include Sowa-Rigpa along and their revalidation, various initiatives have
with Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani medicine in been taken by the Health Ministry. These include
the system, set minimum standards for infrastructure development by establishing five
education, and maintain a register of all Research Councils dedicated for research in each
practitioners in these fields. of the AYUSH systems; establishment of
Pharmacopoeia Commission of Indian Medicine
The Bill would ensure protection and
for developing standards of Ayurveda, Siddha
preservation of the Sowa-Rigpa system and help
and Unani drugs; promoting collaboration
in its development. Besides, it would lead to the
among various research councils under different
setting up of a regulatory mechanism in the
ministries as well as universities and
education and practice of Sowa-Rigpa. The
organizations. The interdisciplinary research
government will take all steps for research and

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involving scientists of basic sciences, chemists,
development of the Sowa-Rigpa system with a pharmacologists, biologists as well as engineers

Y
regulatory body in place. The legal recognition has also been encouraged in core areas of
of ‘Sowa-Rigpa’ will help in preserving this research in AYUSH systems. These include
ancient system of medicine along with boosting Fundamental Research comprising of
its education and practice. It will also open new

EM
interpretation and revalidation of basic principles
avenues of research and development of new
C IC
medicines by combining new techniques with
‘Sowa-Rigpa’.
of AYUSH systems; Literature Research covering
revival, preservation, translation, critical
analysis, systematization and publication of
The government had also decided to set up manuscripts; Drug Research including Medical,
a Pharmacopoeia Commission for Indian Ethnic and Botanical Surveys, Cultivation of
Medicinal Plants, Standardization and Quality
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Systems of Medicine, which now would also
include Sowa-Rigpa. The passage of the Bill will control, Preclinical safety, Toxicity and Biological
enable setting minimum standards for education activity screening and Clinical Research
and maintain a register of all practitioners of encompassing observation studies and phased
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Sowa-Rigpa. It was being done as recommended clinical trials. Modern advanced technologies like
A
by the National Medicinal Plant Board, which is Genomics are also being used to study the
working on Indian herbs and plants used in fundamental concepts of Prakriti; i.e. Body
various traditional systems. A task force was set constitution described in Ayurveda. AYUSH
drugs are being studied with advanced
up by the Health Ministry to reach out to
techniques for their activity on immune systems
inaccessible areas and places, where tribals live
in disease like HIV-AIDS, for Anti-cancer activity
in, to identify their system of medicine and
and Anti-diabetic activity. In order to make
IA H

practitioners.
research findings in AYUSH systems and allied
● Sowa Rigpa or commonly known as faculties accessible through the web, the
‘Amchi’ is an ancient system of Tibetan Department of AYUSH has developed an
C

medicine. AYUSH research portal which can be accessed

● Since ancient times this system has been by everyone.
used to cure people in Sikkim, Jammu & During 12th plan period stress is likely to be
Kashmir, Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh and given on Integration of AYUSH systems in health
other Himalayan belt of the population. care delivery and their incorporation in National
● Sowa Rigpa is practiced in many Health Programmes through co-locating such
countries. But due to its origin in ancient facilities at sub-centres and primary health care
Tibet, it is also known as Tibetan medicine. centres.

● This ancient system of treatment Some of the new initiatives which are under
resembles Ayurveda but it also has some consideration during the 12th Plan include,
principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine. setting up of a National Commission for Human
Resource in; Referral hospitals in 8 National
● It is believed that Lord Buddha taught Institutes to provide world class treatment
the fundamental text book rgyud-bzhi of facilities; a National Institute of Medicinal Plants;
‘Sowa-Rigpa’. Research and Quality Control Laboratories in 8

Chronicle IAS Academy [21]

 National Institutes; a Central Drugs Controller Passive immunity is rapidly established but
for AYUSH drugs to facilitate standardization lasts for a short while. Passive immunization has
of ASU products; 5 Hi-Tech Quality Control therefore limited utility as compared to active
Labs under the Research Councils at regional immunization and is used mainly as a short-term
levels; setting up of a Homoeopathic Medicines preventive measure.
Pharmaceutical Corporation Limited to provide
facilities for manufacturing of Homoeopathic Immunization Programme
medicines and to set up an All India Institute of
Reduced immunity of the body results in its
Homoeopathy to fulfil the emerging interest of
unusually high susceptibility to infection and
scientists for research in homoeopathy.
may lead to a number of disorders or diseases.
Immune deficiencies may arise due to some
IMMUNITY AND IMMUNISATION

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genetic defects in the body. They may also be
PROGRAMMES acquired as a consequence of malnutrition,

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The resistance of the body to the effects of metabolic abnormalities, and exposure to X-rays,
pathogenic organisms is called Immunity. It is toxic effects of drugs or pathogenic organisms.
an important defence mechanism of the body to

EM
A virus has been identified to be responsible
fight against several diseases. Immunity may be
C IC for Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome
active or passive. (AIDS). The AIDS virus is believed to have
Active Immunity: It develops as a result of originated in the African green monkey and then
the contact of an individual with pathogenic spread to humans. It is known to get transmitted
organisms or their products. These stimulate the from the infected persons to other not through
body to produce antibodies (gamma globulin casual contact, but through either sexual contact
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proteins) in response to the antigens (foreign or blood transfusions or contaminated injection
substances). The immunity thus produced is needles. In the host, this virus attacks those White
specific for a particular disease, for example, the Blood Corpuscles (WBC), which are responsible
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immunity established against chicken pox or for developing the immunity. As it multiplies
A
measles is not effective against cholera or within the WBC at an exceedingly fast rate, it
tuberculosis. Immunity may be acquired either devastates the immune system of the body. AIDS
through the infection of a pathogen or virus can also cause serious damage to brain that
administration of a vaccine (a suspension of may lead to loss of memory and impaired ability
attenuated or killed microorganisms). Active to speak and think. No suitable drug is known
immunity takes a few weeks to a few months to at present for treatment of the disease and no
IA H

develop but persists for long periods. vaccine has so far been developed for use as
Passive Immunity: It is produced when preventive measure.
antibodies formed in one human being are Recognising the potential of immunization
transferred to another. It may be acquired
C

as a low-cost efficient technology for child

through - survival and prevention of disabilities,
(i) Transmission of maternal antibodies to Government started the Expanded Programme
the foetus through the placenta e.g. on Immunization (EPI) in 1978 with the objective
chicken pox, measles, diphtheria, polio, of reducing the morbidity, mortality and
tetanus. disability due to diphtheria, whooping cough,
(ii) Injection of antiserum (blood plasma tetanus and tuberculosis by making free
vaccination services easily available to all eligible
containing anti-bodies) prepared against
children and expectant mothers.
a specific disease e.g. tetanus, diphtheria
or rabies. Polio vaccine was included in the programme
(iii) Administration of immune globulins or during 1979-80 and tetanus oxide in 1980-81.
human gamma globulins. BCG was brought under EPI in 1981-82 and
measles vaccine was initiated in 1985-86. The
The transfer of lymphocytes also gives immunization programme is a long term one.
passive cellular immunity against viruses, The immunization services are provided through
intercellular bacteria, fungi and some protozoa. the existing health care delivery system.

[22] Chronicle IAS Academy

 The Universal Immunisation Programme Immunization Strengthening Project on
(UIP) was launched in 1985 as part of the overall recommendation of the Committee. The
national strategy to bring down infant and Department of Family Welfare established a
maternal mortality in the country by providing National Technical Advisory Group on
immunisation to all infants against six vaccine- Immunization on 28th August, 2001 to assist GoI
preventable diseases (tuberculosis, diphtheria, in developing a nationwide policy framework
pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus, for vaccines and immunization.
poliomyelitis, and measles) and pregnant women
For almost two decades, UIP did not add any
against tetanus. Prior to 1985, immunisation
additional vaccine. However, since 2006,
activity was implemented under the Family
vaccines namely Hepatitis B, second dose of
Welfare Programme, but the scheme was limited measles and Japanese Encephalitis (JE) vaccine
primarily to major hospitals and the coverage have been introduced. During the same period,

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levels were also very low. a number of other safe and efficacious vaccines

Y
When this programme was launched in have become available for major killers like
1985, infant mortality for the country as a whole pneumonia and diarrhoea, which are being used
was 97 for every 1000 live births. It was estimated in the immunization programmes of many
developing and developed countries.

EM
that vaccine preventable diseases were
C IC
responsible for about one-fourth of the total According to United Nations Children's
infant deaths. Neo-natal tetanus itself was Fund (UNICEF) vaccine preventable diseases
responsible for 13 out of every 1000 infant deaths, (VPDs) cause an estimated 2 million deaths or
i.e., a total of 200,000 deaths every year. 150,000 more every year, of which approximately 1.5
children, in the absence of immunisation, are million deaths occur among children below five
year age. These 1.5 million deaths represent
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likely to develop paralytic poliomyelitis every
year. approximately 15 percent of under-five deaths.
Reducing child mortality by two thirds between
In 1986, the Universal Immunisation 1990 and 2015 is the fourth of eight Millennium
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Programme was named as one of the Technology Development Goals endorsed by world leaders
A
Missions and the following objectives were spelt in the Millennium Declaration in 2000.
out:
(a) To cover all pregnant women against DESCRIPTION ABOUT DISEASES
tetanus and at least 85 per cent of all
infants against six vaccine preventable 1. Dengue
diseases by March 1990. Dengue is a viral infection transmitted by the
IA H

(b) To increase production, upgrade testing bite of an infected female Aedes mosquito. There
facilities and develop the means, support are four distinct serotypes of the dengue virus
and distribution of vaccines at the (DEN 1, DEN 2, DEN 3 and DEN 4). Symptoms
C

required low temperatures to maintain appear in 3–14 days (average 4–7 days) after the
their potency. infective bite. Dengue fever is a flu-like illness
(c) To achieve self-sufficiency in vaccine that affects infants, young children and adults.
production and manufacture of cold There is no specific treatment for dengue
chain equipment. fever. Severe dengue is a potentially lethal
The programme was given the status of a complication but early clinical diagnosis and
National Technology Mission in 1986 (GoI, 1988) careful clinical management by experienced
to provide a feeling of urgency and commitment physicians and nurses often save lives.
to achieve the goals within the specified period. More than 70 per cent of the disease burden
UIP became a part of the Child Survival and is in South-East Asia and the Western Pacific.
State Motherhood (CSSM) Programme in 1992 In Latin America and the Caribbean, the
and Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) incidence and severity of disease have increased
Programme in 1997. The Government of India rapidly in recent years. The African and Eastern
constituted a National Technical Committee on Mediterranean regions have also recorded more
Child Health on 11th June, 2000 and launched outbreaks of the disease in the last ten years.

Chronicle IAS Academy [23]

 Urbanization, rapid movement of people and This scheme has been initiated to fill up
goods, favourable climatic conditions and lack geographical gaps in the availability of
of trained staff have all contributed to the global cancer treatment facilities in the
increase of dengue. country. According to the scheme,
The latest research has shown that the financial assistance upto Rs. One crore
dengue fever virus can mutate much more is provided to the concerned State
rapidly than anyone though, which could Government for procurement of
thwart the efforts of the scientists to create a equipment which includes one Cobalt
vaccine. Over the past few decades, the Unit. The civil works and manpower
mosquito-borne virus has spread dramatically are to be provided by the concerned
and now about 50 million people each year are State Government/Institution.

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affected in tropical areas. About 40 per cent of (iii) Scheme for financial assistance to
the world population is at risk. The phenomenon

Y
Voluntary Organisations: Under the
of global warming will further allow the virus
Scheme, financial assistance upto Rs. 5
to increase its range. The development of an
lakh is provided to the registered
effective vaccine that protects against each of the
voluntary organisations recommended

EM
four main types of the dengue virus has proved
by the State Government for the
C IC
difficult, as a successful vaccine might not remain
effective for long. The scientists have found that
two mutated strains of dengue-I caused 25 per
cent of 15,000 cases in Myanmar in 2001. These
purpose, for undertaking health
education and early detection activities
in cancer.
strains evolved locally within a year. Two 3. Malaria Eradication
different dengue-2 strains had recombined in a
A N
mosquito to create a third strain, which showed Malaria is one of the major public health
the direct evidence that new strains can emerge problems of the country. Around 1.5 million
anytime. In 2002 researchers found that two new laboratory confirmed cases of malaria are
strains of a dengue-3 virus in Thailand had annually reported in India. The organised Public
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A
evolved in less than a year replacing the Health Programme to control malaria was
dominant local strain and causing the biggest launched in India in the year 1953, the
dengue epidemic in Thailand. encouraging results of which prompted Govt. of
India to switch the strategy from control to
2. Cancer Control
eradication in 1958. The National Malaria
In India, it is estimated that there are about Eradication Programme made spectacular
two million cancer patients at any given point progress till 1965. But this success was short-lived.
IA H

of time with 0.5 million new cases coming every In 1976, the number of confirmed malaria cases
year. The following new schemes have been reached 6.47 million which necessitated
initiated starting from the year 1990-91: renewed vigorous anti-malaria activities and the
programme was modified.
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(i) Scheme for district projects for

preventive health education, early After all these programmes, numbers of
detection and pain relief measures: malaria cases have increased in the urban areas.
Under the scheme financial assistance The causative agent for common malaria,
of Rs. 15 lakh is provided to the Plasmodium vivax, was eradicated satisfactorily
while the Plasmodium falciparum responsible
concerned State Governments for each
for spreading more lethal form of malaria, the
district project selected under the cerebral malaria, showed an upward trend
scheme. The projects are implemented during 70s and thereafter. The multi-drug
through the State Governments and resistant strain of the disease also threatens to
concerned Regional Cancer Centres/ pose serious problems owing to inadequate
Government Medical Colleges having coverage of the programme and lack of
reasonably good facilities for treatment coordination between public and private health
of cancer. care systems.

(ii) Scheme for development of Oncology It is proposed to intensify the efforts for the
wings of Medical Colleges/hospitals: full containment of the disease to acceptable

[24] Chronicle IAS Academy

 levels. Accordingly, major focus is being given remote areas where microscopy is not available
to insecticidal spraying for vector control in areas within 24 hrs. of starting of fever. In high
having more than 2/1000 cases reported and P.falciparum predominant areas where it is not
early cases detection and treatment. In the possible to get microscopy results within 24
remaining areas, focal spraying and effective hours, ASHAs/other community health
case surveillance is being taken up. These efforts volunteers/MPWs should be provided with
are being appropriately developed with training rapid diagnostic kits and anti-malarials
of workers and enthusing community (including ACT) for early diagnosis and
participation, alongside decentralisation of drug treatment of P.falciparum cases.
distribution and fever treatment etc. Effective treatment of malaria under the
Around 50 per cent of the total malaria cases National Drug Policy aims at:
reported is due to P.falciparum. One of the ● Providing complete cure (clinical and

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reasons attributed to rise in proportion of P. parasitological) of malaria cases.

Y
falciparum cases is resistance to chloroquine,
● Prevention of progression of
which was used for a long time as the first line
of treatment of malaria cases. P. falciparum uncomplicated malaria into severe malaria
infections are known to lead to severe malaria, and thereby reduce malaria mortality.

EM
if timely treatment with effective drugs is not ● Prevention of relapses by administration
C IC
administered. of radical treatment.
With a view to bring down the incidence of ● Interruption of transmission of malaria by
malaria in the country, it is now under use of gametocytocidal drugs.
consideration to revise the approaches adopted
● Preventing development of drug
earlier. The new strategy consists of an attempt
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to : (i) categorise the infected areas into high, resistance by rational treatment of malaria
moderate and low for a more focused, need- cases.
based, cost-effective and rational implementation Urban Malaria Scheme
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of anti-malarial measures (this approach of

A
malariogenic stratification is being attempted in The Urban Malaria Scheme (UMS) came into
the States of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, effect in 1971. The main objective of the Scheme
Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya is to control malaria by reducing the vector
Pradesh); (ii) focused attention to the tribal areas population in the urban areas through recurrent
of all 14 States (while tribals constitute 8 per cent anti-larval measures. At present, Urban Malaria
of the P. falciparum cases in the country); and Scheme is protecting 130.3 million population
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(iii) control urban malaria which is indicating a from malaria as well as from other mosquito
very high trend in the levels of incidence. borne diseases in 131 towns in 19 States and
Union Territory.
National Drug Policy on Malaria (2010)
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Madhok Committee in 1970, investigated the

The National Drug Policy on Malaria was
problem and assessed that 10 to 12% of total
first formulated in 1982 and has subsequently
been reviewed and revised periodically. The cases were contributed by urban areas. The
present National Drug Policy for Malaria (2010) committee recommended anti larval measures
has been drafted keeping in view the availability for containment of urban malaria, because it was
of more effective antimalarial drugs and drug feared that proliferation from urban to rural may
resistance status in the country. spread and nullify the gains already made.

Early diagnosis and complete treatment is one 4. Kala-Azar Control

of the key strategies of the National Malaria
Kala-azar has become a serious public health
Control Programme. All fever cases clinically
problem in Bihar and West Bengal. After its
suspected of malaria should be investigated for
resurgence in Bihar in early 70s, the disease
confirmation of malaria by either microscopy or
spread from 4 districts to adjoining areas and
Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT). As and when the
bivalent RDT is introduced, it will be used for 30 districts in Bihar and 9 districts in West
diagnosis of malaria cases at the field level in Bengal were affected by Kala-azar. As evident,

Chronicle IAS Academy [25]

 the problem has assumed serious dimensions in India. Whenever the disease becomes chronic, it
Bihar, where there has been a steep rise in is irreversible. The disease has been prevalent
reported incidence which itself is not an actual throughout India except Jammu & Kashmir,
magnitude of the problem because some cases Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram,
go to private practitioners and remain Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, Rajasthan,
unreported. Arunachal Pradesh, Delhi, Chandigarh,
Haryana, Sikkim & Nagaland. Present estimate
In view of the rising problem, organised indicates that about 389 million people are living
control measures were initiated to control Kala- in 175 known endemic districts of which about
azar. Until 1990-91, the assistance for Kala-azar 103 million are living in urban areas and the rest
control was being provided by Government of in rural areas.
India out of NMEP budget provision.

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For the control of Filariasis, the National
The strategy for Kala-azar control broadly Filaria Control Programme was launched in

Y
includes 3 major activities: 1955. Under the Programme, the following
(i) Interruption of transmission for activities have been undertaken:
reducing vector population by (i) Delimitation of the problem in hitherto

EM
undertaking indoor residual insecticidal unsurveyed areas;
C IC spray twice annually,
(ii) Early diagnosis and complete treatment
of Kala-azar cases, and
(ii) Control in urban areas through:
(a) Recurrent anti-larval measures.
(iii) Health education for community (b) Antiparasitic measures.
awareness in its involvement. The National Filaria Control Programme
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carries out anti-larval anti-mosquito measures,
Kala-azar Elimination Initiative
establishes filaria clinics and makes provision for
● National Health Policy Goal: Kala-azar underground drainage. Training in Filariology
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Elimination by the year 2010 (which could is imparted at three regional Filaria Training and
A
not be attained). Research Centres, situated at Calicut,
● Elimination Programme is 100 per cent Rajamundary and Varanasi under the National
Centrally Supported (except regular staff Institute of Communicable Diseases of Delhi.
of State governments & infrastructure).
6. Leprosy Eradication
● In addition to kala-azar medicines and
insecticides, cash assistance is being Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused
IA H

by Mycobacterium leprae. It usually affects the

provided to endemic states since
skin and peripheral nerves, but has a wide range
December 2003 to facilitate effective
of clinical manifestations. The disease is
strategy implementation by states.
characterized by long incubation period
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5. Filaria Control generally 5-7 years and is classified as

paucibacillary or mulitbacillary, depending on
What is Filaria? the bacillary load. Leprosy is a leading cause of
permanent physical disability. Timely diagnosis
Filariasis is caused by several round, coiled and treatment of cases, before nerve damage has
and thread-like parasitic worms belonging to the occurred, is the most effective way of preventing
family filaridea. These parasites after getting disability due to leprosy.
deposited on skin penetrate on their own or
through the opening created by mosquito bites The Government of India launched the
to reach the lymphatic system. The disease is National Leprosy Eradication Programme in
caused by the nematode worm, either 1983 with the objective of arresting the
Wuchereria bancrofti or Brugia malayi and transmission of the disease by 2000 A.D. It is a
transmitted by ubiquitous mosquito species 100 per cent Centrally-sponsored programme.
Culex quinquefasciatus and Mansonia The strategy adopted under the programme
annulifera/M.uniformis respectively. involves : (a) provision of domiciliary multi-drug
Filariasis is a major public health problem in treatment coverage in 135 districts having
problems of 5 or more cases per 1000 population,

[26] Chronicle IAS Academy

 by specially trained staff in leprosy; (b) Milestones in NLEP
introduction of modified MDT scheme in the
remaining 66 endemic districts through existing ● 1955 - National Leprosy Control
health care staff; (c) introduction of MDT services Programme (NLCP) launched.
through existing general health care services in ● 1983 - National Leprosy Eradication
the low endemic districts ; (d) Multi-drug Programme launched.
therapy to Dispose refractory cases in other
districts. Treatment with combination of drugs ● 1983 - Introduction of Multidrug therapy
includes treatment with 3 drugs, viz. Rifampicin, (MDT) in Phases.
Clofazimine and Dapsone. Education of the
● 2005 - Elimination of Leprosy at National
patients and the community about the curability
of the disease and their socio-economic Level.
rehabilitation are other two key components of 2012 - Special action plan for 209 high

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●
the control strategy. endemic districts in 16 States/UTs.

Y
The national Institute of Immunology (NII), 7. Tuberculosis
New Delhi has developed an anti- leprosy drug.
It was introduced on January 30, 1998, the 50th In India today, two deaths occur every three

EM
death anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi.
C IC minutes from tuberculosis (TB). But these deaths
The central government appointed a can be prevented. With proper care and
working group headed by the eminent scientist treatment, TB patients can be cured and the
Dr M.S. Swaminathan to develop an action plan battle against TB can be won. Tuberculosis has
for eradicating leprosy. The working group's taken the form of an epidemic in India and
recommendations include: remains the leading infectious cause of death in
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● Control programme should be renamed the country, killing close to 500,000 people each
as eradication programme with time year. The country also has about 2 million new
bound and specific goal of arresting the cases of TB each year, far more than any other
disease activity in all leprosy cases by the country, and accounts for nearly one-third of the
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A
turn of the century; global burden of TB.
● Existing dapsone monotherapy
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease
supplemented with one or more
caused by a bacterium, Mycobacterium
bactericidal drugs (multi-drug treatment)
for treatment of the disease to achieve cure tuberculosis. It is spread through the air by a
of diseases; person suffering from TB. A single patient can
infect 10 or more people in a year.
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● Efforts should be made to obtain self-

sufficiency in the requirements of anti- India has a long and distinguished tradition
leprosy drugs; of research in TB. Studies from the Tuberculosis
Activities of voluntary organisations in Research Centre in Chennai and the National
C

●
leprosy control should be recognised, Tuberculosis Institute in Bangalore provided key
supported and dovetailed into the national knowledge to improve treatment of TB patients
programmes; all around the world.
● Leprosy Act of 1898, which discriminated What is more frightening, the incidence of
against leprosy patients should be multi-drug resistant TB has been rising rapidly,
repealed; underscoring an urgent need to take remedial
● Setting up of National Leprosy measures. There are two reasons why TB has
Eradication Commission (NLEC) under assumed alarming proportion. First it has been
the Chairmanship of Union Minister of seen that treatment in most cases has been
Health and Family Welfare for irregular and inadequate due to variety of
programme policy guidance and National reasons, poverty being the single most important
Leprosy Board (NLEB) under the
one. People do not pursue the long-drawn
chairmanship of Union Health Secretary
treatment schedule and relapses are quite
for monitoring the activities of the
programme. common.

Chronicle IAS Academy [27]

 Second, there are lots of quacks in this field and to sustain the achievements for decades to
and the government's direction is completely come in order to achieve ultimate objective of
lacking. Also, since Tuberculosis is a micro TB control in the country.
bacterial droplet infection, it is quite common All components of new Stop TB Strategy
among the lower strata of the society where are incorporated in the second phase of RNTCP.
proper hygiene levels are not maintained. It is These are:
also quite prevalent at places which are
● Pursue quality DOTS expansion and
overcrowded and over populated like
enhancement, by improving the case
J.J. Clusters.
finding are cure through an effective
Directly Observed Treatment, Short-course patient-centred approach to reach all

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(DOTS) patients, especially the poor.
● Address TB-HIV, MDR-TB and other

Y
The DOTS strategy along with the other
components of the Stop TB strategy, challenges, by scaling up TB-HIV joint
implemented under the Revised National activities, DOTS Plus, and other relevant
Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP) in approaches.

EM
India, is a comprehensive package for TB control.
C IC
The DOTS strategy is cost-effective and is today
the international standard for TB control
programmes. To date, more than 180 countries
● Contribute to health system
strengthening, by collaborating with other
health programmes and general services.
are implementing the DOTS strategy. India has ● Involve all health care providers, public,
adapted and tested the DOTS strategy in various non-governmental and private, by scaling
parts of the country since 1993, with excellent
A N
up approaches based on a public-private
results, and by March 2006 nationwide DOTS
mix (PPM), to ensure adherence to the
coverage has been achieved.
International Standards of TB care.
Multi-drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (MDRTB)
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● Engage people with TB, and affected

A
MDRTB refers to strains of the bacterium communities to demand, and contribute
which are proven in a laboratory to be resistant to effective care. This will involve scaling-
to the two most active anti-TB drugs, isoniazid up of community TB care; creating
and rifampicin. Treatment of MDRTB is demand thorugh context-specific
extremely expensive, toxic, arduous, and often advocacy, communication and social
unsuccessful. DOTS has been proven to prevent
mobilization.
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the emergence of MDRTB, and also to reverse

the incidence of MDRTB where it has emerged. ● Enable and promote research for the
MDRTB is a tragedy for individual patients and development of new drugs, diagnostic and
a symptom of poor TB management. The best vaccines. Operational Research will also
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way to confront this challenge is to improve TB be needed to improve programme

treatment and implement DOTS. performance.
Second Phase of RNTCP 8. Blindness
In the first phase of RNTCP (1998-2005), the
India has the largest blind and potentially
programme's focus was on ensuring expansion
of quality DOTS services to the entire country. blind population in the world. Cataract, which
There are many challenges remaining that are is curable, is the major cause (nearly 80 per cent),
to be addressed in order to achieve the TB-related followed by trachoma, smallpox, malnutrition,
targets set by the Millennium Development Goals vitamin A deficiency, injuries and glaucoma. 85
for 2015 and to achieve TB control in the longer per cent of blindness is either preventable or
term. curable.
The RNTCP has now entered its second National Programme for Control of Blindness
phase in which the programme aims to firstly (NPCB) was launched in 1975-76 which
consolidate the gains made to date, to widen incorporated the earlier Trachoma Control
services both in terms of activities and access, Programme started in 1963. This was 100 per

[28] Chronicle IAS Academy

 cent Centrally sponsored scheme with the goal growth and development. Deficiency of iodine
to reduce the prevalence of blindness from 1.4 may cause following disorders: Goitre,
per cent to 0.3 per cent. As per Survey in 2001- Subnormal intelligence, Neuromuscular
02, prevalence of blindness was estimated to be weakness, Endemic cretinism, Still birth,
1.1 per cent. Target for the 10th Plan was to Hypothyroidism, Defect in vision, hearing, and
reduce prevalence of blindness to 0.8 per cent speech, Spasticity, Intrauterine death, Mental
by 2007 prevalence of Blindness was 1 per cent retardation.
(2006-07 Survey). Endemic goitre has been recognised as an
The approach under the UPCB consists of age-old health problem in the Himalayan belt
intensive health education for eye care through with recent extensive studies. It is now
the mass media and extension education established that about 17 crore people in the
country are exposed to Iodine-deficiency

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methods; extension of ophthalmic services in the
disorders. Out of which, it is estimated that
rural areas through mobile units and eye camps

Y
about 4.5 crore people are suffering from some
and establishment of permanent infrastructure
of the manifestation of these disorders. National
for eye health care as an integral part of general
Goitre Control Programme (1962) is being
health services. Since 1981-82, cataract implemented on a priority basis. The

EM
operations have been accorded high priority in
C IC Government of India has decided to iodise the
the programme and targets for different States/ entire edible salt in the country in a phased
UTs have been set. manner with a view of ensuring proper
The concept of District Blindness Control monitoring and effective implementation of the
Societies (DBCS) has been successfully National Goitre Control Programme. State/
Union Territories have been advised to establish
implemented under the programme. The
A N
a goitre cell.
programme is receiving assistance from Danish
International Development Agency (DANIDA). In recent years, it has become increasingly
A project has been approved under the World clear that iodine deficiency leads not only to
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Bank to boost up the activities of the programme goitre, but also to other Iodine Deficiency
A
in seven major States- Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Disorders (IDD) like still births, cretinism, neo-
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, natal hypothyroidism, juvenile hypothyroidism,
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. impaired hearing and brain development and
function. Recognising the widespread IDD in
The objectives of the NPCB are: - India, the Government has redesignated NGCP
● To reduce the backlog of blindness as National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control
Programme (NIDDCP). Iodine deficiency has
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through identification and treatment of

blind. been identified all over the world. It is a
significant health problem in 130 countries and
● To develop Eye Care facilities in every affects 740 million people. One third of the world
C

district. population is exposed to the risk of IDD.

● To develop human resources for providing It is estimated that in India alone, more than
Eye Care Services. 6.1 crore people are suffering from endemic goitre
● To improve quality of service delivery. and 88 lakh people have mental/ motor
handicaps. A national level survey has been
● To secure participation of Voluntary carried out in 25 states and 5 union territories in
Organizations in eye care. the country and found that out of 282 districts
9. Goitre Control surveyed, in 241 districts it is a major public
health problem where the prevalence rate is more
Iodine is required for the synthesis of the than 10%. It is estimated that more than 71
thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and million persons are suffering from goitre and
triiodothyronine (T3) and essential for the normal other iodine deficiency disorders like mental
growth and development and well being of all retardation, deaf mutism, squint, and
humans. It is a micronutrient and normally neuromotor defects.
require around 100-150 microgram for normal

Chronicle IAS Academy [29]

 Programme through ingestion of contaminated meat of
infected animals or drinking water containing
Following the successful trial of iodised salt anthrax spores and lastly, pulmonary or
in Kangara valley, Himachal Pradesh in 1962, inhalation anthrax caused by breathing in of air
India has launched a 100 per cent centrally borne spores.
sponsored National Goitre Control Programme.
Symptoms: In the first few days of infection,
In 1992, the National Goitre Control Programme
the patient develops influenza-like symptoms
(NGCP) was renamed as National Iodine
with fever and mild pain in chest. As it gains a
Deficiency Disorder Control Programme
firm foothold in the host body, there occurs a
(NIDDCP).
massive release of bacterial toxins which causes
Objectives the lymph nodes to break down and bleed, thus

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spreading the infection in the chest. Infected
● Initial survey to identify magnitude of
fluids slowly build up in the lungs causing

Y
problem in the country;
difficult breathing and high fever. Death occurs
● Production and supply of iodized salt to due to toxin- induced shock. Control measures
the endemic regions; for breaking the cycle of anthrax infection

EM
include:
● Health Education & Publicity;
C IC ❖ Quick disposal of anthrax carcasses.
● To undertake monitoring of the quality of
❖ Disinfection, decontamination and
iodized salt assessing urinary iodine
disposal of all contaminated materials.
excretion pattern and monitoring of
Iodine Deficiency disorder; and ❖ Vaccination of exposed susceptible
animals and humans involved in at risk
A N
● Re-survey in goitre endemic regions after occupations.
five years continuous supply of iodized
salt to assess the impact of the control Anthrax bacterium genome sequenced:
TIGR (The Institute for Genomic Research)
programme. The result of re-survey in
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deciphered the genome of an isolate of the so-

A
some areas has revealed that the
called “Ames strain of Bacillus anthracis.
prevalence of goitre has not been
Scientists say they have found potential new
controlled as desired.
targets for drugs and vaccines against the
10. Anthrax anthrax germ by deciphering and analyzing the
bacterium’s complete genetic makeup.
Anthrax is primarily an infectious bacterial Researchers identified several genes that might
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disease of animals, particularly herbivores such play key roles in anthrax infections. Such genes
as cattle, sheep, horses, mules and goats where might prove to be good leads for developing new
this disease was known to cause uncontrolled treatments. The effort is crucial for anthrax,
mortality at one time. These animals usually get which can be lethal, as it is a potential weapon
C

infected by ingestion of the anthrax spores while of future terrorism.

grazing on contaminated soil and drinking water
11. Hepatitis-C
contaminated with anthrax spores. Human
beings invariably contract anthrax by direct or Although the world is full of nasty viruses,
indirect contact with diseased animals; handling the Hepatitis-C virus is particularly trickier.
infected animal products like flesh, bones, hides Medical science recognised decades ago that not
and hair, eating infected meat and of course, by all cases of hepatitis were caused by the two
breathing weaponized anthrax spores. viruses (A and B) that have already been
identified. But Hepatitis-C virus (HCV), which
The severity of anthrax infection in human is spread mainly by contaminated blood from
beings depends upon many factors such as the shared syringes, was not isolated and identified
route of infection, nutritional status of the host until 1989.
and also the virulence of the infected strain.
Three types of anthrax occurs in human beings- HCV is believed to have infected some 170
cutaneous anthrax acquired through a skin million people and another 3 million join their
lesion, gastrointestinal anthrax contracted ranks every year. In most cases it settles down
to form a chronic infection of the liver which,

[30] Chronicle IAS Academy

 over the course of several decades, can lead to and human chemical trials of the vaccine are
severe forms of liver damage such as cirrhosis expected to begin soon. This vaccine will provide
and fibrosis, as well as cancer. long term immunity to West Nile virus.
According to the World Health Organisation,
Hepatitis-C kills around 500,000 people a year. SEXUALLY-TRANSMITTED
It is less deadly than AIDS, which claims more DISEASE CONTROL
than 3 million lives annually. However its higher
Sexually-transmitted diseases (S.T.D.) like
prevalence (at the moment, some 42 m people
syphilis and gonorrhoea are fairly widespread
are infected with HIV), longer incubation period
in India. For the management and control of
and the absence of effective drugs, mean that it
STD, the Government initiated a centrally -aided
is potentially a more lethal epidemic. Considering
National Control Programme on STD during the
the severity of this nasty virus immediate steps

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Second Five year plan.
are needed to tackle it. German scientists have

Y
shown that a molecule code named BILN 2061 S.T.D. was introduced as a National Control
can block the activity, both in the test tube and Programme during the Second Five year Plan
in experimental animals, of an HCV protein by the Government of India. The Programme
was then primarily a Centrally- aided scheme

EM
called NS 3 protease, without which the virus
cannot go about its business. More significantly, concerned mainly with: (i) establishing S.T.D.
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the drug also seems to work in people. Although clinics throughout the country; (ii) supply of
drugs to the earlier existing and newly
this is a significant success, we have to go a long
way to achieve the final therapy. established clinics; and (iii) conducting training
courses for the in-service medical and para-
12. West Nile medical personnel.
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West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne The scheme was, however, converted into a
zoonotic arbovirus belonging to the genus Centrally- sponsored scheme during the Fourth
Flavivirus. This flavivirus is found in temperate Five year Plan and the Central government
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and tropical regions of the world. It was first assistance was limited to (i) giving grants-in-aid
A
identified in the West Nile subregion in the East to States for establishing new STD clinics, and
African nation of Uganda in 1937. Prior to the (ii) supplying drugs (Benzathine, Penicillin) to
mid-1990s, WNV disease occurred only the STD clinics for the in-service medical and
sporadically and was considered a minor risk paramedical personnel.
for humans, until an outbreak in Algeria in 1994, Recognising STD as one of the major factors
with cases of WNV-caused encephalitis, and the for transmission of HIV infection, the programme
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first large outbreak in Romania in 1996, with a has been merged with the AIDS Control
high number of cases with neuroinvasive disease. Programme. The existing components of the
WNV has now spread globally. programme, viz. teaching, training, and research
however, has been retained outside the World
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West Nile is one of the emerging infectious

diseases. West Nile virus is spread to people by Bank assisted activities of the National AIDS
mosquitoes, usually producing mild, flu-like Control Programme.
symptoms but can cause a deadly encephalitis AIDS Programme
or inflammation of the brain. The virus was first
detected in the United States. Since then, it has HIV infection in the country has been
spread rapidly from the northeastern United reported from as many as 23 States/UTs, and of
States throughout North America; this year it these Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Delhi and
has again made havoc, claiming 10 lives and Manipur have the highest incidence. In
making over 500 sick. Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, the pattern of
HIV infection is that of sub-Saharan type, i.e.,
The US researchers have created a promising through sexual transmission. In the North
vaccine against West Nile virus by replacing part Eastern States, the pattern of HIV infection
of a distantly related virus with proteins from follows a course similar to that of Southern
the West Nile virus, creating a hybrid virus Europe and Thailand, i.e., through drug abuse.
vaccine. It protects monkeys from West Nile virus
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has

Chronicle IAS Academy [31]

 set up a National AIDS Control Organisation as first identified by chemical medicine in the
a separate wing within the Ministry to United States and it was only in 1981 that the
implement and closely monitor the various world was alerted to what has become a global
components of the programme as documented scourge rivaling the medieval plague.
in the Staff Appraisal Report of I.D.A. (World
Bank). The ultimate objective of the project AIDS can take around 7-10 years to develop
would be to arrest the pace of HIV infection in after infection with HIV. The AIDS virus causes
the country with a view to reducing the future a weakness of the immune system. It attacks the
morbidity, mortality and impact of AIDS. cells responsible for maintaining our immuno
response called lymphocyte. When it infects the
The Project would consist of the following
body, it prefers to cells of our defence system.
components:

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These cells are called helper T cells which are a
(i) Strengthening Programme Manage- fundamental part of our immune system. The
ment Capabilities: National AIDS

Y
AIDS virus almost fully specialises on these white
Control Organisation would primarily
blood cells since these helper T cells have CD 4
be involved in planning, consulting,
molecules on the surface to which the AIDS
implementing and monitoring the

EM
virus binds.
various activities under the project
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State/UT level.
(ii) Strengthening of IEC : The project
To put it simply, the AIDS virus consists of
genetic information on the inside and a
protective outer shell of proteins and
would seek to carry out an intensive glycoproteins. Since viruses use the host cell's
public awareness and community resources for reproduction, they do not need to
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support campaign through mass media contribute much of itself. That is why they are
and sustained dissemination of much smaller than the host cells, e.g. helper T
information and health education about cells. In the host cell's nucleus, there is more than
HIV and AIDS to all levels and 100,000 times as much genetic information
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A
categories of personnel. stored than under the protein shell of the AIDS
virus. However, there is no way to stop the virus
(iii) Prevention of Transmission through
once the cell has been infected.
Blood and Blood Products: The project
seeks to upgrade the blood banking AIDS now kills about three lakh Indian adults
capabilities in the public sector and each year. This is roughly 15 times the number
expansion of HIV screening of all blood of people killed in the Gujarat earthquake. It was
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used for transfusion and blood-products first noticed in 1986 when six sex workers of
in the country. Chennai were found infected with HIV. Since
(iv) Strengthening Clinical Management then some 20 lakh to 25 lakh Indians have died
capabilities: The project seeks to of AIDS.
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strengthen the institutional capabilities The 2006 estimates suggest national adult
at the State/UT level for monitoring the HIV prevalence in India is approximately 0.36
development of HIV and AIDS epidemic per cent, amounting to between 2 and 3.1 million
and planning and programming people. If an average figure is taken, this comes
interventions to control such epidemics. to 2.5 million people living with HIV and AIDS;
(v) Controlling S.T.D.: One of the almost 50 percent of the previous estimate of 5.2
predominant mode of transmission of million.
HIV infection is through sexual contact.
More men are HIV positive than women.
The project seeks to take up activities to
Nationally, the prevalence rate for adult females
strengthen the clinical services and case
is 0.29 per cent, while for males it is 0.43 per
management activities in STD centres.
cent. This means that for every 100 people living
The Disease: It is the late stage of infection with HIV and AIDS (PLHAs), 61 are men and
with the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus 39 women. Prevalence is also high in the 15-49
(HIV). The Virus is of course much older and it age group (88.7 percent of all infections),
is believed that it originated in Africa. This was

[32] Chronicle IAS Academy

 indicating that AIDS still threatens the cream of is to end our foolish denial that our society
society, those in the prime of their working life. is somehow impervious to AIDS, which it
cannot go the way of Africa.
AIDS is the record largest killer of Indian
adults; second only to T.B. Heterosexual contact ● We then need to insist that our health
is the most prevalent mode of transmission here care system is improved, right-away. The
in which infected males have the largest Government simply has to find the money
contribution (90 per cent). Infection through and commitment to ensure that every
blood and blood products account for 7 per cent Indian has access to decent health
only of the total AIDS cases, 89 per cent are in services, including prevention and care for
the age group of 15-44 years. About 70 per cent sexually transmitted diseases and T.B.
infections are reported to be among men and 85 HIV/AIDS cannot be fought where health

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per cent transmission are through multipartner services barely exits.
sex- both among high risk group and general

Y
● National AIDS Control Organisation
population.
(NACO) be run in a committed,
If the rapid rate continues, AIDS- caused transparent and participatory fashion,
deaths will outstrip TB very soon. At a minimum, serving the needs of all Indians, not as

EM
between 40 lakh to 50 lakh Indians are currently the high-handed, secretive, stonewalling
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infected, not including the 20 lakhs to 25 lakhs bureaucracy.
who have already died. Another five lakh Indian
● Our efforts should be dedicated to
adults are getting infected every year- one new
ensuring that no more Indians get infected,
adult every minute!
and that no more die because they cannot
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Three states- Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh afford treatment with anti- retroviral and
and Karnataka- are in the midst of full-blown other medicines. All Indians should
epidemic, with well over two per cent of all mandatorily be given comprehensive sex
adults infected. Another three states follow just education that will dispel the confusion
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A
behind- Tamil Nadu, Manipur and Nagaland. about HIV/AIDS and enable them to
In about eight to ten urban areas of these six protect themselves. In addition, young
states, three to five per cent of adults are infected. people everywhere must have regular face
These include such major cities as Pune, to face counselling on safe sex.
Kolhapur and Hyderabad. These are among the
● Laws and policies should also be changed
most severely affected areas outside Africa, on
to empower and protect people already
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par with Thailand, which has been battling a

infected or those especially from vulnerable
severe epidemic for a decade. And every year,
groups.
the number of states with worsening epidemics
swells- Kerala just crossed the one per cent ● Discrimination in the private sector
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infection level against adults, and even remote against infected people must be made
Orissa is nearly there. illegal.
It is not just the poor who are contracting
HIV. For proof, look at the members of the MENTAL HEALTH
Positive People's Group that are mushrooming The government of India decided to launch
in every major urban area, from Delhi to the National Mental Health Programme (NMHP)
Bangalore to Vajayawada- they are middle and during the 7th Five year Plan period in 1982 to
upper income, not blue- collar, not poor. ensure availability and accessibility of minimum
How to check the pandemic mental health care for all in the foreseeable
future, particularly to the most vulnerable and
● India will not be able to avert an epidemic
under-privileged sections of the population, to
unless our politicians, bureaucrats and
encourage application of mental health
journalists immediately end their knee-jerk
knowledge in general health care and social
response to AIDS. An essential first step
development, and to promote community

Chronicle IAS Academy [33]

 participation in the mental health service that is a major obstacle to its treatment.
development and stimulate efforts towards self According to WHO, an estimated 39 million
help in the community. people in the world suffer from epilepsy, but
some 39 million of them- almost three out of
Aims of NMHP every four get little help for the condition. In
1. Prevention and treatment of mental and developing countries, 60-90 per cent of people
neurological disorders and their with epilepsy are excluded from treatment.
associated disabilities. There is thus a huge treatment gap where
epilepsy is concerned. To combat epilepsy,
2. Use of mental health technology to
education of health workers, patients, and the
improve general health services.
wider community is essential.
3. Application of mental health principles

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in total national development to Cantab-paired Associate Learning (Cantab-
pal) test: This test was invented by Dr. Barbara

Y
improve quality of life.
Sahakian and Professor Trevor Robbins which
Objectives of NMHP detects Alzheimer’s disease with 98 per cent
1. To ensure availability and accessibility accuracy. It distinguishes Alzheimer’s sufferers

EM
of minimum mental health care for all from patients with depression and people
C IC in the foreseeable future, particularly to
the most vulnerable and underprivileged
sections of population.
without any neuropsychiatric disorder.
Cantab-pal works by flashing patterns and
images on the computer screen. Patients have to
2. To encourage application of mental identify where the image first appeared.
health knowledge in general health care
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and in social development. According to Dr. Sahakian, Cantab will be,
3. To promote community participation in useful not only for early detection of Alzheimer's
the mental health services development disease but could also be used to measure the
and to stimulate efforts towards self- beneficial effects of current pharmacy ecological
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help in the community. treatments such as cholinesterase inhibitors, as
well as future drugs, including neuroprotective
● Alzheimer's disease agents.
Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive, The test's sensitivity to Alzheimer's disease
degenerative disease that attacks the brain and is related to the fact that the areas in the brain
results in impaired memory, thinking and first affected are those utilized when performing
behaviour. It is the most common form of the test.
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primary dementia. It afflicts 1 in 10 people over

age 65 and nearly half of all people aged 85 and SARS AND BIRD FLU
over. It has been estimated that more than
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1,00,000 die of Alzheimer’s disease annually, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
which makes it the fourth leading cause of death was recognized at the end of February 2003.
in adults, after heart disease, cancer and stroke. Emerging and re-emerging epidemic diseases
pose an on-going threat to global health security.
Common Symptoms: Memory loss,
According to Klaus Stohr, a virologist for the
Difficulty performing familiar tasks, problems
WHO, there is nearly conclusive evidence to
with language, Disorientation to time and place,
implicate a type called a coronavirus for SARS.
Poor or decreased judgment, Problems with
Coronavirus belongs to a family of viruses that
abstract thinking, Misplacing things, changes in
mood or behaviour, changes in personality, loss can cause among other things, the common cold
of initiative, etc. in humans.

● Epilepsy The WHO Specialist's conclusion is based on

the fact that out of 55 SARS patients tested, 45
Epilepsy is the most common of many severe either had the virus in their faeces, or had
neurological disorders. But in contrast to other antibodies to it in their body fluids. The virus
chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart has, moreover, been isolated from patients during
disease, epilepsy carries a heavy burden of stigma all stages of the disease.

[34] Chronicle IAS Academy

 It is still not clear where the virus first came contaminated nasal respiratory and faecal
from but genetic work suggests it is related to material from infected birds. Bird flue symptoms
mouse hepatitis C, transmissible gastroenteritis in humans are fever, cough, sore throat and
in Pigs, and the human coronavirus. Such links muscle aches. Other symptoms include eye
add force to the theory that the disease originated infection, pneumonia, acute respiratory distress,
in livestock in rural China, where humans and viral pneumonia and kidney failure. The latest
AF outbreak was particularly alarming from the
animals live in close contact, and then jumped
perspective of human health because the
to humans.
causative agent for most of these outbreaks was
Initially, the epidemiologists believed that the a highly pathogenic strain, (H5N1) which is
virus spread by the transmission of droplets, that deadly to poultry, particularly chickens. Birds
is, through coughing and sneezing. But some that survive infection shed the virus for at least
10 days, orally and through faeces, thus

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cases caused particular alarm because they do
not appear to follow a droplet pattern of facilitating its spread. H5N1 also has the unique

Y
capacity to jump the species barrier. The virus,
infection, so new routes of transmission, via air
which was first isolated from terns in South
and water, are being examined.
Africa in 1961, mutates rapidly and has the
Without knowing the precise transmission propensity to acquire genes from influenza

EM
routes, it is difficult to contain a disease. As a viruses, affecting other animal species.
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precautionary step, WHO recommended that all
but essential travel to Hong Kong and FOOD ADULTERATION
Guangdong should be postponed. Fortunately,
after WHO's alert, health authorities were The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act,
primed to isolate these cases, and they were able 1954, has been in force since June, 1985, with
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to prevent any subsequent spread. The alert, the objective of ensuring that food articles sold
though, came just too late to prevent an to consumers are pure and wholesome. It also
outbreak in Canada. aims at preventing fraud or deception and
encouraging fair trade practices. A minimum
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At the moment only time and labour- imprisonment of six months with a minimum
A
intensive laboratory testing can determine if fine of Rs. 1,000 is envisaged under the Act for
someone is infected with the disease. cases of proven adulteration whereas for the
American Scientists at the Center for Disease cases of adulteration which may render the food
Control and Prevention (CDC), after identifying injurious to cause death or such harm which
the new coronavirus, proposed that the virus may amount to grievous hurt, the punishment
should be named after a doctor, Carlo Urbani, may go up to life imprisonment and a fine which
shall not be less then Rs. 5,000.
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who first identified the disease and then became

a victim. Dr Urbani succumbed to the disease The administration of the Act and the
later. provisions thereunder is the primary
After SARS the world has once been rocked responsibility of state government and union
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by another pandemic avian havoc. Major territory administration. The Central

affected areas were South-East Asia. Mass culling government lays down broad policies in this
of birds was also undertaken in South Korea, regard, carries out the necessary amendments
Vietnam, Japan, Taiwan, China and Pakistan. to the Act and rules and advises state
The disease is caused by the H5N1 avian governments and union territory administrations
influenza virus. The World Health Organization in the effective implementation of the
(WHO) confirmed that the fatal infection had programme. For advising the Centre or the states
caused some deaths. with regard to implementation of the Act, there
is a statutory body, namely, Central Committee
Bird flu or AF is a form of influenza that for Food Standards. The Committee is assisted
strikes all birds. The domestic poultry are by various technical sub-committees. The Act is,
particularly more prone to it. This is an acute by and large, implemented by local bodies.
infectious disease of the respiratory and gastro-
intestinal tract caused by a strain of influenza There are four central food laboratories viz.
virus A. The Type A influenza virus spreads to Central Food Laboratory at Central Food
human beings and other animals through Technological Research Institute (CFTRI),

Chronicle IAS Academy [35]

 Mysore; Central Food Laboratory at Food Though the use of Radio-isotopes to cure
Research and Standardisation Laboratory, diseases goes back to 1938, its full development
Ghaziabad; Central Food Laboratory at State took place in the 70s. Nuclear medicine uses the
Public Health Laboratory Pune and Central Food tracer principle which was evolved by George
Laboratory, Kolkata. Samples are sent to these Hevesy for which he got the Nobel prize in 1944.
appellate laboratories by courts. Statements of Today, the Positron Emission Tomography has
facts contained in the report given by the revolutionised the field of nuclear medicine. The
laboratories are considered to be the final and main Radio-isotopes used in nuclear medicine
conclusive evidence. include Cobalt-60, Iridium-192, Gold-199,
Oxygen -15, Nitrogen-13, Carbon-11, Fluorine-
Food Safety and Standards Authority of
18, Rubidium-82, Copper-62, Gallium-68, etc.
India (FSSAI) had notified Rules on 5th August
They are used not only for curative purpose, but

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2011 under FSSA Act 2006 to give guidelines to
also for scanning the body. Cabolt-60, Iridium-
food industry for hygiene and regulations/

Y
192, and Gold-199 have been used to cure
standards for safe and wholesome food for
cancer. Iodine-131 is being used to cure thyroid
human consumption.
disorders.
A nationwide project, Food and Drug

EM
2. Chronotherapy
Capacity Building Project was designed to
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improve the quality and safety of food and drugs
by strengthening the regulatory framework and
incorporating components of consumer
Chronotherapy is relatively a new field in
bio-medical science in which delivering the right
therapy at the right time to optimize medical
education with the assistance of World Bank. The treatment and to reduce the side effects of the
project remained in operation from 2003 to 2008 medicine. With this aim, chronologists are
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to improve the capacity of laboratories at central working to understand the mysteries of the
and state levels along with other regulatory human biological clock (circadian rhythm) and
programme. For this purpose the government of are producing substantial evidence of how
India took nearly Rs.320 crore soft loans from synchronizing treatment of chronotherapy
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World Bank. (timing treatment according to body's natural

A
There are 76 food laboratories under the rhythm) may make surgery, radiation and drug
control of state government/local bodies. The therapy more effective, significantly reducing
samples lifted by food inspectors are sent to these side effects and even prolonging life.
laboratories and on the basis of the reports, 3. Blood disease with GM stem cells
prosecutions are launched in courts.
Two major-technical obstacles that currently
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Under joint FAO/WHO Food Standards limit the success of gene therapy for human red
Programme, Codex Alimentarius Commission blood cell diseases such as beta-thalassemia and
has been established to formulate worldwide sickle cell disease have been overcome by
standards for food. India is also a member of this researchers at the St. Jude Children's Research
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body. A National Codex Committee has been set Hospital.

up under the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare to formulate the Indian viewpoint on The team overcame the obstacle passed by
various matters concerning International Food the large number of defective hematopoietic stem
Standards Programme. cells (HSCs) producing faulty red blood cells in
beta-thalassemia or sickle cell disease. The large
NEW INVENTIONS IN THE numbers of defective HSCs thwart attempts by
FIELD OF MEDICINES gene therapy to reverse the disease. HSCs are
parent cells in the bone marrow that give rise to
1. Nuclear Medicine blood cells. The researchers also performed the
difficult task of integrating genes into an HSCs
In the peaceful use of nuclear science, own DNA so the HSCs function normally.
nuclear medicine has a prominent place. The
alpha, beta and gamma radiations from The results offer promise for developing gene
radioactive nucleus have revealed their curative therapy to treat blood diseases in humans caused
power. Today, Radio-isotopes have become by defective haemoglobin i.e. haemoglobin that
invaluable tools to solve many complex diseases. either lacks a critical protein called beta globin

[36] Chronicle IAS Academy

 or that contains a mutated form of the protein. motors and batteries have made the task easy.
The pumping mechanism will be done by motors
Haemoglobin is the oxygen carrying protein
and the microprocessors will maintain the blood
in red blood cells. Replacing red blood cells that
flow. The patients using Jarvik 2000 will have to
carry defective haemoglobin with red cells that
carry defective haemoglobin with red cells that bear a belt to reactivate the battery. The battery
have normal haemoglobin is a potential strategy will be attached to a plug which will provide
for curing these disorders. energy to the heart through wires. Abiocore uses
a better technique where wires are not needed.
Beta thallassemia (Cooley's anaemia) occurs It uses a coil and a battery in the stomach, which
when the haemoglobin molecule lacks the beta- will receive the energy from outer battery by
globin molecule that is part of the haemoglobin radio waves. Scientists contemplate it to be a
molecule. In sickle cell disease, an abnormal gene substitute for ventricle.
for beta-globin causes haemoglobin molecules in

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the red blood cell to dump together and distort
FORENSIC TOOLS

Y
the cell into the shape of a sickle. Instead of
flowing freely, sickle-shaped red cells sludge and
1. Narco Analysis
block blood vessels. This cut off of blood flow
can cause pain, stroke, leg ulcers, bone damage

EM
This is the tool of modern forensics to catch
and other medical problems. the culprits and trace the criminals and decipher
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The researchers chose beta-thalassemia and their modus operandi by administering
hypnotics or similar drugs into the suspects. In
sickle cells diseases as targets for their gene
the Narco Analysis Test, the subject's imagination
therapy study because both diseases could
is neutralised by making him semi-conscious. In
potentially be treated by modifying HSCs with
this state, it becomes difficult for him to lie and
normal genes for gamma-globins, which is
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his answers would be restricted to facts he is
usually produced only during foetal life. already aware of. Experts inject a hypnotic like
4. New Technique for Regenerating Organs Sodium Pentothal or Sodium Amytal and the
subject which is put in a state of Hypnotism is
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An Indian doctor has achieved a major

A
not in a position to speak up on his own but can
breakthrough by developing a technique for answer specific but simple questions after giving
regeneration of organs and tissue using cells some suggestions. This test is of great help in
taken from the patients themselves. The tracing a crime and finding some evidence,
technique has recently been granted patent by where no primary evidence is available.
the U.S. patent and trade mark office. The Truth serum is a drug used in narco-analysis
technique is expected to revolutionize medical that cause a person to become uninhibited and
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science as it could do away with organ and talkative, but they do not guarantee the veracity
tissue transplants and thus avoid the problems of the subject's statement. People who are under
associated with them. The major advantage of the influence of truth serums enter a hypnotic
this new technique is that no donor would be
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state and speak freely about anxieties or painful

anymore required to replace diseased organs. memories. The subject's imagination is
Also, as the new tissues and organs would be neutralised when semi-conscious, making it
formed within the body using its own cells, there difficult for him/her to lie and his/her answers
would be no problem of acceptance of foreign would be restricted to facts of which he/she is
bodies, which had been a major problem aware.
associated with transplants. In addition, unlike
Limitation: Such tests generally don’t have
transplant surgeries, no post operative treatment legal validity as confessions made by a semi-
by expensive immune suppressant drugs would conscious person are not admissible in court. It
be required. states that subjects under a semi-conscious state
5. Artificial Hearts do not have the mind set to properly answer any
questions, while some other courts openly accept
A Massachusetts based Abiomed Company them as evidence.
has proposed for production of artificial heart
2. Polygraph
named Abiocor and Jarvik 2000. The
development of microprocessors bio-goods, A polygraph (commonly known as a lie

Chronicle IAS Academy [37]

 detector) is a device that measures and records distances. The concept of telemedicine was
several physiological variables such as blood introduced more than 30 years ago through the
pressure, heart rate, respiration and skin use of telephone, facsimile machine, and slow-
conductivity while the subject is asked a series scan images. However, the enabling technology
of questions. The measurements are posited to has grown considerably in the past decade. The
be indicators of anxiety that accompanies the term telemedicine, in short refers to the
telling of lies. Thus, measured anxiety is equated utilization of telecommunication technology for
with telling untruths. However, if the subject medical diagnosis, treatment and patient care.
exhibits anxiety for other reasons, or can control
his anxiety level voluntarily, a measured Areas of Application
response can result in unreliable conclusions. A Telemedicine enables a physician or specialist
polygraph test is also questionably used as a

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at one site to deliver health care, diagnose
psycho-physiological detection of deception
patients, give intra-operative assistance, provide

Y
(PDD) examination.
therapy, or consult with another physician or
Limitation: Today, polygraph examiners use paramedical personnel at a remote site.
two types of instrumentation, analog and Telemedicine system consists of customized

EM
computerized. While some people believe that medical software integrated with computer
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polygraph tests are reliable, there is little scientific
evidence to buttress this claim. For example,
while some claim the test to be accurate in 70%
- 90% of the cases, critics charge that rather than
hardware, along with medical diagnostic
instruments connected to the commercial VSAT
(Very Small Aperture Terminal) at each location
or fibre optics.
a “test, the method amounts to an inherently
unstandardizable interrogation technique whose Although, telemedicine could potentially
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accuracy cannot be established. affect all medical specialties, the greatest current
3. Brain Fingerprinting applications are found in radiology, pathology,
cardiology and medical education. Perhaps the
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Brain fingerprinting, invented by greatest impact of telemedicine may be in

A
Dr. Lawrence Farwell, is a technique that fulfilling its promise to improve the quality,
measures recognition of familiar stimuli by increase the efficiency, and expand the access
measuring electrical brain wave responses to of the healthcare delivery system to the rural
words, phrases, or pictures that are presented
population and developing countries.
on a computer screen. The theory is that the
suspect's reaction to the details of an event or Telemedicine finds application in a wide
activity will reflect if the suspect had prior area. Given below are areas of application and
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knowledge of the event or activity. This test uses the advantages accrued thereof.
the Memory and Encoding Related Multifaceted
Electroencephalographic Response to detect Specialist consultations between two or
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familiarity reaction. more hospitals: Advantage to patients due to

higher accuracy of diagnosis and treatment.
Ethical Consideration: The electrical
potential of the human brain with relation to Leads to shorter hospital stay, faster turnover,
specific thoughts and feelings seem to some increased availability of hospital beds and
people to be highly invasive. However, such conservation of medical assets.
screening procedures might potentially be much Opinions on special investigations:
more effective than polygraph screening, which
Secondary medical centres can send
has never been shown to have prevented an act
investigations like ECGs, EEGS, TMTs,
of espionage.
ultrasound/CAT/MRI scans, etc for reporting/
TELEMEDICINE opinions to specialists at tertiary centres. This
would conserve scarce resources, in this case, the
Telemedicine specialists can lead to their better utilization.

Telemedicine involves transfer of medical Specialist opinions to GPs at small towns

information online and in real-time for use in and villages: A ‘Telemed Unit once made
diagnosis, treatment, and education across available to a general practitioner (GP) at a

[38] Chronicle IAS Academy

 remote site would connect him and hundreds Andhra Pradesh in 1999. Apollo Hospitals,
like him to a Central Specialist Centre (CSC). The which now has close to 150 centres in India,
CSC would provide these GPs with 24 hrs 7 days Bangladesh, Maldives, Sri Lanka and
a week specialist consultancy. This would result Kazakhstan, is targeting to have 500-700
in a good number of patients being treated locations in the next 18-24 months.
locally, though being monitored by specialists,
ISRO’s Network: ISRO’s satellite based
remotely. Franchising of such units would be a
Telemedicine network, which started in 2001 on
viable business proposition. an experimental basis, was aimed at linking
Virtual Patient Visits: Relatives can remote/rural district hospitals with super-
‘virtually visit their near and dear ones admitted specialty hospitals in major cities via INSAT.
to hospitals 1000s of miles away with the help While ISRO provides software, hardware and
of video conferencing. This would be a communication equipment as well as satellite

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tremendous psychological boost for the patient bandwidth, the specialty hospitals provide
infrastructure, manpower and maintain the

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and could speed up his recovery.
system. There are currently estimated 350-400
Medical Tourism: It is the Buzz word in hospitals connected by telemedicine. On the
corporate hospitals today. Patients from far off ISRO network alone, there are 170, of which

EM
countries can avail of superb, immediate
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treatment at less then half to one sixth the cost remote centres.
that they would have paid in their own country. ISRO's Telemedicine network further
Chronic patients monitored from home: expanded with the signing of MOU on May 16,
Chronic patients can be monitored from home 2006 with four specialty hospitals - Manipal
regularly by remote consultations, cutting down Hospital, Bangalore; Sir Ganga Ram Hospital,
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on trips to distant hospitals. This methodology New Delhi; Madras Diabetic Research
applies well to certain cardiovascular, Foundation, Chennai and Dr Venkatrao Dawle
respiratory, diabetic, renal, psychiatric and Medical Foundation, Ambajogai (Maharashtra).
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dermatological cases. ISRO's telemedicine programme is an

A
Treatment of patients in inaccessible example of societal orientation of Indian space
programme and with several private specialty
areas: Patients in inaccessible areas like
hospitals besides state governments and NGOs
mountains, ships at seas, islands when cut off
showing keen interest in establishing the
due to weather conditions or natural disasters
telemedicine network, augurs well to the cause
can be treated and monitored till they get access
of extending quality healthcare to the rural
to a hospital.
population. Efforts are also being made by ISRO
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Treatment of casualties in disaster areas: to include telemedicine through Village Resource

Telemedicine portable units can be setup at Centres (VRC) which are being set up in
disaster areas in a few hours to assist local association with NGOs, trusts and state and
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doctors in receiving specialist opinions and central agencies.

advice for rational evacuation of casualties. Providing healthcare to India’s over one
These are just a few of the areas where billion population of which about 75 per cent
telemedicine is utilized today. live in villages, is a formidable task. About 75
per cent of the doctors practice in urban areas
and 23 per cent in semi-urban areas. This leaves
DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
just 2 per cent of the qualified doctors, who are
The concept of telemedicine, started about attached to about 23,000 primary health and
ten years ago in India on a pilot basis, has 3000 community health centres, to attend to 70
matured onto the next level. Major hospital per cent of the population living in villages.
groups are now looking at significantly Telemedicine initiatives at ISRO have been
expanding their centres not just in India but also broadly divided into the following areas:
in neighbouring countries. The first telemedicine
● Providing Telemedicine Technology &
project in the country was set up by the Apollo
connectivity between remote/rural
Hospitals group in the village of Aragonda in

Chronicle IAS Academy [39]

 hospital and Super Speciality Hospital Health Activists (ASHA) and the Janani
for Teleconsultation, Treatment & Surakshay Yojana (motherhood protection
Training of doctors & paramedics. programme). It also aims at improving hygiene
● Providing the Technology & connectivity and sanitation infrastructure. It is the most
for Continuing Medical Education ambitious rural health initiative ever.
(CME) between Medical Colleges & Post The mission has a special focus on 18 states
Graduate Medical Institutions/ Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,
Hospitals. Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand,
● Providing Technology & connectivity for Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Mizoram,
Mobile Telemedicine units for rural Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland, Orissa,
health camps especially in the areas of Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttarakhand and

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ophthalmology and community health. Uttar Pradesh.

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● Providing technology and connectivity Goals of NRHM:
for Disaster Management Support and a) Reduction in Infant Mortality Rate
Relief. (IMR) and Maternal Mortality Ratio

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As telemedicine technologies and processes (MMR).
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gradually mature, the extent of medical
specialties where telemedicine technologies could
prove clinically useful should expand. Indeed,
b) Universal access to public health services
such as Women’s health, child health,
water, sanitation &hygiene, immu-
reports of telemedicine implementation are nization, and Nutrition
appearing in orthopaedics, dermatology, c) Prevention and control of communicable
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psychiatry, oncology, neurology, pediatrics, and non-communicable diseases,
internal medicine, ophthalmology and surgery. including locally endemic diseases.
d) Access to integrated comprehensive
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NATIONAL RURAL HEALTH MISSION

A
primary healthcare.
Recognizing the importance of Health in the e) Population stabilization, gender and
process of economic and social development and demographic balance.
improving the quality of life of our citizens, the f) Revitalize local health traditions and
Government of India has launched the National mainstream AYUSH.
Rural Health Mission to carry out necessary
architectural correction in the basic health care g) Promotion of healthy life styles.
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delivery system. Salient features of NRHM:

The Mission adopts a synergistic approach a) Innovation in Human Resource
by relating health to determinants of good health Management
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viz. segments of nutrition, sanitation, hygiene

and safe drinking water. It also aims at Promote access to improved healthcare at
mainstreaming the Indian systems of medicine household level through the Accredited Social
to facilitate health care. Health Activist (ASHA). ASHA would act as a
bridge between the Auxiliary Nurse and the
National Rural Health Mission was launched village Midwives and be accountable to the
on 12th April, 2005 with an objective to provide Panchayat. ASHA would facilitate in the
effective healthcare to the rural population, the implementation of the Village Health Plan along
disadvantaged groups, including women and with Anganwadi workers, ANM, functionaries
children by improving access, enabling of other Departments, and Self Help Group
community ownership, strengthening public members, under the leadership of the Village
health systems for efficient service delivery, Health Committee of the Panchayat.
enhancing equity and accountability and b) Strengthening Public Health Delivery in
promoting decentralization.
India
The scheme proposes a number of new
mechanisms for healthcare delivery, including New concepts of Indian Public Health
training local residents as Accredited Social Standards have been introduced. They are a set

[40] Chronicle IAS Academy

 of standards envisaged to improve the quality f) Strengthening Disease Control
of healthcare delivery in the country under the Mechanisms
National Rural Health Mission.
National Disease Control Programmes for
c) Strengthening PHCs Malaria, TB, Kala Azar, Filaria, Blindness &
Mission aims at Strengthening PHC for Iodine Deficiency and Integrated Disease
quality preventive, promotive, curative, and Surveillance Programme has been integrated
supervisory and Outreach services through under the Mission, for improved programme
adequate and regular supply of essential quality delivery and new initiatives have been launched
drugs and equipment (including Supply of Auto for control of Non Communicable Diseases.
Disable Syringes for immunization) to PHCs. Further disease surveillance system at village
Provision of 24 hour service in 50% PHCs by level would be strengthened. Supply of generic
addressing shortage of doctors, especially in high drugs (both AYUSH & Allopathic) for common

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focus States, through mainstreaming AYUSH ailments at village, SC, PHC/CHC level will also

Y
manpower. be included.
d) Strengthening CHCs
NATIONAL URBAN HEALTH MISSION
Infrastructure strengthening of CHCs by

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implementation of IPHS standards which The Union Cabinet gave its approval to
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includes Promotion of Stakeholder Committees
(Rogi Kalyan Samitis) for hospital management
launch a National Urban Health Mission
(NUHM) as a new sub-mission under the over-
and developing standards of services and costs arching National Health Mission (NHM). Under
in hospital care. the Scheme the following proposals have been
e) Decentralized Planning approved:
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a) One Urban Primary Health Centre (U-
This includes the District Health Mission at
PHC) for every fifty to sixty thousand
the District level and the State Health Mission at
population.
the state level. District Health Plan would be a
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reflection of synergy between Village Health b) One Urban Community Health Centre
A
Plans, State and National priorities for Health, (U-CHC) for five to six U-PHCs in big
Water Supply, Sanitation and Nutrition. It also cities.
includes involvement of PRIs in planning process
c) One Auxiliary Nursing Midwives
to improve access of facilities.
(ANM) for 10,000 population.
Positive outcomes of NRHM:
National Rural Health Proposed Goal Achievements:
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Mission ● MMR: 100/100,000 Live Births MMR: 301-SRS (RGI) (2002)

● IMR: 30/1000 Live Births 254-SRS (RGI) (2005)
● TFR: 2.1 212-SRS (RGI) (2008)
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IMR: 60-SRS (RGI) (2003)

57-SRS (RGI) (2006)
47-SRS (RGI) (2010)
U5 MR: 85-SRS (RGI) (2000)
77-SRS (RGi) (2005)
64-SRS (RGI) (2009)
● Institutional Delivery:

❖ 72.9%-CES (2009)

● Complete Immunization:

❖ 61%-CES (2009)

● Total Fertility Rate:

❖ 3-SRS-(RGI) (2003)

❖ 2.6-SRS-(RGI)(2008)

Chronicle IAS Academy [41]

 d) One Accredited Social Health Activist the country. It calls for a strong primary health
ASHA (community link worker) for 200 network in rural India. Emphasis has been given
to 500 households. to increase the aggregate public health
investment through a substantially increased
The estimated cost of NUHM for 5 years
contribution by the Central Government.
period is Rs.22,507 crore with the Central
Priority has been given to preventive and
Government share of Rs.16,955 crore. Centre-
curative initiatives at the primary health level
State funding pattern will be 75:25 except for
through increased sectoral share of allocation.
North Eastern states and other special category
states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh The main objective of this policy is to achieve
and Uttarakhand for whom the funding pattern an acceptable standard of good health amongst
will be 90:10. the general population of the country. The

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approach would be to increase access to the
The scheme will focus on primary healthcare
decentralized public health system by

Y
needs of the urban poor. This Mission will be
establishing new infrastructure in deficient
implemented in 779 cities and towns with more
areas, and by upgrading the infrastructure in the
than 50,000 population and cover about 7.75
existing institutions. The contribution of the

EM
crore people. private sector in providing health services would
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The interventions under the sub-mission will
result in
I. Reduction in Infant Mortality Rate
be much enhanced, particularly for the
population group which can afford to pay for
services. Primacy will be given to preventive and
first-line curative initiatives at the primary health
(IMR).
level through increased sectoral share of
II. Reduction in Maternal Mortality Ratio allocation. Emphasis will be laid on rational use
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(MMR). of drugs within the allopathic system.
III. Universal access to reproductive health
The policy plannned to increase health sector
care.
expenditure to 6 per cent of GDP, with 2 per
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IV. Convergence of all health related cent of GDP being contributed as public health
A
interventions. investment, by the year 2010. The State
The existing institutional mechanism and Governments would also need to increase the
management systems created and functioning commitment to the health sector. In the first
under NRHM will be strengthened to meet the phase, by 2005, they would be expected to
needs of NUHM. City-wise implementation increase the commitment of their resources to 7
plans will be prepared based on baseline survey per cent of the Budget; and, in the second phase,
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and felt needs. Urban local bodies will be fully by 2010, to increase it to 8 per cent of the Budget.
involved in implementation of the scheme. With the stepping up of the public health
investment, the Central Government's
NUHM aims to improve the health status of contribution would rise to 25 per cent from the
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the urban population in general, particularly the existing 15 per cent by 2010.
poor and other disadvantaged sections by
The NHP-2002 sets out an increased
facilitating equitable access to quality health
allocation of 55 per cent of the total public health
care, through a revamped primary public health
investment for the primary health sector; the
care system, targeted outreach services and
secondary and tertiary health sectors being
involvement of the community and urban local
targeted for 35 per cent and 10 per cent
bodies.
respectively.
NATIONAL HEALTH POLICY 2002 Delivery of National Public Health
Programmes: The NHP-2002 envisages the
The National Health Policy-2002 (NHP-2002) gradual convergence of all health programmes
was cleared by the Union Cabinet in May 2002. under a single field administration. Vertical
This is the second such policy adopted by the programmes for control of major diseases like
Government after a gap of 19 years. The National TB, Malaria, HIV/AIDS, as also the RCH and
Health Policy-2002 gave prime importance to Universal Immunization Programmes, would
ensure a more equitable access to health services need to be continued till moderate success is
across the social and geographical expanse of achieved.

[42] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Public Health Infrastructure: The Policy disorders. The programme outline for such a
envisages kick-starting the revival of the Primary disease would involve the diagnosis of common
Health System by providing some essential drugs disorders, and the prescription of common
under Central Government funding through the therapeutic drugs, by general duty medical staff.
decentralized health system.
Information, Education and Commu-
Extending Public Health Services: NHP- nication: NHP-2002 envisages an IEC policy,
2002 envisages that in the context of the which maximizes the dissemination of
availability and spread of allopathic graduates information to those population groups which
in their jurisdiction, State Governments should cannot be effectively approached by using only
consider the need for expanding the pool of
the mass media. The focus would therefore be
medical practitioners; to include a cadre of
on the inter-personal communication of
licentiates of medical practice and also

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information and on folk and other traditional
practitioners of Indian Systems of Medicine and
media to bring about behavioural change.
Homoeopathy. Simple services/procedures can

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be provided by such practitioners even outside Health Research: This Policy envisages an
their disciplines, as part of the basic primary increase in Government-funded health research
health services in under-served areas. to a level of 1 per cent of the total health spending

EM
Role of Local Self-government: NHP-2002 by 2005; and thereafter, up to 2 per cent by 2010.
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lays great emphasis upon the implementation of
public health programmes through local self-
Domestic medical research would be focused on
new therapeutic drugs and vaccines for tropical
government institutions. The structure of the diseases, such as TB and Malaria, as also on the
national disease control programmes will have sub-types of HIV/AIDS prevalent in the country.
specific components for implementation through
National Disease Surveillance Network:
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such entities.
This Policy envisages the full operationalization
Use of Generic Drugs and Vaccines: The of an integrated disease control network from
2002 policy emphasizes the need for basing the lowest rung of public health administration
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heatment procedure in both the public and to the Central Government, by 2005. The
A
private domain, on a limited number of essential programme for setting up this network will
drugs of a generic nature. This is a pre-requisite include components relating to the installation
for cost-effective public healthcare. In the public
of data-base handling hardware; IT inter-
health system, this would be enforced by
connectivity between different tiers of the
prohibiting the use of proprietary drugs, except
network; and in-house training for data
in special circumstances.
collection and interpretation for undertaking
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Urban Health: NHP-2002 envisages the timely and effective response.

setting up of an organised urban primary health
care structure. Since the physical features of Health Statistics: The Policy envisages the
urban settings are different from those in rural completion of baseline estimates for the incidence
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areas, the policy envisages the adoption of of the common diseases - TB, Malaria, and
appropriate population norms for the urban Blindness - by 2005. The policy also recognizes
public health infrastructure. The structure the need to establish, in a longer time-frame,
conceived under NHP-2002 is a two-tiered one: baseline estimates for non-communicable
the primary centre is seen as the first-tier, diseases, like CVD, Cancer, Diabetes; and
covering a population of one lakh, with a accidental injuries, and communicable diseases,
dispensary providing an OPD facility and like Hepatitis and JE.
essential drugs, to enable access to all the national
health programmes; and a second-tier of the Women’s Health: The Policy notes that
urban health organisation at the level of the women, along with other under-privileged
Government general hospital, where reference groups, are significantly handicapped due to a
is made from the primary centre. disproportionately low access to health care. The
various Policy recommendations of NHP-2002,
Mental Health: NHP - 2002 envisages a in regard to the expansion of primary health
network of decentralised mental health services sector infrastructure, will facilitate the increased
for ameliorating the more common categories of access of women to basic health care.

Chronicle IAS Academy [43]

 Medical Ethics: NHP - 2002 envisages that, Impact of globalisation on the health sector:
in order to ensure that the common patient is The Policy takes into account the serious
not subjected to irrational or profit-driven apprehension, expressed by several health
medical regimes, a contemporary code of ethics experts, of the possible threat to health security
be notified and rigorously implemented by the in the post-TRIPS era, as a result of a sharp
Medical Council of India. increase in the prices of drugs and vaccines. To
protect the citizens of the country from such a
Environmental and Occupational Health:
threat, this policy envisages a national patent
This Policy envisages that the independently -
regime for the future, which, while being
stated policies and programmes of the
consistent with TRIPS, avails of all opportunities
environment -related sectors be smoothly
to secure for the country, under its patent laws,

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interfaced with the policies and the programmes
affordable access to the latest medical and other
of the health sector, in order to reduce the health
therapeutic discoveries. The policy also sets out

Y
risk to the citizens and the consequential disease
that the Government will bring to bear its full
burden.
influence in all international fora - UN, WHO,
Providing medical facilities to users from WTO, etc. - to secure commitments on the part

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overseas: To capitalize on the comparative cost of the Nations of the Globe, to lighten the
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advantage enjoyed by domestic health facilities
in the secondary and tertiary sectors, NHP-2002
strongly encourages the providing of such health
restrictive features of TRIPS in its application to
the healthcare sector.

services on a payment basis to service seekers

from overseas.
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A




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[44] Chronicle IAS Academy

 ELECTRONICS & CHRONICLE
COMPUTERS IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

After the software boom in mid 1990s India's

ELECTRONICS SECTOR IN INDIA
focus shifted to software. Moreover the steep fall
India is one of the fastest growing markets in custom tariffs made the hardware sector
of electronics in the world. There is potential to suddenly vulnerable to international

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develop the Electronics System Design & competition. In 1997 the ITA agreement was
Manufacturing (ESDM) sector to meet our signed at the WTO where India committed itself

Y
domestic demand as well as to use the capabilities to total elimination of all customs duties on IT
so created to successfully export ESDM products hardware in the near future.
from the country. In recent years the electronic industry is

EM
Production of electronic equipment and growing rapidly. It is currently worth $75 Billion
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components has come a long way since the days
of radio receivers in 1940s. Electronics industry
but according to estimates, has the potential to
reach $ 400 billion by 2020. The largest segment
in India has grown with domestic demand as a is the consumer electronics segment and the
result of import substitution efforts. India largest export segment is of components.
embarked on its Electronics journey around Electronics plays a catalytic role in increasing
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1965 with an orientation towards space and production and productivity in key sectors like
defence technologies. This was rigidly controlled power, coal, oil, railways, communication and
and initiated by the Government. This was process industries.
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followed by developments in consumer

A
electronics mainly with Transistor radios, Black TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
& White TVs, Calculators and other audio
The Department of Electronics supports and
products. Colour Televisions soon followed.
funds technology development through its
In order to keep pace with developments in councils set up in various fields namely the
the international scene and also considering the Technology Development Council (TDC) for
increasing importance of electronics for areas like components, computer
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diversified applications, the Department of communication and instrumentation, etc., the

Electronics was set up by the Government of National Radar Council (NRC) for radars,
India in 1971. Since then, the department has navigational aids, sonar, underwater electronics
been coordinating development of electronics in systems, laser and infra-red based detection/
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India and reviewing constantly the growth ranging systems, National Microelectronics
achieved in the industrial front and in the R & Council (NMC) for design and production
D capabilities. technology of LSI/VLSI, ASICs, etc. Electronic
Materials Development Council (EMDC) for
In 1982, which was a significant year in the
materials, including special ceramics, high purity
history of television in India, the government
metals, gas, etc., and the National Photonics
allowed thousands of colour TV sets to be
Council (NPC) for photonic related areas
imported into the country to coincide with the
covering also electronics devices, optical data
broadcast of Asian Games in New Delhi. 1985
storage switching, imaging, vision informatics,
saw the advent of Computers and Telephone
etc. These councils also provide inter-ministerial
exchanges, which were succeeded by Digital
forum for overall development, including
Exchanges in 1988. The period between 1984
generation of production capabilities in their
and 1990 was the golden period for electronics
respective areas. Some of the completed projects
during which the industry witnessed continuous
under these programmes have made a definite
and rapid growth.
impact on the R & D capabilities of the country.

Chronicle IAS Academy [45]

 There has been a radical transformation in
Scientific Projects in Specific Areas the character of electronics industry in India since
Centre for Development of Advanced the development of point contact transistors in
Computing (C-DAC) has developed a software 1947-48 which laid the foundation of micro-
under India’s IT Ministry and Israel’s FTK electronics.
Technologies that covers ten scripts and 3000 Micro-electronics in the country began
characters and supports Windows, MAC and appearing around 1970, since then it has made
Linux. a remarkable progress in various fields.
‘Lekhika 2007’-a software application is Innumerable applications have been successfully
expected to enable masses in India, who do not developed and used in industrial, scientific and
other areas.

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know English, to gain computer skills in their
own language, thanks to its user-friendly, The manufacture of integrated circuits (ICs)

Y
comprehensive, cost-efficient format. The started in the country in 1971 when Bharat
software costing between Rs 2500 and Rs 3000 Electronics Limited (BEL) fabricated the TIL 7420
rupees currently supports Hindi, Bengali, IC with the knowhow developed by Tata

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Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Gujarati, Kannada, Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR). The
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Malayalam, Urdu and Punjabi, and soon it
would include all the officially recognized Indian
languages.
IC produced by BEL so far has SSI/MSI levels of
complexity. Besides, it has fabricated a prototype
watch chip. In the next few years it proposes to
manufacture microprocessors and memory
Time bound projects in specific areas are chips, using, RCA’s technology.
being implemented through separate scientific
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societies like Centre for Development of With the trial production of the pulse dialer
Advanced computing (C-DAC) which has chips by the public sector Semiconductor
developed 256 nodes PARAM parallel super Complex Limited (SCL) in March 1984, the
computer of computing power IG flops/7500 country entered the era of large scale integrated
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circuits/very large scale integrated circuits. SCL

A
MIPs and Centre for Materials for Electronics
Technology (C-MET) to establish technology for has developed the 32 KHZ clock chip and two
a range of electronic materials. Other funded kinds of semi-customs gate array circuits for
projects like Fibre Optics System Development, alarm enunciator for Bharat Heavy Electricals
Knowledge Based computer System (KBCS), Limited (BHEL) and KELTRON. It has stated the
Advanced Technology Programme on Computer design of an Electrically Erasable Programme
Read Only Memory (EEPROM) in collaboration
Networking (ERNET), development of high-
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with the AM Santa Clara, USA. SCL would also

power devices. etc., are making satisfactory
undertake manufacture of a broad range of
progress. To encourage application-oriented
standard LSIs, including calculator chips,
research, design and development, Electronics
telecom chips, microprocessors and speech
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Research and Development Centre (ER & CDs)

synthesizers.
and Rural Electronics Technology Centre
(RETC), Society for Applied Microwave
ELECTRONICS IN THE
Electronics Engineering and Research
(SAMEER), National Centre for Software SERVICE OF SOCIETY
Technology, etc., are also being funded to
Electronics is a knowledge intensive industry.
strengthen respective R & D activities.
It is a dynamic industry and it is also a global
The Department has launched a industry. Indian electronics industry is a little
Standardization, Testing and Quality Control more than 40 years old. Although the numbers
(STQC) Programme for healthy growth of the by themselves appear to be quite impressive
industry. Equipment Certification schemes are when viewed in isolation, if we look at it from
operational covering television receivers and the global point of view we find that we have
personal computers, including allied peripherals. miles to go. The Indian electronics industry
STQC carries out IEC quality assessment system constitutes less than 1 per cent of the global
for electronic components (IECQ) in its role of electronics industry. On the other hand, India
National Supervisory Inspectorate (NSI). has the potential of emerging as a global player.

[46] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Electronics therefore is vital in the context of Import Intensity: When we look at the
tackling the immediate national problems. From competitive advantage of the Indian electronics
the long term point of view also, electronics has industry we find that our industry has got many
a tremendous potential to improve the quality weaknesses. Whereas generally in other
of the people, for instance, the electronic media industries we have started from the lower end
can be an effective method of eliminating of raw materials and components and then gone
illiteracy in rural areas, bringing concepts of on to the finished products, in the case of
public hygiene and improving the quality of life electronics industry we started from the other
of the women, etc. Department of Electronics end that is from equipment and then worked in
had been engaged in a programme called Vivek the reverse direction. As a result there is a high
Darpan which started in May, 1990 in which a degree of import intensity in the Indian Industry
colour TV set with a VCP called Sanghamitra today. If we view the import intensity from the

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was placed in different villages and programmes point of view of the raw materials we find that
were shown regularly which were aimed at the import dependence in other sectors of

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removal of illiteracy, advice to women about industry may be 10% whereas it is 50 to 80% so
public hygiene, etc. Apart from the socially far as electronics is concerned.
relevant aspects, a significant impact of

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The major imports in this sector broadly fall into
electronics is its employment potential especially
the following categories:
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for women.
(i) Direct import of finished equipment by
Electronics is also important in the concept user Ministries/ Departments such as
of planned and balanced regional development. Defence, Communications, Railways, Civil
This is because it is a relatively footloose industry aviation, etc.
and can be located in different parts of the
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country. (ii) Imports of equipment by small actual
users like hospitals, R & D organisations,
It is therefore obvious that electronics is a educational institutions, etc.
sector of industry which is important in the
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(iii) Imports in the form of personal baggage.

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national development effort and which can
significantly contribute to the improvement of (iv) Imports by the local electronics industry
the quality of life of the people in our country. for production activities, both for local
consumption as well as for exports.
Competitive Advantages: When we talk of
competing in the international market, we need Necessary Imports: The imports under the
to consider major factors that the important for first three categories can be minimized only
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a nation to develop competitive advantage. Prof. through increasing the local production base.
Michael Porter had identified a “diamond” of This needs considerable imported items under
four factors, namely: the following requirements.
(i) Factoral advantages which will include (a) Import of capital goods, test equipments,
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factors like low cost labour, raw materials tools, etc. for production of electronic
etc. equipment and components.
(ii) Intense competition between the (b) Import of electronic components,
indigenous players in the same sector. mechanical hardware items, etc. by
(iii) Availability of related industries to equipment manufacturers.
provide the necessary infrastructural (c) Import of raw materials and parts by
support, and family, electronic component manufacturers.
(iv) The demand of the consumers. (d) Import of components, sub assemblies
parts, etc. by export oriented production
Therefore we should approach self reliance
units.
in the electronics sector so far as India is
concerned making the best of the advantages that Emphasis on Exports: Due to rapid changes
it has and emerge as a global player. in technology and new products being

Chronicle IAS Academy [47]

 introduced in the international and domestic on target. First prototype of computer based
market, it may not be possible to cut down the communication aid for the spastics has
import content in the Indian electronics products undergone field trials with extremely
drastically. encouraging feedback from the Spastics Society
of India. A new project has been initiated on
USA and UK continues to be major markets
development of thin film bio-medical
for the IT software and services exports. Markets
transducers. The project will result in products
across Continental Europe and the Asia Pacific
which have a large demand within the country.
are also witnessing significant year-on-year
growth. This trend towards a broader
geographic market exposure is positive for the ELECTRONICS IN AGRICULTURE AND
industry, not only as de-risking measure but also AGRO BASED INDUSTRIES

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as a means of accelerating growth by tapping
new markets. Microprocessor based drip irrigation and

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control system is under field trial stage and will
Indigenization: While the above analysis be evaluated over 2-3 crop-cycles. Short term
may give us a macro picture about the overall trials of soil salinity mapping system using

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balance in foreign exchange and the degree of inductive electro-magnetic principle have been
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indigenization the first area we are concentrating
is the indigenous R & D. It has been found that
there is a tremendous time lag between the
development of the technology in the laboratory
done and efforts are underway to fabricate a
prototype for extended field trials.
The programme on application of Electronics
and its application. An attempt is being made to in the Industry is being implemented at
reduce this time to the market by bringing up AMTRON, Guwahati and MAEP Centre,
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this issue in a forum comprising the industries, Kolkata. AMTRON has developed the
financial institutions, institutions like IITs as well VERMIAC range of instrumentation based on
s the Department of Electronics. distributed computer architecture and monitors
four vital processing stages viz. withering, rolling,
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A
ELECTRONICS IN HEALTHCARE AND fermentation and drying. The system is installed
at Hunwal Tea Estate near Jorhat. MAEP
REHABILITATION
Kolkata centre has developed an application of
The integrated Linear Accelerator (LINAC) electronic control and instrumentation system
development programme, which was initiated for Jute industry has been initiated. The objective
in 1991, is now in full operation and is designed of the project is to develop electronic systems and
to put our country to the forefront of technology facilities for modernising jute industry to make
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for cancer radiation therapy and treatment it competitive in national and international
planning. These LINACs have been fabricated markets.
with full participation of five major public sector
Various elements of the project are as follows:
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undertakings who are jointly taking up the

knowhow for LINAC for commercial (i) Modification of existing electronic
production. The new LINAC prototypes are an instruments/systems available for cotton
update on first prototype which was installed textile for application to jute.
at PGIMER, Chandigarh and several advance (ii) Development of on-line and off-line
features have been incorporated into the system.
instruments/systems for Jute industry.
Project on development of a state of the 3- (iii) Setting up of infrastructure for repair and
dimensional treatment planning system for
maintenance of electronic instruments and
cancer radiotherapy has been initiated. The
training of mill personnel.
project is being implemented with full
participation of a leading treatment planning
system manufacturer in the private sector and SOCIO-ELECTRONICS PROGRAMME
will be based on the advanced parallel processor
The scheme for training of medical and para-
technology of C-DAC.
medical personnel was taken up with a view to
The technology development programme for provide effective support in the repair and
electronics in healthcare has been progressing maintenance of Electro-medical equipment.

[48] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Advanced training programme for the para industry, including nano-electronics to meet the
medical staff has also been worked out and such country`s needs and serve the international
training programmes are being conducted market. The strategies include setting up of a
through IHRDE, Trivandrum. National Electronics Mission with industry
participation and renaming the Department of
Vivek Darpan: Project Vivek Darpan (PVD)
Information Technology as Department of
is designed to demonstrate and propagate the
Electronics and Information Technology (Deity).
use of the audio visual media as a more cost
effective method for dissemination of socio- The policy is expected to create an indigenous
economic information/knowledge in rural areas manufacturing eco-system for electronics in the
as compared to traditional methods/ media. country. It will foster the manufacturing of
Several pilot projects have been initiated in indigenously designed and manufactured chips
carefully selected villages to show that these creating a more cyber secure ecosystem in the

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mediums can strengthen and help in taking country. It will enable India to tap the great

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knowledge, education and developmental economic potential that this knowledge sector
messages to rural people, particularly women. offers. The increased development and manufac-
This medium is used as an aid for turing in the sector will lead to greater economic

EM
communication in programmes of rural growth through more manufacturing and
development, family welfare and women’s consequently greater employment in the sector.
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development. The Department of Electronics as
The policy sets out to achieve a turnover of
a scientific department has funded a few early
about USD 400 Billion by 2020 involving
pilot projects only for establishing cost-
investment of about USD 100 Billion. It also aims
effectiveness of TV-UVP medium. The objectives
at ensuring employment to around 28 million in
of the Project Vivek Darpan are:
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the sector by 2020.
(1) Effective dissemination of developmental
motivation and knowledge/skills for rural Major objectives of the policy are:
folk, especially women using audio-visual a) To create an eco-system for a globally
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media as multi-user, multi-tasking systems. competitive Electronic System Design and

A
Manufacturing (ESDM) sector in the
(2) Effectively supplementing the post-literacy
country to achieve a turnover of about
development efforts for rural adults.
USD 400 billion by 2020 involving
(3) Achieve favourable and sustainable investment of about USD 100 billion and
impact in the areas of family planning, providing employment to around 28
health and hygiene improvement, social million people at various levels.
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awareness and productivity improvement.

b) To build on the emerging chip design and
(4) Cause extensive replication/spread in embedded software industry to achieve
thousands of villages by convincing other global leadership in Very Large Scale
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central and state government agencies/ Integration (VLSI), chip design and other
NGOs on the cost-effectiveness of this frontier technical areas and to achieve a
media. turnover of USD 55 billion by 2020.

The NGOs now implementing Project Vivek c) To build a strong supply chain of raw
Darpan in 105 Villages are holding one hour materials, parts and electronic compo-
sessions for 5 different set of groups eg. children, nents to raise the indigenous availability
youth, women, general audiences and farmers of these inputs from the present 20-25 per
every day. cent to over 60 per cent by 2020.
d) To increase the export in ESDM sector
NATIONAL POLICY ON from USD 5.5 billion to USD 80 billion by
ELECTRONICS 2012 2020.
e) To significantly enhance availability of
The National Policy of Electronics envisions
skilled manpower in the ESDM sector.
creating a globally competitive Electronics
Special focus for augmenting postgraduate
Systems and Design Manufacturing (ESDM)

Chronicle IAS Academy [49]

 education and to produce about 2500 innovation eco-system in the ESDM sector.
PhDs annually by 2020.
To achieve this target the Union Cabinet has
f) To create an institutional mechanism for approved the proposal to offer financial support
developing and mandating standards and for the development of Electronics
certification for electronic products and Manufacturing Clusters (EMCs), as these EMCs
services to strengthen quality assessment would aid the growth of the Electronics Systems
infrastructure nationwide. Design and Manufacturing (ESDM) sector, help
g) To develop an appropriate security development of entrepreneurial ecosystem, drive
ecosystem in ESDM. innovation and catalyze the economic growth
of the region by increasing employment
h) To create long-term partnerships between opportunities and tax revenues.

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ESDM and strategic and core infra-
The proposed EMCs scheme would support

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structure sectors-Defence, Atomic Energy,
Space, Railways, Power, Telecommu- setting up of both Greenfield and Brownfield
nications, etc. EMCs.

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i) To become a global leader in creating The main features of the proposed EMC
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Intellectual Property (IP) in the ESDM Scheme are as follows:
sector by increasing fund flow for R&D,
The assistance would be provided to a
seed capital and venture capital for start- Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) which
ups in the ESDM and nanoelectronics should be a legal entity duly registered
sectors. for this purpose. The SPV may be
promoted by private companies, industry
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j) To develop core competencies in strategic associations, financial institutions, R&D
and core infrastructure sectors like institutions, State or Local governments
telecommunications, automotive, avionics, or their agencies and units within the
industrial, medical, solar, Information and
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EMC. The SPV should consider including

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Broadcasting, Railways, etc. through use an academic/research institution to be
of ESDM in these sectors. part of the proposed SPV for suitable
k) To use technology to develop electronic academic-industry linkages.
products catering to domestic needs,
The financial assistance to the SPV shall
including rural needs and conditions, as be in the form of grant-in-aid only.
well as international needs at affordable
For Greenfield EMCs the assistance will
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price points.
be restricted to 50% of the project cost
l) To expedite adoption of best practices in subject to a ceiling of Rs. 50 crore for every
e-waste management. 100 acres of land.
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Further to boost the electronics industry
For Brownfield EMCs the assistance will
government has launched Electronics be restricted to 75% of the project cost
Manufacturing Clusters Scheme subject to a ceiling of Rs. 50 crore.

The scheme will be open for applications
As part of the vision to make India a leading
for five years from the date of notification.
destination for the Electronics Systems Design
and Manufacturing (ESDM) sector, the draft
The financial assistance under the policy
National Policy on Electronics (NPE) proposes would be subject to approval by the
to achieve a domestic production of about USD Competent Authority following due
400 Billion by 2020 in the ESDM sector by process.
creating an industry friendly policy framework
and ecosystem which provides a level playing A well developed cluster can give a unit
field for the domestic industry. The NPE also located in it a cost advantage of 5 to 8% because
proposes to set up two semiconductor wafer of various reasons such as increased supply chain
manufacturing facilities and to create and sustain responsiveness, consolidation of suppliers,
a vibrant research and development and decreased time-to-market, superior access to

[50] Chronicle IAS Academy

 talent and lower logistics costs. The cluster While analogue computers are for specific
development approach also helps in the scientific/technological operations, such as
development of entrepreneurial ecosystems harmonic analysis, solution of simultaneous
which drive innovation and catalyze the algebraic and polynominal equations etc. in the
economic growth of a region by increasing fields such as hydrodynamics, aerodynamics,
employment opportunities and tax revenues. industrial control, etc., the digital computers are
universal in that they have applications not only
The proposed scheme is expected to help in the scientific field but also in the fields of
flow of investment for the development of world- business and administration. Further due to their
class infrastructure specifically targeted towards superior flexibility and accuracy, the digital
attracting investment in the ESDM sector. Nearly computers dominate the contemporary
28 million persons are expected to be employed, computer scene the latest of which are called
directly or indirectly for the ESDM turnover to

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microcomputers.
reach USD 400 billion. The policy covers all States

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and districts and provides them an opportunity Programming Language: Computerware
to attract investments in electronics manu- can be divided into hardware and software. The
facturing. five functional units of a computer built with
electronic circuits and electromechanical devices

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COMPUTER REVOLUTION constitute the hardware. The range of standard
C IC
The 21st century is witnessing a computer
programs or routines supplied by the
manufacturer along with the computer
revolution in which information processing and hardware are referred to as software.
retrieval are being done reliably at incredible
speeds. Microprocessors which made their Computer programming is the name given
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impact felt about fifteen years ago are the basis to the ‘art ‘ of writing a programme in a
for a new breed of computers whose ultimate programming language, which is a higher level
goal is to stimulate the intelligence of man. language. Every machine depending upon its
Microcomputers are becoming faster and internal hardware architecture has a unique low
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level language called the machine language. In

A
cheaper and very soon they are expected to be
as powerful as the mainframe computers. Today a binary coded digital computer the machine
microprocessors can be found in pocket language is made of 0s and 1s. To relieve the
calculators, industrial robots, home appliances, etc. programmer from the tedium of writing a
programme in the difficult low-level machine
The first four generations of computers were language, several hundreds of easier high level
based on the technology of the age to which they programming language, have been developed.
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belonged. They were thus based on the vacuum Of these FORTRAN (Formula translation), and
tube technology, the transistor and printed BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic
circuit technology, the integrated circuit Instruction Code) were the most widely accepted
technology, the transistor and printed circuit general purpose programming languages while
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technology, the integrated circuit technology and COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
the Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) was the most successful programming language
technology respectively. The marvel of the fourth for business purposes.
generation VLSI technology is that a
microprocessor weighing a few grams, can store BASIC was an on-line conversational
512 K or 512 X 1024 bits of 0s and 1s. language. It had been quickly adopted by
commercial time sharing services. With the
Computers are analogue or digital machines.
advent of microprocessors in the mid-70s, BASIC
Those converting numbers into physical
was made available as a “Read Only Memory
quantities, which can very continuously within
(ROM) Chip”. BASIC had many dialects and
a range are called analogue computers while
several of these included features not in the ANSI
those using numbers (which are discrete values)
(American National Standard Institute), which
are called digital computers. There is a third class
standardized a subset of BASIC to promote
of computers called hybrid computers, which
uniformity. cBASIC and BASICA are two of the
have digital storage and switching, but in them
calculations are done in an analogue fashion. versions of BASIC.

Chronicle IAS Academy [51]

 Present day Micros: The micro-computer BASIC the first two are used when the PC has a
industry was revolutionized by the entry of IBM, cassette or disk interface while Advanced BASIC
which started marketing PCs in 1980. has all the capabilities of the other two as well
as additional features necessary for the colour/
Essentially a micro computer consists of a
graphics mode.
system unit. The printer is an auxiliary unit
“essential to get the output from the micro-
SUPER COMPUTERS
computer as a hard-copy. The standard type
writer keys viz. A to Z, 0 to 9 and certain special A supercomputer is a computer that is at the
characters which together constitute the alpha- frontline of current processing capacity,
numeric characters are an essential part of all particularly speed of calculation. Super-
the micro computer keyboards, which also have

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computers were introduced in the 1960s and
two or three additional groups of keys. One of were designed primarily by Seymour Cray at

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these is a set of numeric keys (0 to 9) arranged Control Data Corporation (CDC), which led the
as in a calculator for ease of data entry. market into the 1970s until Cray left to form his
The VDU (Visual Display Unit) is the video own company, Cray Research.

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display terminal for the micro computer system. The computers characterized by their very
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This can be either a monochromatic (black and
white) or colour monitor. The normal printer
interface is for the monochromatic display unit.
long size and very high processing speed are
known as supercomputer. They are used in
specialized area such as defence, aircraft, design,
A Colour/Graphics monitor Adopter board weather research and other scientific works. The
(or oriented circuit) is essential as an interface to first super computer was the ILLIAC IV made
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enable the use of a colour monitor. A colour TV by Burroughs and University of Illinois in 1965.
set can also be used with a radio frequency The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid,
modulator. and today’s supercomputer tends to become
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tomorrow’s ordinary computer. CDC’s early

A
The system unit contains the heart of the
micro-computer-a micro processor the dynamic machines were simply very fast scalar processors,
Random Access Memory (RAM), an extended some ten times the speed of the fastest machines
microsoft BASIC as Read Only Memory (ROM), offered by other companies. In the 1970s most
floppy disk drive for auxiliary storage, a built in supercomputers were dedicated to running a
speaker and some expansion slots for system vector processor, and many of the newer players
enlargement. Additional dynamic memory developed their own such processors at a lower
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(RAM) board can be used to enhance the memory price to enter the market. The early and mid-
of the micro computer. The ROM stores 1980s saw machines with a modest number of
permanently, programmes essential for the vector processors working in parallel to become
operation of the micro-computers. the standard. Typical numbers of processors were
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in the range of four to sixteen. In the later 1980s

Modular: The micro-computer is modular in and 1990s, attention turned from vector
design and the modules (or blocks) are processors to massive parallel processing systems
interconnected through a bus. The micro- with thousands of “ordinary” CPUs, some being
processor or (Silicon) chip combines the ALU off the shelf units and others being custom
and the control unit, the memory (ROM and designs. Today, parallel designs are based on “off
RAM), the micro -processor, a interfaces for the the shelf” server-class microprocessors, such as
keyboard, VDU etc, expansion slots, speaker and the Power PC, Opteron, or Xeon, and most
timing circuits are all on the system board of modern supercomputers are now highly-tuned
mother board of a microcomputer system. computer clusters using commodity processors
combined with custom interconnects.
Microsoft BASIC is a version of BASIC, which
is standard with the IMN-PC. The BASIC Some other areas such as molecular
interpreter is contained in 40 K of ROM and the biophysics, quantum chemistry and reaction
IBM-PC uses three versions of BASICS called dynamics require high-speed numeral
cassette BASIC, disk BASIC and Advanced computing too. A conventional computer cannot

[52] Chronicle IAS Academy

 perform a high-speed computing due largely to in public as well as private sector. The parallel
the physical limitation known as the Von computers developed by the C-DAC are already
Neumann barrier. But a super computer based available commercially. C-DAC has deployed
on parallel processor (that breaks a task into a several Param supercomuters in India and
large number of subtasks and each subtask can abroad. It has sold Param supercomputers to the
be carried out independently at its own pace) UK, Germany, Philippines and Singapore. In
architect can have a computing power as high particular, it has deployed a Param 10000
as 1000 mega flops. version in Russia for about Rs 2 crore under a
commercial contract. C-DAC earlier announced
Supercomputers are used for highly
its plans to install supercomputers at 12 premier
calculation-intensive tasks such as problems
educational institutions such as IIS and IITs.
involving quantum physics, weather forecasting,
climate research, molecular modeling The Supercomputer is endowed with

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(computing the structures and properties of advanced programming environment ‘PARAM’.

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chemical compounds, biological The entire design and development of PARAM,
macromolecules, polymers, and crystals), both hardware and software, have been done
physical simulations (such as simulation of indigenously. Only microprocessor, memories

EM
airplanes in wind tunnels, simulation of the glue-logic chips and winchester disks were
detonation of nuclear weapons, and research into imported.
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nuclear fusion).
The Advanced Numerical Research and
The parallel processor based computer Analysis Group (ANURAG) of the DRDO has
systems are being planned to be used in the also designed and developed a high-speed user-
following areas: friendly super computer known as PACE
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Remote Sensing (Processor for Aerodynamics Computation and
Evaluations). This system finds application in

Image Processing several number crunching applications

Signal Processing including geology, remote sensing, aircraft design
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and weather studies.

Launch Vehicle Dynamics
E-Learning framework by C-DAC: Pune

Computational Fluid Dynamics
based Centre for Development of Advance

Finite Element Modelling Computing (C-DAC) is developing a web-based

Computational Physics project envisages providing an e-learning
framework based learning management system.

Computational Chemistry
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The institution is designing the e-learning

Oil Reservoir Modelling framework in such a way that any kind of course
material can be made available to large number

Astronomy and Astrophysics of students via net.
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Material Science
Bioinformatics: The last few decades have

Computational Mathematics been huge advances in the biological sciences.
Especially in the last years, the availability of

Graphics and Visualisation
sophisticated technology has resulted in the

Aerodynamic application increasingly rapid sequencing of the genetic
material of several species. This deluge of
C-DAC information has necessitated the creation of a
The Centre for Development of Advanced means to manage the data in terms of organizing,
Computing (C-DAC), a scientific society under indexing and storing it. This has led to the
the administrative control of the Department of evolution of the science of bioinformatics.
Electronics, Government of India, has designed Dasher: Dasher is a data entry interface
a general purpose Super computer ‘PARAM’. developed to replace the standard QWERTY
The centre has transferred the know-how for the keyboard layout. It is nearly twice as efficient,
PARAM Supercomputer to many organisations more accurate and easier on the eyes and above

Chronicle IAS Academy [53]

 all the prototype program is designed to be Sequoia is also one of the most energy efficient
particularly useful for computer users who are systems on the list, consuming a total of 7.84 MW
unable to type using a conventional keyboard. and delivering 2,031.6 Mflops/W.
Woz Net: Woz Net is a simple and Fujitsu’s “K computer” installed at the
inexpensive wireless network that uses radio RIKEN Advanced Institute for Computational
signals and global positioning satellite data to Science (AICS) in Kobe, Japan, is now the No. 4
keep track of a cluster of inexpensive tags within system with a performance of 10.51 Pflop/s on
a one or two-mile radius of each base station. the Linpack benchmark using 705,024 SPARC64
Woz Net includes a home-based station that has processing cores. A second BlueGene/Q system,
the ability to track the location of dozens or even Mira, installed at Argonne National Laboratory
hundreds of small wireless devices that can be is at No. 5 with 8.59 petaflop/s on the Linpack

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attached to people, pets or property. The devices benchmark using 786,432 cores. The latest

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or tags will be able to generate alerts, notifying number cruncher is capable of operating at so
the owner by phone or e-mail message when a called “Petaflop” speeds - the equivalent of 1,000
child arrives at school, a dog leaves the yard, or trillion calculations per second.The ultra
a car leaves the parking lot. powerful machines will be used for complex

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C IC simulations to study everything from particle
Supercomputerss of the World physics to nanotechnology.
The list of supercomputers was announced Blue Gene Project: Blue Gene is an IBM
on June 17, 2013 during the opening session of Research project dedicated to exploring the
the 2013 International Supercomputing frontiers in supercomputing: in computer
Conference in Leipzig, Germany. Tianhe-2, a
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architecture, in the software required to
supercomputer developed by China’s National program and control massively parallel
University of Defense Technology, is the world’s systems, and in the use of computation to
new No. 1 system with a performance of 33.86 advance our understanding of important
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petaflop/s on the Linpack benchmark, according biological processes such as protein folding. IBM
A
to the 41st edition of the twice-yearly TOP500 and its collaborators are currently exploring a
list of the world’s most powerful super- growing list of applications, including
computers. hydrodynamics, quantum chemistry, molecular
Tianhe-2, or Milky Way-2, will be deployed dynamics, climate modeling and financial
modeling.
at the National Supercomputer Center in
Guangzho, China, by the end of 2013. Tianhe-2 Param Yuva II
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has 16,000 nodes, each with two Intel Xeon

IvyBridge processors and three Xeon Phi Param Yuva II was developed by the Centre
processors for a combined total of 3,120,000 for Development of Advanced Computing (C-
DAC) and inaugurated on February 8, 2013.
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computing cores.
Param Yuva II is the first supercomputer that
Titan, a Cray XK7 system installed at the U.S. has crossed 500 teraflops in computing power
Department of Energy’s (DOE) Oak Ridge in the country. Param Yuva II is the fastest
National Laboratory and previously the No. 1 supercomputer in India and 62nd fastest in the
system, is now ranked No. 2. Titan achieved world. The supercomputer also promises to be
17.59 petaflop/s on the Linpack benchmark energy efficient with 35 per cent reduction in
using 261,632 of its NVIDIA K20x accelerator energy consumption as compared to the earlier
cores. Titan is one of the most energy efficient facility.
systems on the list, consuming a total of 8.21 MW
The supercomputer is expected to be of great
and delivering 2,143 Mflops/W.
help to the scientific community. Industries like
Sequoia, an IBM BlueGene/Q system pharmaceuticals, bio informatics, aeronautical
installed at DOE’s Lawrence Livermore National engineering will also benefit. Seismic data
Laboratory, also dropped one position and is processing can be done much more efficiently
now the No. 3 system. Sequoia was first delivered with this new computer. The main users of the
in 2011 and has achieved 17.17 petaflop/s on supercomputer would be the scientific institutes,
the Linpack benchmark using 1,572,864 cores. research laboratories and universities.

[54] Chronicle IAS Academy

 The supercomputer would also help in To mark a decisive step forward in research,
reducing the time-frame in weather predictions. the good results obtained by the use of special
If researchers currently collect satellite data to sheets of perforated stainless steel which is
predict the conditions for a six-km region, the proving able to lead effectively terahertz
supercomputer could help cover a wider region, radiation (the portion of the electromagnetic
may be up to 10 km. spectrum that is between microwaves and
infrared, and whose wavelength is between 1
World’s TOP 10 Supercomputers for June mm and 100 micrometers). As described in the
2013 study of Ajay Nahata, these sheets will be “the
1. Tianhe-2 (MilkyWay-2) matrix” on which to build the future of computer
2. Titan circuits.
3. Sequoia The possible use of these radiations so far has

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4. K computer escaped both electronics and optics. According

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5. Mira to the researchers these will allow the
6. Stampede development of fast and extraordinarily devices,
with efficient performance from sensors used in
7. JUQUEEN

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anti-terrorism controls to next generation
8. Vulcan
9.
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SuperMUC
computers and data transfer via the Internet.
Manual mask-making facilities exist in many
10. Tianhe-1A
organisations of the country. The current
EKA Supercomputer capability in the country in mask fabrication is
based on pattern generator and photoreceptor
EKA is a supercomputer built by the
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which have been in regular use at Bharat
Computational Research Laboratories with
technical assistance and hardware provided by Electronics Limited (BEL), Bangalore for several
Hewlett-Packard. When it was installed in years now and lately at CEERI, Pilani. Both the
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November 2007, it was the 4th fastest in the organisations have CAD facilities as well, which
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world, and fastest in Asia. generate the mask drawings on magtapes. These
serve as the input to the pattern generator which
EKA has 1,794 computing nodes and has a generates the pattern on a high resolution glass
theoretical peak performance of 172.2 Teraflops
plate for making working masks.
(tflops or trillion floating point operations per
second) and a sustained performance of 132.8 About a dozen organisations in the country
teraflops based on the LINPACK benchmarks have facilities for fabricating Hybrid Micro
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which are used by the worldwide community Circuits (HMCs) primarily for in-house use. BEL
to rank supercomputers based on performance. and ITI have been regularly producing HMCs
Presently, it is ranked at 291. for the last few years. While BEL has produced
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Infrared Supercomputer hybrids for several application areas eg. Audio

frequency amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers;
The University of Utah is implementing a ITI has mostly concentrated on communication
computer that makes use of terahertz radiation circuits . Another public sector, Electronics
instead of electricity. It will be the first computer Corporation of India Ltd., Hyderabad has a
powered by infrared rays rather than electricity, modest facility for simple circuits.
a super-computer capable of operating at
terahertz radiation (far-infrared), the only still Earth Simulator
unexplored frontier in the electromagnetic
The Earth Simulator was developed at the
spectrum. It is being developed by a group of
Earth Simulator Center in Yokohama, Japan.
scientists at the University of Utah. It will
The Earth Simulator was a highly parallel vector
probably require ten years of work to be
supercomputer for running global climate
completed. Currently, the groups of scientists are
making waveguides, the appropriate “channels” models to evaluate the effects of global warming
that will convey radiation and transmit it from and problems in solid earth geophysics. The
one point to another. system was developed for Japan Aerospace

Chronicle IAS Academy [55]

 Exploration Agency, Japan Atomic Energy faster than today’s most powerful super-
Research Institute, and Japan Marine Science and computers.
Technology Centre (JAMSTEC) in 1997.
In fact, the practical demonstration of a
Construction started in October 1999, and the computer based on the laws of quantum physics
site officially opened on March 11, 2002. The has created quite a flutter in the computing
project cost 60 billion yen. world. Playing with the complexities of nuclear
The Earth Simulator supercomputer took the physics and juggling sub-atomic particles,
No. 1 spot in June 2002 with a performance of researches at IBM recently proved that a
35.86 Tflop/s (trillions of calculations per quantum computer can actually work, and may
second) running the Linpack benchmark – outperform the conventional computers by a
large margin. According to the scientists at IBM’s

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almost five times higher than the performance
of the IBM ASCI White system that had stood at Research Centre in San Jose, it took just a single
step to solve a mathematical problem that would

Y
the top of the previous three lists. Earth Simulator
take a conventional computer up to four distinct
was the fastest supercomputer in the world from
steps to handle. This experiment was described
2002 to 2004. Its capacity was surpassed by IBM's
as the first experiment to confirm theoretical

EM
Blue Gene/L prototype on September 29, 2004.
predictions made earlier that building a working
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For now, the Earth Simulator is being used
to track global sea temperatures, rainfall and
crustal movement to predict natural disasters.
machine based on quantum computing
principles was possible.
In future, this research will help surpass
The computer can already predict the path of a
contemporary silicon-based computer and chip
typhoon or a volcanic corruption with
architecture, taking advantage of some of the
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remarkable precision. It was able to run holistic findings of 20th century physics, particularly, the
simulations of global climate in both the notion that the same sub-atomic particle can exist
atmosphere and the oceans down to a resolution in two seemingly opposite quantum states. As a
of 10 km.
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matter of fact, the quantum computer used by

A
the IBM team works precisely on the principle
QUANTUM COMPUTERS of dual states-a phenomenon not possible with
conventional silicon chips.
What is quantum computing?
The IBM experiment offers a glimpse of what
Quantum computing is essentially could become a critical computing technology
harnessesing and exploiting the amazing laws of the future, particularly, suited to handling
IA H

of quantum mechanics to process information. elaborate security codes and solving certain types
A traditional computer uses long strings of ‘bits,’ of mathematical problems that tend to baffle
which encode either a zero or a one. A quantum conventional computers. A quantum computer
computer, on the other hand, uses quantum bits, could help computer engineers simulate the
C

or qubits. Well a qubit is a quantum system that behaviour of conventional computers based on
encodes the zero and the one into two such tiny transistors. Unlike today’s
distinguishable quantum states. But, because conventional computers, which are assembled
qubits behave quantumly, we can capitalize on from arrays of millions of digital switches that
the phenomena of ‘superposition’ and can be rapidly switched on and off, quantum
‘entanglement.’ computers are assembled from moleculerized
units known as qubits.
Researchers have for the first time succeeded
in building the first working computers based Although there are still major hurdles to be
on the principles of quantum mechanics. The overcome before quantum computers can be
discovery has touched off a wave of excitement applied to general problems, yet undoubtedly,
among physicists and computer scientists and is its emergence could have a profound impact on
leading dozens of research centres worldwide modern cryptography. Despite its promise and
to embark on similar experiments heralding the recent progress, the scientists acknowledged that
advent of an era of so-called quantum there is much work left to do to create
computers-specialised machines that may one commercially or scientifically useful quantum
day prove thousands or even millions of times computers.

[56] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Photonic Quantum Computers: A brighter solution. The promise of DNA computing is
massive parallelism: with a given setup and
future than ever
enough DNA, one can potentially solve huge
Quantum computers work by manipulating problems by parallel search. This can be much
quantum objects as, for example, individual faster than a conventional computer, for which
photons, electrons or atoms and by harnessing massive parallelism would require large amounts
the unique quantum features. Not only do of hardware, not simply more DNA.
quantum computers promise a dramatic
This “biological nano-Computer” was
increase in speed over classical computers in a
created by a group of scientists headed by Mr.
variety of computational tasks; they are designed
Ehud Shapiro, a Professor at the Weizmann
to complete tasks that even a supercomputer
Institute of Science, Israel. They have devised
would not be able to handle. Although, in recent
that the computer can perform 330 trillion

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years, there has been a rapid development in
operations per second, more than 100,000 times
quantum technology the realization of a full-

Y
the speed of the fastest PC.
sized quantum computer is still very challenging.
While it is still an exciting open question which The living cell contains incredible molecular
architecture and quantum objects will finally machines that manipulate information -

EM
lead to the outperformance of conventional encoding molecules available in the form of
C IC
supercomputers, current experiments show that
some quantum objects are better suited than
Codon (specific arrangement of DNA). In this
way these devices are fundamentally very similar
others for particular computational tasks. to computation.
Computational power of photons: The huge 1. DNA can be used to compute a class of
advantage of photons -- a particular type of problems that are difficult or impossible
A N
bosons -- lies in their high mobility. The research to solve using traditional computing
team from the University of Vienna in methods.
collaboration with scientist from the University 2. It is an example of computation at a
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of Jena (Germany) has recently realized a so- molecular level, potentially a size limit that
A
called boson sampling computer that utilizes may never be reached by the
precisely this feature of photons. They inserted semiconductor industry.
photons into a complex optical network where
they could propagate along many different 3. Data density of DNA is impressive.
paths. According to the laws of quantum Physics, 4. DNA has enormous power of parallel
the photons seem to take all possible paths at processing. In one fiftieth of a teaspoon
the same time. This is known as superposition.
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of a solution, approximately 1014 DNA

flight numbers were simultaneously
DNA COMPUTER concatenated in one second. Probably not
even the fastest supercomputer available
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A group of scientists have developed a

today could accomplish such a task so
computing device using a trillion living cells. This
quickly.
device is so small that it can fit in a drop of water.
DNA computing, also known as molecular 5. Molecular computers also have the
computing, is a new approach to massively potential for extraordinary energy
parallel computation. This microscopic computer efficiency. In principle, one Joule is
uses enzymes as hardware, which in turn sufficiently for approximately 2×1019
manipulates DNA molecules as software. This ligation operations. This remarkable
Computer, creating a Single mathematical considering that the second law of
computing machine, is called a finite automation. thermodynamics dictates a theoretical
maximum of 34×1019 (irreversible)
A DNA computer is basically a collection of
operations per joule (at room-
specially selected DNA strands whose
temperature). Existing supercomputers are
combinations will result in the solution to some
problem. Technology is currently available both far less efficient, executing at most 1019
to select the initial strands and to filter the final operations per Joule.

Chronicle IAS Academy [57]

 Future: The potential of molecular compu- signals and vice versa.
tation is impressive. Researchers are now
(vi) This connection is important for the
acknowledging that it would be better if further development of an interface
molecular computation is aimed at information between DNA logic gates and electronic
processing on molecular scale. Its applications devices, enabling the connection of
in biotechnology and nano-technology have biological systems with electrical circuits.
already started. In a DNA computer, the input
tape and the output tape are the two strands of
PHASE-CHANGE MEMORY CHIPS
DNA attached to the surface of a chip. They have
further proposed to use intelligent DNA chips Phase-change memory chips, an emerging
that can perform logical reasoning and learning storage technology, could soon dethrone flash

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by using DNA computation. Nano-technology memory in smartphones, cameras and laptops.
is another such area. The technology relies on special substances

Y
Interestingly, a molecular machine which called phase-change materials (PCMs). These are
can measure its environmental factors and materials, such as salt hydrates, that are capable
process information technology can be designed, of storing and releasing large amounts of energy

EM
then such a computing device implanted within when they move from a solid to a liquid state
C IC
a living body will be able to integrate signals from
several sources and compute a response in terms
of an organic delivery device for a drug or a
and back again. Traditionally they have been
used in cooling systems and, more recently, in
solar-thermal power stations, where they store
signal- a dream application of nature’s own heat during the day that can be released to
molecule in medical science. generate power at night. PCM memory chips rely
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on glass-like materials called chalcogenides,
DNA-based logic circuits typically made of a mixture of germanium,
(i) DNA computation is an emerging field antimony and tellurium.
that enables the assembly of complex
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PCM memory chips have several advantages

A
circuits based on defined DNA logic gates. over flash memory, which works by:
(ii) DNA-based logic gates have previously
Trapping electrons in an enclosure called
been operated through purely chemical a “floating gate”, built on top of a
means, controlling logic operations modified form of transistor.
through DNA strands or other

The value stored in each cell is 1 or 0.
biomolecules. Although gates can operate
IA H

through this manner, it limits temporal
Some prototype PCM memory devices can
and spatial control of DNA-based logic store and retrieve data 100 times faster
operations. than flash memory.
C

(iii) A photochemically controlled DNA gate
It is extremely durable, capable of being

was developed through the incorporation written and rewritten at least 10m times.
of caged thymidine nucleotides into a

Accordingly, flash memory needs special
DNA-based logic gate.
controllers to keep track of which parts
(iv) By using light as the logic inputs, both of the chip have become unreliable, so they
spatial control and temporal control were can be avoided. This increases the cost
achieved. and complexity of flash, and slows it
down.
(v) In addition, design rules for light-
regulated DNA logic gates were derived.
PCM offers greater potential for future
A step-response, which can be found in a miniaturisation than flash.
controller, was demonstrated. Photo-

As flash-memory cells get smaller and
chemical inputs close the gap between
devices become denser, the number of
DNA computation and silicon-based
electrons held in the floating gate
electrical circuitry, since light waves can
decreases.
be directly converted into electrical output

[58] Chronicle IAS Academy

 OPTICAL COMPUTING INTERNET

Optical or Photonic computing is intended Internet is an inter-networked system of

to use photons or light particles, produced by computers that allows free flow of information
lasers or diodes, in place of electrons. Compared from one part of the network to any other,
to electrons, photons have a higher bandwidth. provided the information is packaged according
Presently, computers use the movement of to certain conventions. The Internet, however,
electrons in-and-out of transistors to do logic. was intimidating arena till now. Its gates were
Most research projects focus on replacing current open only to those who had mastered computer
computer components with optical equivalents, commands. But, with the introduction of World
resulting in an optical digital computer system Wide Web (WWW) in 1989, there is no need to
processing binary data. master the computer command. On this web,

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anyone can create a home page, which millions
This approach appears to offer best short-

Y
of users can watch on their computers and
term prospects for commercial optical respond.
computing, since optical components could be
integrated into traditional computers to produce In fact, the web is a hyper-media information

EM
an optical or electronic hybrid. However,
C IC storage system linking resources around the
optoelectronic devices lose 30 per cent of their world. Browsers allow highlighted words or
energy converting electrons into photons and icons, called hyper-links, to display text, video,
back. This also slows down transmission of graphics and sound on a local computer screen,
messages. All-optical computers eliminate the no matter where resource is actually located.
need for optical-electrical-optical (OEO) Application: Nowadays, the importance of
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conversions. Internet is so profound that it penetrates every
walk of human life. Marketing in ‘global village’
SIMPUTER is now a reality due to Internet. Few years back,
it was just a medium for exchange of academic
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A
The word 'Simputer' is an acronym for information and was used mostly by
'simple, inexpensive and multilingual people's academicians and commerce. Today, all sorts of
computer'. Simputer is a low cost hand held transactions and business deals are being
computing device which can offer inexpensive conducted on Net.
and efficient information and networking
environment for people who are on the wrong On-line banks are being set up to service
side of the digital divide. The simple computer clients through the Net. A wide range of services
IA H

or simputer runs on three AAA batteries or are now being offered through the Net deposits,
direct power supply. With memory capabilities loans, transfer of funds etc. Net sites act as single
window for virtual shop and offer gateways to
of 32 MB RAM and a GNU/Linux operating
the web-sites of scores of other shops.
C

system, it is more powerful than a palmtop.

Further, it can be connected to internet and Publishing business is thriving on the Net.
peripherals like keyboard or mouse can also be Publishers are using the Net to serve a portion
added. Besides, Simputer has text to speech of the magazine to individual customers. On-line
capabilities in several Indian languages, text and travel agencies are able to provide the latest and
editing functions, portable literacy instructor, updated data of flight timing, hotel availability,
voice messages, use of smart card facility for reservations in train etc. to the homes their
commercial transactions, etc. The Simputer can customers and, thereby, enabling the customers
be put to a range of uses like micro banking to perform all the transactions in the shape of
through cooperatives and post offices, railway movies, music, sports etc.
ticketing, data collection, sales automation, in Internet in India: In India, Videsh Sanchar
education and literacy programmes. Simputers Nigam Limited (VSNL) provides Internet services
are generally used in environments where since August 1995. These services which were
computing devices such as PCs cannot be used. offered initially from the four metros of Mumbai,
New Delhi, Kolkata and Chennai, found

Chronicle IAS Academy [59]

 excellent demand and were soon expanded to themselves, without having to make calls to
cover a network of 42 nodes being operated by service centres or install additional chunks of
the Department of Telecommunications (DOT) software.
and VSNL by 1998.
FPX: Filed-programmable Port Extender
6th November 1998 was a landmark day in (FPX) is a hardware platform that can stop
the history of Internet in India, when a malicious software (malware) such as viruses and
revolutionary new policy was unveiled. The worms long before it reaches computers. John
policy permits unlimited number of Internet Lockwood, a computer scientist at Washington
players with no licence fees for the first five University, has developed it. The FPX can scan
years, thus setting the stage for a completely each and every byte of every data packet
deregulated operating environment. VSNL offers transmitted through a network at a rate of 2.4

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two types of services for Internet users: billion bits per second. The FPX uses the Field

Y
(i) Shell account in which one can have only Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) Circuits to
text access and cannot download scan computer viruses and worms quickly.
graphics; and In much the same way that a human virus

EM
(ii) TCP/IP account in which one can have spreads between people that come in contact,
C IC
access to graphics as well. It is more
efficient and, therefore, more expensive.
computer viruses and Internet worms spread
when computers come in contact over the
Internet. Viruses spread when a computer user
The Indian Internet scene is headed for a downloads unsafe software, opens a malicious
radical change in the years ahead, with the attachment, or exchanges infected computer
A N
National Association of Software and Services programmes over a network. Existing techno-
Companies (NASSCOM) predicting a massive logies do little to stop the virus or worm spread.
increase in the number of Internet users.
Internet for the Blind
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With the arena now clear for a deregulated

A
and open playing ground for ISPs, the stage is Centre for Development of Advanced
set for the rapid growth of Internet in India. Computing (C-DAC) and companies like
Kolkata-based Webel Mediatronics have
However, the growth will be critically dependent
developed computer software and hardware
on how some of the factors such as requirement
that would enable the visually handicapped to
of access lines and national backbone
access Internet. Microsoft has opened two cyber
connectivity are addressed.
cafes in Mumbai and Delhi that provide specially
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In 2013, India ranked third in the number of designed software and hardware to allow the
active users next only to China and US, the blind to use Internet. The Delhi cyber cafe is
overall Internet penetration in the country is 11 equipped with state-of-the-art technology,
per cent. India on last count had 120 million including a JAWS software that allows the
C

active Internet users, up from 81 million users in visually impaired to surf the net by voice enabling
2010. According to 2013 global ‘Internet World both input and output commands. The various
Stats’ report, around 2.7 billion people are using tools developed by the C-DAC and Kolkata-
the Internet world wide which corresponds to based Webel Mediatronics are:
39 per cent of the world’s population. Vachanter: This Text-to-speech software
Real Time Service Management: Real Time developed by C-DAC enables the user to browse
Service Management is software developed by through websites through listening.
California based company SupportSoft in Text to Braille: It can convert text in any
December 2003. It enables computer makers to format to Braille and store it on the computer.
provide automated support and remote
correction of faults to millions of users of Personal Tactile Device: It is an alternative to paper
Computers (PCs), laptops and pocket computers. prints of Braille material.
The core of the RTSM is a solution, called Braille to Text: It is a software that enables
“Resolution Suite’, which when embedded in blind people to enter data in braille using a 6
user devices, will help them to proactively heal key keyboard.

[60] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Braille Printer: It is a PC-based embosser. of growth for the Indian IT industry. This
segment is poised to grow very rapidly, world-
Ipv6 wide, over the next few years. The IT–ITES
Indian Internet service providers and industry has two major components: IT
Government agencies have decided to adopt a Services and Business Process Outsourcing
new Net protocol which will enable creation of (BPO). The growth in the service sector in India
trillions of new Internet addresses. The new net has been led by the IT–ITES sector, contributing
protocol is known as Internet Protocol version 6 substantially to increase in GDP, employment,
(IPv6), it will offer improved address space, and exports.
quality of service and data security capabilities. The Indian software and services industry
has emerged as one of the fastest growing sectors
All Government Web sites would migrate to
in the Indian economy. IT services exports is the

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the new Internet protocol being adopted globally
fastest growing segment, growing by 19 per cent
by 2013. The Department of Telecom stated that
in FY2012, to account for exports of USD 40

Y
27 websites have already been brought on IPv6
billion. IT services is the fastest growing segment
platform in India. Globally, several companies,
in the Indian domestic market, growing by 18
including Google and Facebook have switched
per cent to reach Rs 589 billion, driven by

EM
to the new IP version. Indian telecom companies
increasing focus by service providers.
C IC
will also move to the new system over the next
few months. According to NASSCOM, the IT–BPO sector
has increased its contribution to India's GDP from
The new version of internet protocol is 1.2 per cent in FY1998 to 7.5 per cent in
necessary to prevent the Internet running out of FY2012. The IT–BPO sector in India aggregated
available addresses for new devices. India at revenues of US$100 billion in FY2012, where
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present has 35 million IPv4 addresses against a export and domestic revenue stood at US$69.1
user base of about 360 million data users and billion and US$31.7 billion respectively, growing
Government has a target of 160 million and 600 by over 9 per cent. Aggregate IT software and
million broadband customers by 2017 and 2020,
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services revenue (excluding hardware) is

A
respectively. estimated at USD 88 billion.
The existing technology IPv4 is already Software Technology Parks of India (STPI):
getting choked and expected to run out of space
STPI centres act as “single-window” in providing
soon as consumers increasingly use broadband
services to the software exporters and incubation
and Net services on mobile devices. The IPv6 has
infrastructure to Small and Medium Enterprises
an in-built security protocol called IPSec, which
(SMEs). The STP Scheme has been extremely
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authenticates and secures all IP data. The data

successful in fostering the growth of the software
carrying capacity of IPv6 networks is also going
industry. The exports made by STP Units have
to be higher.
grown manifolds over the years.
C

IT IN INDIA STPI has established new centres including

High speed Data Communication facilities at
Over the years, Indian IT service offerings
Puducherry, Nasik, Thirunelveli, Allahabad and
have evolved from application development and
Kolhapur. STPI is also executing Cyber City
maintenance, to emerge as full service players
Project of Government of Mauritius. The STPI
providing testing services, infrastructure
Scheme is lauded as one of the most effective
services, consulting and system integration. The
schemes for the promotion of exports of IT and
coming of a new decade heralds a strategic shift
ITES. The 51 STPI centres that have been set up
for IT services organisations, from a ‘one factory,
since inception of the programme have given a
one customer’ model to a ‘one factory, all
customers’ model. Central to this strategy is the major boost to IT and ITES exports.
growing customer acceptance of Cloud-based National Informatics Centre (NIC): NIC
solutions which offer best in class services at provides informatics services for decision support
reduced capital expenditure levels. to government offices/bodies at national, state,
The ITES sector has emerged as a key driver district and block levels. It offers network services

Chronicle IAS Academy [61]

 over Ku-band Wireless Metropolitan Area interaction among global communication
Network (MANs) and Local Area Networks in more avenues of participation.
(LANs), with NICNET gateway for Internet
resources, facilitating informatics services for National Cyber Security Policy 2013
decentralised planning, improvement in On July 2, 2013, the Union Government
government services, and wider transparency of released its ambitious National Cyber Security
national and local governments Policy 2013. The development of the policy was
prompted by a variety of factors, including the
CYBER SECURITY IN INDIA growth of India’s information technology
industry, an increasing number of cyber attacks
The impact of information communication and the country’s “ambitious plans for rapid

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technology is being realised day by day in India. social transformation.” The policy sets forth 14
There has been visible introduction of ICT across

Y
diverse objectives that range from enhancing the
the country of one billion plus population. One protection of India’s critical infrastructure, to
of the hallmarks of the fledging ministry was get assisting the investigation and prosecution of
Parliament to enact the Information Technology cyber crime, to developing 500,000 skilled

EM
Act (IT Act) 2000. This Act gave the legal cybersecurity professionals over the next five
C IC
sanctity to electronic commerce in the country
and also provided for some basic laws and
regulations to address the usage of the internet
years.
To accomplish these objectives, the policy
medium. details numerous action items for the Indian
government, including:
National e-Governance Plan (NEGP):
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(i) Designating a national agency to
Today the number of internet users in country is
growing rapidly and it would grow much further coordinate all cybersecurity matters;
as connectivity charges reduce and multilingual (ii) Encouraging all private and public
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applications become more prevalent and user organizations to designate a Chief

A
friendly. The present efforts to implement the Information Security Officer responsible
robust National e-Governance Plan (NEGP) by for cybersecurity;
the central government will also see a major user
(iii) Developing a dynamic legal framework
base for internet based application in the country.
to address cybersecurity challenges in the
(i) There are quite a few advantages for a areas of cloud computing, mobile
major thrust towards on online regime computing and social media;
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that includes e-governance and e-

commerce initiatives. (iv) Operating a National Critical Information
Infrastructure Protection Center;
(ii) There would be major impact on bringing
(v) Promoting research and development in
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efficiency into the system and also

reducing public corruption. cybersecurity;

(iii) The potential of internet to reach the (vi) Enhancing global cooperation in
masses as a medium for information combatting cybersecurity threats;
dissemination in far-flung areas is long (vii) Fostering education and training
very strong. programs in cybersecurity; and
(iv) Internet reduces a lot of the transaction (viii) Establishing public and private partnerships
time and costs, as is witness in the real to determine best practices in cyber-
world and that way it adds to national security.
productivity and wealth.
National Information Board
(v) More and more critical systems are
depending on Internet and this helps in The National Information Board is the
realising many basic requirements of life. highest policy making body for cyber security
and is was set up in the year 2002 and is chaired
(vi) There is a major social dimension to the
by the National Security Adviser. The NIB acts
spread of the Internet. There is more social

[62] Chronicle IAS Academy

 as the highest policy formulation body at the level Computer Emergency Response Team
and periodically reports to the cabinet committee
on security of the Government of India, headed The Indian Computer Emergency Response
by the Prime Minister. The NIB consists of 21 Team (CERT-In) is a government-mandated
members most of them are secretaries of the information technology (IT) security
government of India of various ministries. Two organization. The purpose of CERT-In is to
respond to computer security incidents, report
organizations support the NIB directly. The
on vulnerabilities and promote effective IT
National Technology Research Organisation
security practices throughout the country. CERT-
(NTRO) to provide technical cyber security and
In was created by the Indian Department of
intelligence and the National Security Council
Information Technology in 2004 and operates
Secretariat (NSCS) for coordinating cyber-
under the auspices of that department.
security activities across the country, covering

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both the public and private sectors. According to the provisions of the
Information Technology Amendment Act 2008,

Y
Directly below the NIB are the Information
CERT-In is responsible for overseeing
Infrastructure Protection Centre, followed by
administration of the Act. Basically CERT is a
state cyber police stations and the Computer normative term and it is based everywhere. For

EM
Followed by state sectoral-level CERTS. Many
C IC India it is called as CERT-In. CERT organizations
of the states are actively considering setting up throughout the world are independent entities,
cyber police stations and cyber labs. although there may be coordinated activites
The NIB has entrusted the National Security among groups. The first CERT group was formed
Council Secretariat (NSCS) with the role of in the United States at Carnegie Mellon
working on cyberspace security. Again the University.
A N
(NISCC) within its organisation is there to Computer Immunology
provide necessary inputs to NIB for its
functioning. On a microscopic scale, biology resembles
computing: bases and genes correspond to bits
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A
The role of the DIT under NOCIT is also and bytes, based on certain rules. Conversely,
significant. It acts as the public interface of the on a macroscopic scale, computing resembles
government with the general public and the biology: the internet is like a vast ecosystem
international community as far as IT Policies in where all kinds of digital organisms thrive.
India is concerned. The DIT’s role in the internet
governance efforts of the UN is also laudatory, The application of computing in biology, in
as it has also stressed the need for securing the the genome era, is well known. There is, however,
IA H

cyberspace. Some of the relevant initiatives and traffic in the other direction as well. A US digital
security company, Sana Security of San Mateo,
strategies of DIT over the years have been:
California, has devised a way to use

Promotion of the internet and provision immunological principles to spot computer
C

of IT infrastructure. security breaches. Sana’s idea is based on the

Development of the IT Act legislation and ability to mimic the natural immune systems to
the proposed amendments. differentiate “self” from “non-self”.

Promotion of standardization testing and Once installed, the Sana system monitors the
quality in IT. behaviour of specific programs running on a
computer, such as remote - login, web, mail and

Establishment of an Information Security
database servers. Most attacks take advantage
Technology Development Council
of the flaw in these programs to gain unautho-
(ISTDC).
rized access to a computer over the course of a

Creation of a National Information day a so, the Sana’s Primary Response builds up
Security Assurance Framework. a profile of “normal” activity by looking at the
patterns of system cells, just as an immune system

Establishment of an Inter Ministerial
builds up a profile of “self”.
working group.
Any significant deviation from this profile is

Chronicle IAS Academy [63]

 then regarded as an attack. When an attack is achieve one-micron capability of research and
detected, Primary Response can block all file development to enable the fabrication of one
access associated with the program under attack million components of a chip by 1990. The major
and prevent new programs from being launched. elements of this programme include the setting
In addition, it also gathers forensic data, such as up of a centre of excellence to provide a major
file-access details to work out what happened. thrust in research on process technology
establishing a number of decentralized design
This approach has many advantages.
centres both to implement the silicon foundry
Intrusion - detection system, the popular
concept and to develop Computer Aided Design
alternative to primary response, have a
(CAD) facilities for VLSI.
reputation of crying wolf. They generate, for
instance, thousands of alerts every month. In The state-owned, Bharat Electronics Limited

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that event, it is indeed difficult to distinguish a (BEL), which produced the integrated circuits

Y
genuine attack from a false alarm. In contrast, in 1971, has manufactured over 50 types of
Primary Response tends to generate only a bipolar ICS so far. These include 20 types of TTL
handful of false alarms a month. The other version and the remaining the linear type for
advantage is that Primary Response is not application in TV, AM/FM radio, multiplexing

EM
“knowledge based”. That is, it does not rely on
C IC applications and voltage regulators, besides, it
assumptions about the nature of an attack. It has fabricated a prototype watch chip with LSI
works by distinguishing normal “self” from capability while BEL has a vertical integrated
abnormal “non-self” behaviour. facility covering design mask making wafer
fabrication assembly and testing up to the level
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONICS & of MSI. SCL is building up a comprehensive
A N
COMPUTER NETWORK IN INDIA production level and R & D base up to the level
LSIs/VLSIs.
Electronics System: The manufacture of
Besides there are several other organisations
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radio receivers in the early 1950s heralded the

in the industrial and R & D sectors having
A
beginning of electronics industry in India. Since
strengths of various degrees in some or all
then considerable progress has been made and
segments of the technology. These include
the industry’s range now extends from
Central Electronics Engineering Research
manufacture of consumer and professional
Institute at Pilani, Tata Institute of Fundamental
grade electronic components to the design and
research, Bombay and Indian Telephone
development of sophisticated equipment for
Industries, Bangalore. In the academic sector,
aerospace and defence applications.
IA H

Indian Institute of Technology at Bombay, Delhi,

The country is now gearing itself to meet the Kanpur, Kharagpur and Madras have got fairly
challenge of the electronics revolution during the extensive facilities.
rest of the decade. From a predominantly
C

Computer Systems: As regards computer

consumer oriented industry electronics had
systems, the state owned Electronics Corporation
diversified to include advanced systems
of India Limited (ECIL) has made a significant
governing computers, controls and
contribution in manufacturing computer systems
instrumentation besides telecommunication
for example, 332 bit computer system. 332 has
using advanced technology in integrated circuits.
been developed and manufactured indigenously.
The country entered the Large Scale ECIL has also demonstrated the system for its
Integrated (LSI) circuits/ Very Large Scale remote graphic capability. The company has
Integrated (VLSI) circuits’ era in March 1984 “developed special purpose hardware and
with the trial production of the pulse dialer chip software for a number of applications such as
by the public sector Semiconductor Complex telephone directory enquiry, airlines flight data
Limited (SCL). With an outlay of Rs 500 million recording, criminal report generation of police
the plant has contemporary facilities to fabricate and message switching.
the latest types of silicon chips.
Recognizing the important role of telemetric
In the longer perspective the task force on and allied technologies which provide means for
LSI/VLSI had formulated as a goal the need to communication with the masses the Government

[64] Chronicle IAS Academy

 has set up a “Centre for Development of
Telematics” (C-DOT) to develop digital electronic
LATEST WORLD’S TRENDS
switching systems. While Artificial Intelligence enthusiasts are
NICNET: As a forerunner the Electronics grappling with the problems of making
Department has taken up a project on teletext computers more intelligent and creative, what
in cooperation with the Ministry of information has been happening to computer technology in
and Broadcasting. Through this network certain general? In the recent past, major thrust has been
information of public relevance are to be in making computers smaller, cheaper and more
transmitted along with Doordarshan robust. Advances in microelectronics technology
transmission. The software required for data have made it possible to achieve all these three
creation updating and maintenance is being objectives at the same time.

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developed by the National Information Centre It is quite clear that even the most user
(NIC) of the Department of Electronics on an friendly computer is at present so difficult to use

Y
indigenous Computer. NIC provides computer for most people. Our normal mode of interacting
based management information system services with people involves a lot of hand waving. We
and related support facilities to various ministries, leave many things unsaid, taking advantage of

EM
departments and other offices of the
C IC shared context and shared presuppositions. Life
government. It has developed a star-type would become impossible if instructing another
computer network (NICNET) which links up 16 person requires specifying everything to the
micro-computers and 20 interactive terminals minute detail, explicitly taking into account all
located in different offices in Delhi. The CDC possible contingencies but this is precisely what
Cyber 170/730 system procured with assistance computers demand and what computer
programming is all about.
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from UNDP serves as the central node of this
network. The NIC Computer system is now
Indian Scene
operational round the clock.
How has computer technology transformed
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For the first time in the country the NIC has

the Indian scene in the last few years? After a
A
developed computerized information based on
confused, hesitant and uncertain start the
bibliographic data available from the
transformation has certainly speeded up and
International Patent Documentation Centre
become visible in the last decade. At one level,
(INPADOC), Vienna. The system creates there is the official view of what has been
information and multiplied index directory files achieved. At the level of ordinary person at least
which facilitate faster and efficient retrieval of a handful of computer applications have made
IA H

patent documents according to the International a visible and high impact. By far the most
Patent classification code, date and year of important of these in undoubtedly the
publication and title of the document. These computerization of railway reservation for the
bibliographic information can be obtained more effluent, computerized air reservation and
C

interactively or in a batch mode. computerization of checking formalities at the

In a step towards data processing NIC is airports have certainly made air-travel less of a
setting up the INDONET, which is an integrated hassle. Most hotels have computerized their
information management and distribution data operations. Sales computerization in
processing facility spanning the entire country. departmental stores and supermarkets are
rapidly becoming the norm. Postal services,
Under the project a computer network is being
banks, hospitals, and government transaction
set up in Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and
with the ordinary public are yet to transform
Hyderabad. It will provide local computing
themselves significantly through the use of
facilities to small and medium sectors, highly
information technology.
specialised software in areas of engineering
designs, structural analysis, and management Information technology (that is the
sciences. The professional organisation may share integrated use of computers and commu-
this sophisticated diversified system for nication) is the basic needed to support the
developing software for export. service sector. For the ordinary citizen

Chronicle IAS Academy [65]

 improvement of services of all kinds is an total internal reflections. In fact, it is a system
essential pre-requisite to improving the quality for transmitting light through hair flexible rods
of life but it is a pity that purposeful beginning (i.e., fibres) made of transparent glass or plastic.
made in the early 80’s to use information
Applications: One familiar use of the fibre
technology to upgrade the quality of life in India
is in ornamental displays (i.e., lighting trees), but
have been allowed to drift and languish for want
more important is their use in examining interior
of committed government leadership.
organs of the body and as economical substitutes
India pioneers in innovations aimed at for telephone cables.
making the lives of common people easier at an Medical instruments using fibre optics are
affordable price and Aakash is the step in that named according to the part of the body they
direction. Aakash world's cheapest internet

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are designed to examine, e.g., bronchoscope
device was conceived under the Human (bronchial tubes), cystoscope (bladder),

Y
Resources and Development Ministry's National gastroscope (stomach), and sigmoidoscope
Mission on Education through Information and (lower large intestine). In all of these, a bundle
Communication Technology (NME-ICT) to of fibres transmit light from an outside lamp to
provide students a device that could be used as

EM
illuminate the part of the body being examined.
an E-book reader, to access online streaming
C IC Another bundle of several thousand fibres has
course material and web based research. Under an objective lens at one end and an eyepiece lens
NME-ICT, the government intends to deliver 10 at the other. The objective lens forms an image
million tablets to post-secondary students across of the body part. This image is transmitted, point
India. This is a bold step in popularising by point, through the fibres to the eyepiece lens,
computer interfaced science experiments in which magnifies the image.
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India.
For telephone cables, glass fibres are used in
place of copper wires. A pair of hair-thin glass
TELECOMMUNICATION SECTOR fibres can carry several thousand conversations
S RO

at one time, replacing several hundred wires

A
FIBRE OPTICS within a cable-an enormous saving in space and
money. The telephone message, first converted
In the field of fibre optics, India is now poised by a laser apparatus from electrical currents to
to become the first developing country to make pulses of light are transmitted through the glass
use of fibre optics-the new technology of fibre, and are then converted back to electrical
transmitting information with beams of light to form at the far end. There they are sorted out
solve many problems being faced in
IA H

and sent on to their receiving destinations. Glass

telecommunications industry and medicine. fibres are also used for high-density phone lines
between major cities and for cross-channel
It is a new technology that has enormously
cables. Since glass fibre is electrically a non-
increased man’s capacity to move words,
C

conductor, it is not affected by electromagnetic

pictures and data from place to place. Simply,
interference. They can be used in high explosives
telephone conversations, television broadcasts,
as well as high-voltage environment as they are
computer data or any other message can be immune to thunderstorms, lightning or large
translated into light wave and sent through glass electrical motors.
wires instead of the conventional technique of
translating them into electrical impulses and Photonic Band Gap making a Revolution
sending them through copper wires. The
A team of scientists in the United Kingdom
information, transmitted through optical fibres,
developed a revolutionary super-effective optical
is in digital form as pulses of light. Tiny strands
fibre that guides the light through a central hole,
of very pure glass, as thin as a human hair, can
which can dramatically upgrade the power-
carry up to 8000 simultaneous telephone calls
carrying capacity of optical fibres into the multi-
in a core just 1/200 millimetre across.
kilowatt region. This fibre technology is the
Fibre optics is the use of very fine transparent world’s first multi-kilowatt single mode fibre.
fibres of glass with the purpose of transmitting
Till now, a solid optical fibre can carry limited
light. Light passes along the fibres by a series of
raw laser power and at very high power, the

[66] Chronicle IAS Academy

 glass simply cannot cope with the intense fields evaluation of communication grade fibre are
and is torn apart. However, with the being done at the Indian Institute of Technology,
development of new optical fibres having a large Delhi, and Central Scientific Instrument
hole in the middle that potentially permits the Organisation (CSIO), Chandigarh. Research in
transmission of huge amounts of energy, the the field of launching optical signals and
problem has been solved. Traditionally, optical detection of signals with imported sources is
fibres carry light through a glass core covered going on in several institutions of the country.
by a cladding which prevents the light from
In India, the first optical fibre communication
leaking out.
system was set up in Pune, connecting Shivaji
In recent years, two new types of optical Nagar and Cantonment Exchanges. Buried two
fibres have revolutionised this dynamic field, metres underground, the glass fibre imported
bringing with them a wide range of novel optical from Japan provided 120 telephone channels and

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properties. These new fibres, known collectively has been functioning without any fault since

Y
as microstructured fibres, can be made entirely 1979. The Hindustan Cables Ltd. has started
from one type of glass as they do not rely on manufacture of optic fibre cables at its Naini,
dopants for guidance. Instead, the cladding factory in Allahabad.

EM
region is peppered with many small air holes,
that run the entire fibre length. These fibres are
National Optical Fibre Network
C IC
typically separated into two classes, defined by The Department of Telecommunications
the way in which they guide light: (DoT) on July 22, 2011 cleared creation of a
n Holey fibres, in which the core is solid ‘National Optical Fibre Network' (NOFN) with
and light is guided by a modified form of an investment of Rs.20,000 crore that would
total internal reflection as the air holes provide broadband connectivity to all village
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lower the effective refractive index of the panchayats in three years. The Telecom
cladding relative to that of the solid core. Commission has approved the project that will
be funded through the Universal Service
n Photonic band-gap fibres, in which
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Obligation (USO) Fund. The project will be

A
guidance in a hollow core can be achieved completed by 2014-15 through a special purpose
via photonic band-gap effects. vehicle (SPV). The funding for the broadband
Optical-fibres in India: In India, over 22 network will come from the USO fund, the USO
research institutions are engaged in various fund has a balance of Rs 16,000 crore.
system aspects of optical fibres, communication NFON will also help the government
fibres and associated material technology. The implement its various e-governance initiatives
IA H

Telecommunication Research Centre in Delhi such as e-health, e-banking and e-education,

has developed terminal equipment for a 120- facilitating inclusive growth. NOFN will enable
telephone channel system. The Centre for effective and faster implementation of various
Development of Telematics (C-DOT) has
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mission mode e-governance projects amounting

developed a 128-line digital switching system. to Rs.50,000 crore initiated by the Department
The Indian Institute of Technology, New of Information Technology as well as delivery of
Delhi has a facility for testing fibres and engaged a whole range of electronic services by the private
in perfecting already existing measurement sector to citizens in rural areas.
techniques and trying to develop new methods Once completed, the optic fibre network will
to characterise fibres (pulse dispersion, refractive help bring various electronic and Internet-based
index, profile measurement, etc.) initiatives of the government to the people living
The Defence Solid State Physics Laboratory, in the remotest corner of the country. The
Delhi has succeeded in fabricating the gallium- broadband project will initially be executed by
arsenide lasers, while CSIO is developing a Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited and other PSUs
machine for drawing plastic-coated silica fibres. like RailTel.

Research and development, and measure- Bharat Broadband Network Limited

ment technique related to characterisation and (BBNL) was established in pursuit of a high-level

Chronicle IAS Academy [67]

 policy declaration of ‘broadband for all’ by the used to provide triple play (voice, video and
central government in 2009. BBNL would data). The present GPON standards specify 2.5
implement National Optical Fibre Network Gbps (Gigabit per second) downstream and 1.25
(NOFN), which is expected to open up the Gbps upstream data capability to customer
gateway to rural development, by facilitating premise. Apart from urban areas, especially
implementation of the e-Government projects in multi-dwelling units, the large data carrying
the social sectors like education, health, social capability is important for Indian villages too
security, employment guarantee, financial and where prevailing low literacy levels will
banking services, all fostering inclusive growth necessitate information with greater graphic and
for rural India. It is further expected that this audio content for better dissemination. It will
would also provide a great fillip to private sector give a boost to broadband connectivity across

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for providing other services in the remote places India.
on a viable business model which is hitherto non-

Y
Besides, voice telephony, high speed Internet
existent.
access and IPTV, the C-DOT GPON has
Global Market provision to carry cable TV signal too, all on a
single optical fibre. Another important

EM
The global optical cable market posted 10 per advantage of GPON is that it can carry
C IC
cent growth in 2012 with a stronger growth
forecasted in 2013. China now accounts for half
of global cabled-fibre deployments. The massive
information from a central office to subscribers
up to 60 km away without needing any
intermediate repeaters thus doing away with the
cable deployments in China's FTTx projects and requirement of power, shelter and upkeep
wireless infrastructure were key drivers in the services at the intermediate locations.
A N
global cable market's double-digit growth last
year. Other markets, Europe and North
WI-MAX TECHNOLOGY
America, saw a decline in growth due to
ongoing economic uncertainty and the spending A new wireless technology, Wimax, can cost
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A
cycles for publicly financed broadband network effectively bring high speed internet services to
projects. Nevertheless, world optical cable rural areas. With backers like Intel Corporation
demand increased to 235 million fibre-km in and Fujitsu, the technology is promising. But
2012. China's growth in 2012 was approximately Indian companies seem to be intent on
20 per cent, and the forecast is for comparable introducing the technology in only urban
growth this year. Australia, India, Mexico, markets.
Russia, and South Africa are other key markets
IA H

poised for 2013 growth. Fibre-to-the-Premises Advantage: Telecommunication companies

(FTTP), Fibre-to-the-Home (FTTH), and Fibre-to- have always said that it is too expensive to lay
the-Building (FTTB) applications are some of the high-speed internet cables in villages because the
key factors driving the demand for fibre optic profits are much lesser than the expenses. Both
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cables industry worldwide. Wimax and its processor wi-fi use radio waves
to broadcast internet signals, thus removing the
GPON Technology need to use cables. Whereas wi-fi could only
broadcast signals upto a hundred metres away
In a move that would give the much-needed
from the transmission towers, Wimax technology
push to broadband penetration in the country,
can transmit signals upto three kilometers away
the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-
and it supports speeds five times faster than what
DoT) recently transferred indigenously-
its counterpart (wi-fi) does.
developed Gigabit Passive Optical Network
(GPON) technology to seven telecom equipment Wimax Forum: Reliance Infocomm Limited,
manufacturers, including private players. The Sify Limited and Tata Teleservices Limited - the
GPON technology is a pivotal component leading telecom players of India are part of the
required for broadband connectivity over optical Wimax Forum, a global consortium of
fibre. companies involved in promoting the
technology. These companies are planning to
The cost-effective GPON will prove to be a
start pilot trials of Wimax in India very soon.
game-changer technology for India. It can be

[68] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Utility: A few companies, such as Chennai walls or as large as many square miles covered
based n-Logue Communications Private Limited, by overlapping access points. Wi-Fi technology
have endeavoured to bring in the information has served to set up mesh networks.
revolution to rural India. N-Logue has set up
In addition to restricted use in homes and
kiosks providing Internet services in several
offices, Wi-Fi can make access publicly available
villages of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil
at Wi-Fi hotspots provided either free of charge
Nadu; villages have used this service to get
or to subscribers to various providers.
medical consultations and establish a link with
Organizations and businesses such as airports,
agricultural experts. More such projects are
hotels and restaurants often provide free
required to make the villagers realise the benefits
hotspots to attract or assist clients. Enthusiasts
of the Internet, thereby generating demand.
or authorities who wish to provide services or
Experts hope that rural India might make it to
even to promote business in a given area

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the telecommunication industry’s agenda by
sometimes provide free Wi-Fi access.
2005, when Wimax will be launched in the

Y
market. Wi-Fi also allows connectivity in peer-to-peer
(wireless ad-hoc network) mode, which enables
WIFI devices to connect directly with each other. This

EM
connectivity mode can prove useful in consumer
C IC
WiFi stands for the wireless fidelity, is a
wireless networking technology used across the
electronics and gaming applications.

globe. WiFi became very popular because once Comparison with Wi-Fi
base station is there, any number of desktops or WiMAX provides services analogous to a
laptop computers can be connected to broadband cellphone, Wi-Fi is more analogous to a cordless
service without the need of any cables or
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phone. Wi-Fi is a shorter range system, typically
installing extra phone lines. It mainly refers to hundreds of metres, generally used by an end
using radio frequencies and/ or infrared waves. user to access their own network. Wi-Fi is low
The main purpose of Wi-Fi is to hide cost and is generally used to provide Internet
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A
complexity by enabling wireless access to access within a single room or building. For
applications and data, media and streams. example, many coffee shops, hotels, railway
stations and bus stations contain Wi-Fi access
The main advantages of the Wi-Fi are : points providing access to the Internet for

Make access to information easier. customers.

Ensure compatibility and co-existence of Wireless Routers which incorporate a DSL-
IA H

device. modem or a cable-modem and a Wi-Fi access

Eliminate cabling and wiring. point, often set up in homes to provide Internet-
access and inter-networking to all devices

Eliminate switches, adapters, plugs, pins connected (wirelessly or by cable) to them. One
C

and connectors. can also connect Wi-Fi devices in ad-hoc mode

for client-to-client connections without a router.
It allows LANs (Local Area Networks) to be
Wi-Fi allows LANs to be deployed without
deployed without cabling for client devices,
cabling for client devices, typically reducing the
typically reducing the costs of network
costs of network deployment and expansion.
deployment and expansion. Space where cables
Wireless network adapters are also built into
cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and
most modern laptops.
historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.
A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a PC, game BI-FI
console, mobile phone, MP3 player or PDA can
connect to the Internet when within range of a Recently, researchers from Stanford
wireless network connected to the Internet. The University are harnessing the key attributes of a
coverage of one or more interconnected access virus 'M13' to develop the first biological Internet
points called a hotspot can comprise an area as or 'Bi-Fi' by creating a mechanism to send genetic
small as a single room with wireless-opaque messages from cell to cell. The system greatly

Chronicle IAS Academy [69]

 increases the complexity and amount of data that -but must be located within 2 miles of the phone
can be communicated between cells and could company's central office for optimal speed.
lead to greater control of biological functions
Fibre: Fiber-optic broadband is a broadband
within cell communities. Bio-engineering
internet delivered over fibre-optic lines--these use
researchers have parasitised the parasite and
light to transmit data signals at far faster speeds
harnessed M13's key attributes — its non-
than traditional copper wires or coaxial cables.
lethality and its ability to package and broadcast
arbitrary DNA strands — to create the biological Cable: Cable broadband internet delivers
Internet or 'Bi-Fi'. data at broadband speeds over the same cable
used to deliver television data. Basic cable
The Stanford University revealed that
internet speeds range from 6 Mbps to 18 Mbps,
Biological Internet could lead to biosynthetic

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while more advanced cable internet can reach
factories in which huge masses of microbes
speeds of 75 Mbps and more. Cable Internet

Y
collaborate to make more complicated fuels,
speeds can be affected by users within the same
pharmaceuticals and other useful chemicals,
vicinity using the same cable connection.
including the regeneration of tissue or organs in
future.

EM
Satellite: Satellite broadband uses orbiting
C IC satellites to transmit and receive broadband data.
The virus 'M13' is a package of genetic
Satellite broadband is primarily used in areas
messages. It reproduces within its host, taking
where terrestrial broadband technologies like
strands of DNA - strands that engineers can
DSL, fibre and cable are otherwise unavailable.
control - wrapping them up one by one and
Speeds for satellite broadband are comparable
sending them out encapsulated within proteins
to traditional DSL, ranging from 768 kbps to 5
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produced by M13 that can infect other cells. The
Mbps--but data speeds can be affected by
M13-based system is essentially a communication
changes in the weather and satellite position.
channel. It acts like a wireless Internet connection
that enables cells to send or receive messages, Mobile Broadband: Mobile networks are a
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but it does not care what secrets the transmitted

A
wireless broadband technology accessible via
messages contain. 3G/4G/LTE enabled cellphones and smart
devices like ebook readers. Speed differs between
BROADBAND carriers and can be affected by user location and
carrier coverage. The fastest wireless technology,
Broadband could be defined as an always LTE, offers maximum theoretical download
on connection that is able to support various speeds of up to 150 Mbps.
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interactive services and has the capability of a

minimum download speed of 256 kbps or WIRELESS LOCAL AREA
kilobits per second. High-speed internet is also
NETWORKS (WLANS)
commonly called broadband internet. To put that
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in context, an average telephone line through A wireless LAN is a flexible data commu-
which we dial into the internet theoretically gives nication system implemented as an extension to,
a speed of 33.3 kbps, though actual speeds may or as an alternative for, a wired LAN within a
be far lesser. An affordable broadband access to building or campus. Using electromagnetic
the Net would allow a PC to be used as a TV/ waves, WLANs transmit and receive data over
music system. One can watch a downloaded the air, minimising the need for wired
movie or listen to an older-goldie track or merely connections. Thus, WLANs combine data
get the latest quotes for one’s stock portfolio. connectivity with user mobility, and through
The major types of broadband include DSL, simplified configuration enable movable LANs.
cable, satellite, fibre-optic and mobile broadband. Wireless LANs frequently augment rather
DSL: Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is than replace wired LAN networks - often
broadband internet delivered over copper phone providing the final few metres of connectivity
wires. The lines are split into two frequencies: between a backbone network and the mobile
one for data and one for voice. Traditional DSL user. The power and flexibility of wireless LANs
speeds range from 768 Kbps to as fast as 7 Mbps- finds applications both in the office as well as in

[70] Chronicle IAS Academy

 home environments. It can also be used in
There is hardly any jumping or slow
consulting and sales, manufacturing and motion display.
warehousing, corporate office, retail
applications, education and research, trading In Europe, the US and most parts of Asia
and banking and also healthcare. are embracing 3G technologies but in India it is
in initial stage and some telecom operators are
Benefits of wireless LANs over traditional providing the 3G services. After more than eight
wired network: years of wireless usage, the country still does not

Mobility have a clear-cut policy for allocating frequencies,
a vital element in the introduction of any wireless

Installation speed and simplicity
technology. The World Bank recognised India’s

Installation flexibility lack of progress in this regard and forked out a

D LE
huge grant to modernise the frequency allocation

Reduced cost of ownership
systems. Progress is taking place but at a slow

Y

Scalability pace.

Wireless LAN - Technology
4G TECHNOLOGY

EM

Spread Spectrum
4G is the fourth-generation cellular

C IC
Narrowband Technology
Frequency - Hopping Spread Spectrum
communication system that operates on Internet
technology using various wired and wireless
Technology networks. It combines applications and

Direct - Sequence Spread Spectrum technologies like Wi-Fi and WiMax, so that
highest throughput and lowest cost wireless
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Technology
network is possible, providing high quality, high

Infrared – Technology security and any kind of services, anytime,
anywhere to the users. In simple language, it
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‘3G’ MOBILE TECHNOLOGY provides MMS, multimedia and video

A
applications in mobile or wireless format. The
‘3G’ or bugs free third generation cellular main features of 4G are:-
technology will satisfy all ‘bandwidth-hungry
(i) The 4G technology is to provide interactive
applications’ such as full-motion video, video
services like video conferencing, Wireless
salient conferencing and full Internet access.
Internet, Multimedia Messaging service,

The major advance in 3G systems is Video chat, mobile TV, High definition TV
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moving from speech and low rate data content and needless to say, voice and
transmission to medium and high speed data services, anytime and anywhere.
data for video (TV) transmission and
Internet searching. (ii) There will be high network capacity, high
C

speed data transfer rate at any two points

The 3G mobile systems will increase the in the world, seamless connectivity and
data rate by 200 times. global roaming.

They will improve audio quality, marking (iii) No new infrastructure is needed to be
a total change in telephone usage from installed, as 4G will be interoperable with
exclusively voice to predominantly data existing wireless standards, dynamically
services. sharing and utilizing the already existing

A 3G user can see the other user on his network resource.
display screen. (iv) It will have the feature of smelling the

While transmitting video images and data, background of the other person on the
the user need simply push a button to phone. If someone is cooking something
talk with image receiver. and he/she wants you to smell it, he/she
would be able to do that.

Film clips can be seen clearly and
instantly.

Chronicle IAS Academy [71]

 How 4G Works? communications infrastructure is in disarray,
restoring communication quickly will be
4G wireless networks use two types of essential. Using 4G both limited and complete
addresses for communication between two communication capabilities, including Internet
devices, for example a computer and a cell and video services, would be set up in a matter
phone. Each node will be assigned a 4G-IP of hours.
(Internet Protocol) address, which will be formed
by a permanent home IP address and a dynamic Bluetooth Technology
care-of address that will represent the phone’s
Bluetooth is a short range, wire free, secure
actual location. When a computer using Internet
and international standardized wireless
wants to communicate with a cell phone in the
technology that provides wireless

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wireless network, the computer will send a
communication system between the Bluetooth
packet to the 4G-IP address of the cell phone.
enabled devices in a short ranged network.

Y
Then a directory server on the cell phone’s home
Bluetooth technology is a short range wireless
network will forward this packet to the cell
technology that was developed by the
phone’s care-of address through a mobile IP. The
collaboration of mobile phones and IT companies

EM
directory server will also inform the computer
such as Nokia, Intel, Toshiba, Ericsson and IBM.
C IC
of the cell phone’s care-of address (the real
location), so that the next packet can be sent to
the cell phone directly.
Bluetooth develops short range wireless
connections between the laptops, handheld PCs,
wireless communication devices and mobile
Benefits of 4G phones. Bluetooth is only available to the
personal area networks in an office or a home
The advanced applications of 4G systems will
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network. It reduces the usage of power as
primarily be location-based services. 4G location compared to the Wi-Fi. Bluetooth is an
applications would utilize visualized, virtual international standardized technology that is
navigation schemes that would support a remote used for the wireless communication between
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database containing graphical representations of

A
the Bluetooth held devices such as mobile phones,
streets, buildings and other physical digital camera, laptops, desktop computers,
characteristics of a large area. Thus, the benefits keyboard, mouse, MP3 players, video cameras
will include: and other devices.
Tele-geoprocessing: It is a combination of Bluetooth is free technology and it is
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and provided by the mobile phone operators who are
Global Positioning Systems (GPS), working
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having the capability of GSM and CDMA

together in a high-capacity wireless mobile technology. Bluetooth uses radio-waves
system. Using this, public safety will be enhanced frequency as a medium and is suitable for the 1,
by reading the environment of even a remote 10 and 100 metres distance. Every Bluetooth
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place and understanding the problems of the enabled device such as mobile phones, laptops,
concerned area. digital cameras; video games consoles have built-
Virtual Navigation: The database can be in microchip.
accessed by a subscriber in a moving vehicle Bluetooth uses radio-waves that operate at
equipped with the appropriate wireless device, 2.4 GHz bands. The personal computers must
to know about the roads and locations in have built-in dongle in them to use the Bluetooth
advance. technology. Bluetooth is also used to transfer the
Tele-medicine: A paramedic assisting a files from the mobile phones or PDA devices to
victim of a traffic accident in a remote location the computers. Also, in a meeting if you want to
would be able to access medical records (eg. x- share the digital business cards among the
ray sheet) and establish a video conference so participants of the meeting you use Bluetooth to
that a remotely-based surgeon could provide transfer the files. Microsoft Windows XP with
“on-scene” assistance. the service pack 2 has the built-in support for
the Bluetooth technology. Bluetooth defines the
Crisis-management Applications: In case of wireless standards to maintain the secure data
natural disasters, where the entire communication.

[72] Chronicle IAS Academy

 The master Bluetooth device can n Wireless communication with PC input
communication with the seven other Bluetooth and output devices, the most common
enabled devices. Different devices support being the mouse, keyboard and printer.
different standards of the Bluetooth technology.
n Transfer of files, contact details, calendar
The research on the advanced Bluetooth is in
appointments, and reminders between
progress for the Bluetooth version 3.0 to provide
the high speed connections. devices with OBEX.
n Replacement of traditional wired serial
Bluetooth technology also provides support
communications in test equipment, GPS
for the VOIP technology. The Bluetooth headset
provides the wireless extension to the Bluetooth receivers, medical equipment, bar code
device. A typical Bluetooth device consist of RS scanners, and traffic control devices.
transceiver, protocol stacks and base bands and n For controls where infrared was

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it does not require to install the additional drivers traditionally used.

Y
to use the Bluetooth technology and it can
connect all the office peripheral such as n For low bandwidth applications where
computer with printer, computer with scanner higher [USB] bandwidth is not required
and computer with laptop. Among the other and cable-free connection desired.

EM
advantages of the Bluetooth technology is the n Sending small advertisements from
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automatic synchronization of the desktops,
mobile phones and other Bluetooth held devices.
Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings
to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices.
Another popular use of the Bluetooth is in the
cars and automotives. The most commonly n Two seventh-generation game consoles,
Bluetooth held devices are mobile phones, Nintendo’s Wii and Sony’s PlayStation 3,
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personal computers, laptops, headsets, access use Bluetooth for their respective wireless
points, car kits, speaker phone, streaming video, controllers.
MP3 players, SIM cards, Push-2-talk, PDA and n Dial-up internet access on personal
digital camera. computers or PDAs using a data-capable
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A
By this technology, mobile data can be used mobile phone as a modem.
in the different applications. It provides the speed
of 1-2 Mbps. Bluetooth’s small microchip can be CDMA
built in the devices and it can also be used as the
external adapters and used for the different Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a
network commu-nication devices. Bluetooth channel access method utilized by various radio
communication technologies. It should not be
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enabled devices can change their frequency very

rapidly so they can be saved from the external confused with the mobile phone standards called
interference. Bluetooth enabled devices have built CDMA 1 and CDMA2000 (which are often
in security features and they use pin code and referred to as simply “CDMA”), which use
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128 encryption. If the two wireless devices follow CDMA as an underlying channel access method.
the Bluetooth standards they can communicate
One of the basic concepts in data
with each other without any external devices or
communication is the idea of allowing several
wires. More enhancements are in progress in this
transmitters to send information simultaneously
technology to provide the most robust, state-of-
over a single communication channel. This
the-art, high speed and secure connections to the
allows several users to share a bandwidth of
mobile users.
different frequencies. This concept is called
Applications of Bluetooth: multiplexing. CDMA employs spread-spectrum
n Wireless control and communication technology and a special coding scheme (where
between a mobile phone and a hands- each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow
multiple users to be multiplexed over the same
free headset.
physical channel. By contrast, time division
n Wireless networking between PCs in a multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time,
confined space and where little bandwidth while frequency-division multiple access
is required. (FDMA) divides it by frequency. CDMA is a form

Chronicle IAS Academy [73]

 of “spread-spectrum” signalling, since the trunk exchange developed by the ITI, Bangalore
modulated coded signal has a much higher data in collaboration with the TRC.
bandwidth than the data being communicated.
Computers in Telecom Services:
An analogy to the problem of multiple access Computers have been introduced to modernise
is a room (channel) in which people wish to business and consumer services in the large
communicate with each other. To avoid telephone system. The first phase of the project
confusion, people could take turns speaking (time in operation involved ‘directory enquiry service’.
division), speak at different pitches (frequency The facility is being extended to cover commercial
division), or speak in different languages (code billing fault analysis and fault control traffic
division). CDMA is analogous to the last example accounts.
where people speaking the same language can

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The National Centre for Software
understand each other, but not other people.
Development and Computing Techniques

Y
Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users
(NCSDCT) in Mumbai has provided the R &D
is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the
and human resources base for Indian software
same channel, but only users associated with a
development and exports.
particular code can understand each other.

EM
C IC Inmarsat: It stands for International
TELECOM SERVICES IN INDIA Maritime Satellite founded in 1979. INMARSAT
organisation has more than 80 countries as its
In the field of communications, from members with London as its headquarters that
essentially a telegraph network in late forties, the provides worldwide satellite communications for
Indian telecommunication network facility has maritime, aeronautical and mobile land users.
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grown significantly over the years with the INMARSAT operates a satellite each in the
acquisition, adaptation and indigenous Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean region. The
development of newer technologies. Vikram Land Earth Station, which was
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The country has now developed the commissioned on May 31, 1992 at Arvi, about
A
necessary capability to manufacture her own 85 km from Pune and became operational on
sophisticated materials and equipment, for July 11, 1992, is the 37th such station in the
example, telephone instruments, digital INMARSAT family. Besides the satellites and the
telephones, key telephones and microwave and land earth stations (LES), the INMARSAT system
line systems. The major areas in the plan of also has mobile earth stations with the satellite
Indian Telephone Industries (ITI) relate to digital communications terminals located on ships,
trucks, etc. The Vikram LES is providing shore-
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telephone subscriber apparatus and

instrumentation, telemetrics and powerline to-ship and ship-to-shore telephone, telex, fax,
carrier communication systems, and integrated etc. Maritime INMARSAT terminals have a
communication systems. special feature that automatically generates and
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sends distress messages to rescue coordination

Today, the network provides for nationwide centres.
dialing, enabling speech transmission, long
distance links through satellites and fairly COMMUNICATION AND BROADCASTING
efficient switching systems like the electronic
stored programme controlled (SPC) switching Under the liberalised licensing regime, the
systems. whole area of telecom and broadcasting
equipment was delicensed and emphasis was
The ITI is the main national organisation
given to promotional activities for attracting
providing hardware for the network. Specialised
foreign investments, exports, private telecom
communication equipment needed for defence,
network, decentralization of telecom services,
power administration, railways, ONGC, and
and technology development. These measures
other organisations are met by ITI, BEL and ECIL.
are expected to bring a sea change in national
Even remote towns can be connected to the telecommunication scenario and make India
national telephone network with the help of the internationally competitive. On July 16, 2013, the
most advanced digital integrated local-cum- Union Government decided to liberalise the

[74] Chronicle IAS Academy

 foreign direct investment (FDI) regime further.
Recognize telecom, including broadband
In the telecom sector, FDI limit hiked under the connectivity, as a basic necessity like
automatic route to 49 per cent and 49 to 100 per education and health and work towards
cent under the FIPB route. 'Right to Broadband'.
As a result of the liberalisation, a large
Provide affordable and reliable
number of proposals were received from Indian broadband-on-demand by the year 2015
and foreign companies to manufacture switching and to achieve 175 million broadband
equipment, transmission equipment, and two- connections by the year 2017 and 600
way radio communication equipment. Siemens, million by the year 2020 at minimum 2
Ericsson, and Fujitsu were selected for the Mbps download speed and make available
manufacture of large capacity digital exchanges. higher speeds of at least 100 Mbps on

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To promote faster growth of telecom demand.
services, a decision has been taken to allow State
Provide high-speed and high-quality

Y
Governments for setting up Telecom Networks broadband access to all village panchayats
in the industrial estates with access to DoT lines. through a combination of technologies by
Accordingly, State Governments are making the year 2014 and progressively to all

EM
proposals to develop telecom infrastructure in
villages and habitations by 2020.
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the States.
A number of new thrust areas and gap areas

Recognize telecom as an infrastructure
sector to realize the true potential of
were identified for development in telecom and
information communication technology
broadcasting sector. Electronics Development
(ICT) for development.
and Research Centre (ERDC), Pune of the DoE
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undertook the indigenous development of low-
Address right-of-way (RoW) issues in
cost Amateur Radio, Citizen Band Radio and setting up of telecom infrastructure.
Data Radio suitable for rural applications. There

Mandate an ecosystem for ensuring
are about 200 companies in the country
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manufacturing telecom and broadcast setting up of a common platform for

A
equipments. interconnection of various networks for
providing non-exclusive and non-
NATIONAL TELECOM POLICY 2012 discriminatory access.

Strive for enhanced and continued
The Government approved National Telecom adoption of green policy in telecom and
Policy (NTP) 2012, which addresses the vision,
incentivize use of renewable resources for
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strategic direction, and the various medium- and

sustainability.
long-term issues related to the telecom sector, on
31 May 2012. NTP-2012 is aimed at maximizing
Achieve substantial transition to the new
public good by making affordable, reliable, and Internet Protocol (IPv 6) in the country in
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secure telecommunication and broadband a phased and time-bound manner by 2020

services available across the country. The and encourage an ecosystem for provision
objectives of NTP-2012 include the following: of a significantly large bouquet of services

Provide secure, affordable, and high- on the IP platform.
quality telecommunication services to all
citizens. IPR IN INDIA

Strive to create One Nation-One Licence Major changes to Indian Copyright Law
across services and service areas. were introduced in June 1994. This has made

Achieve One Nation-Full Mobile Number the Indian Copyright law, one of the toughest
Portability and work towards One Nation- in the world. The amendments to the Copyright
Free Roaming. Act in June 1994 included the definition of
Computer Program. The Copyright (Amend-

Increase rural tele-density from the
ment) Act 1994, clearly explains the rights of
current level of around 39 to 70 by the copyright holder, position on rentals of software,
year 2017 and 100 by the year 2020.

Chronicle IAS Academy [75]

 the rights of the user to make backup copies and operational difficulties and address newer issues
the heavy punishment and fines on infringement related to the digital world.
of copyright of software. At present officers of
Limited Protection to Some Internet
these government agencies, NASSCOM officials,
Intermediaries: There are two new provisions,
police and various other law enforcement officers
which provide some degree of protection to
of Government of India are committed to enforce
'transient or incidental' storage of a work or
copyright laws and eradicate the menace of
performance. Section 52(1)(b) allows for the
software piracy. Raids jointly facilitated by
transient or incidental storage of a work or
NASSCOM and Business Software Alliance with
performance purely in the technical process of
active cooperation from law enforcing
electronic transmission or communication to the
authorities over last one year at some of the major
public, hence applying primarily to Internet

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metro cities have already had salutary effect.
Service Providers (ISPs), VPN providers, etc.

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To protect the intellectual property rights Section 52(1)(c) allows for transient or incidental
(IPR) of software companies, apart from cracking storage of a work or performance for the
down on piracy, the government has also made purpose of providing electronic links, access or
several policies to actively discourage piracy. integration, where such links, access or

EM
Authorized sellers of imported software are
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allowed to reproduce software in India and sell by the right holder, unless the person responsible
it without import duty. Local software is aware or has reasonable grounds for believing
manufacturers are exempt from excise taxes. that such storage is of an infringing copy. This
seems to make it applicable primarily to search
Other incentives include:
engines, with other kinds of online services being
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Depreciation on IT products allowed at covered or not covered depending on one’s
60% pa, taking into cognizance the high interpretation of the word 'incidental'.
rate of obsolescence of such products.
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Exemption of withholding tax on interest COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

A
on ECBs is proposed to be extended to
Computer is an electronic device that can
the IT sector as well. This will reduce cost
count, save and solve complex problems with
of borrowings for IT companies through
high accuracy and speed.
the ECB route.
n Input: The source data entered into a data

100% customs duty exemption on all processing system.
software used in the IT sector.
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n Central Processing Unit: The Arithmetic

Extension of 80HHE Tax benefit to the Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU)
supporting developers. This will enable together are termed as the Central
supporting developers to enjoy tax Processing Unit. It is the brain of any
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concessions, similar to the supporting computer system. All calculations and

manufacturer’s concept in manufacturing comparisons are made inside the CPU.
sector.
n Control Unit: The part of Central
The Copyright (Amendment) Act 2012 Processing Unit which directs the
passed by Parliament has come into effect sequence of operating, interprets and
declaring authors as owners of the copyright, coded instruction and sees to the execution
which cannot be assigned to the producers as of program instruction.
was the practice till now. It will now become
mandatory for broadcasters - both radio and n Arithmetic Logic Unit: The part of CPU,
television - to pay royalty to the owners of the which performs the arithmetical and
copyright each time a work of art is broadcast. logical operations.
It bans people from bringing out cover versions n Storage: The storage or primary section
of any literary, dramatic or musical work for five of computer consists of the devices used
years from the first recording of the original to store the information. Example:
creation. The law also seeks to remove Magnetic cores, RAM chips, etc.

[76] Chronicle IAS Academy


Output: The finished result of processing option by just pointing at it, or drawing
by a system. figures directly on the screen and moving
the figures around.
Classification of Computer

Scanners: It facilitates capturing of the

Analog Computer: Computers that
information and storing them in graphic
measure physical quantities e.g. pressure,
format for displaying back on the
temperature, voltage etc. They are used
graphical screen.
mainly for scientific and engineering
purpose.
Output Devices: Peripherals used to
output results to the user. e.g.- Printers,

Digital Computer: Computer that counts
VDU (Visual Display Unit)
and accepts letters and numbers through
various input devices. It can be used in
Printers: Output devices are used to

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various applications. produce hard copy of computer output

Y
that is readable by humans.

Hybrid Computer: The features of analog
and digital machines are combined to
Ink Jet Printer: A printing device that
create a hybrid computing system. uses a nozzle and sprays ink into paper to

EM
form the appropriate characters. The typing

Mainframe Computers: Computers with
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high capability but less powerful and
cheaper than supercomputers. These are

speed range from 50 cps above 300 cps.
Laser Printer: A very high speed printer
suited for big organizations to manage that uses a combination of laser beam and
high volume of applications e.g. MEDHA, electro-photographic techniques to create
Sperry DEC, IBM, HP, ICL etc. printed outputs at a speed in excess of
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13,000 lines per unit. Speed can range

Mini Computers: Relatively fast and small
from 10 pages a minute to about 200
and inexpensive computer with somewhat
pages per minute.
limited input/output capabilities. The first
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popular minicomputer was the PDP-8,
Floppy Disk: Popular magnetic device for
A
launched in 1965. small computer introduced by IBM in
1972. It is flexible and has a plastic jacket

Micro Computers: Full-fledged computer
coated with iron oxide material. Data and
system that uses micro processor as their
information stores in the disks as a
CPU. These are also called personal
magnetic and non-magnetic spots. It is a
computer system.
non erasable disc used for storing
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Computer Devices computer data.

Input Devices: These are used for
Programming Language: Computer
transferring user command or data to the programming is the name given to the ‘art’
computer. e.g.- Keyboard, Mouse, Light
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of writing a programme in a programming

pen etc. language, which is a higher-level language.

Keyboard: The keyboard is one of the In a binary-coded digital computer, the
most common input device for computers. machine language is made of Os and 1s to
The layout of the keyboard is like that of relieve the programme in the difficult low-
the traditional QWERTY typewriter, level machine language, several hundreds
although there are some extra command of easier high level programming language
and function keys provided for. have been developed, such as, FORTRAN,
BASIC, COBOL, PASCAL, C, C++ etc.

Mouse: Mouse is a handy device which

Memory: The data, which are stored in a
can be moved on a smooth surface to
computer, are called its memory. A
simulate the movement of cursor that is
computer’s memory has actually two
desired on the display screen.
memories-one permanent, and the other

Light pen: This is a pen shaped pointing temporary.
device which can be used to select an (i) ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is

Chronicle IAS Academy [77]

 permanent in nature. Neither you nor the digital mobile technology, came into the
computer has any control over the picture after the entry of the GSM. CDMA,
information in ROM. Here, the due to its technological superiority, is
manufacturer has placed special data that presently the biggest challenger to GSM. In
can be used, but not erased or changed. CDMA, the data is digitized and spread
over the entire available bandwidth, unlike
(ii) RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM
the narrow band of TDMA. Multiple calls
handles all input, each electronic switch
are overlaid on each other on the channel,
storing one bit. The more RAM a
with each assigned a unique sequence code.
computer has, the more information it can
The data is then reassembled at the receiver’s
store. However, it presents a special problem-
end. The battery life of CDMA handsets is
it works only as long as electric current

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longer than that of analogue phones, with
flows through it. Without a current, all
the stored information is wiped out. a talk time of three to four hours, and up

Y
to two-and-a-half weeks of standby time.

Speed: Computer speeds are measured in
Digital Signature: Digital Signature is extra
terms of million instructions per second data appended to a message which identifies

EM
(MIPS), which reflects the number of and authenticates the sender and the data

C IC
instructions the processor at the heart of
computer can perform.
Mass Storage: Information can be stored
using public key encryption. The signature
is issued by the control of certifying
authorities. Not many companies are willing
permanently on magnetic tape on a floppy to apply for CA (certifying authority). The
disc, a thin flexible disc coated with government had stipulated that a CA
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magnetic particles, or on a hard disc. These should have a minimum paid up capital of
media store bits (zeros and ones) as Rs. 5 crore and a net worth of Rs. 50 crore.
magnetic strips running in either one
PAGING: It provides a one-way wireless
direction (signifying O) or the other communication to the wandering users. In
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(signifying 1). Mass storage device can then

A
this system, the messages are sent to the
retrieve (read) the data, change it, and again subscribers, which consist of small receiver.
store (write) it onto tape or disc.

Electronic Mail (E-Mail): E-mail involves

IP Telephony: Internet Protocol Telephony non-interactive communication of
encompasses many different ways of information between the sender and a
transmitting voice, fax and related services. receiver. The information may be in the form
IP stands for low cost or even free voice of text or data image or voice message.
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calls. On the other voice IP (Vo IP) is much

FAX: Fascimile transfer of messages, i..e.,
more than Internet Telephony for the core
FAX is used for transmission of weather
network operators, local exchanges and
charts, engineering drawings, and even
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corporate enterprises.
handwritten notes.

Global System for Mobile (GSM): The

Voice Mail: If someone wants to enjoy the
Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a
benefits of a telephone, without actually
worldwide dominant system that originally
owning one, he should subscribe to voice
evolved as a pan-European digital standard,
mail.
and built a base in the US and Canada at
a rapid pace. GSM uses Time Division
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI): It
Multiple Access (TDMA). TDMA is not a enables usually a customer and supplier to
spread spectrum technology. It uses a exchange routine documents, such as,
narrow band that is 30 KHZ wide and 6.7 purchase orders and invoices using standard
milliseconds long. This is split times-wise electronic forms and their own computers,
into slots. Each conversation gets the radio linked through a service provider.
for part of the time.
Video Conferencing: Video conferencing or

Code-Division Multiple Accesses Electronic conferencing allows persons
(CDMA): The Code-Division Multiple sitting in different parts of the city, country
Access (CDMA) technology, also known as or world to meet face-to-face without

[78] Chronicle IAS Academy

 actually being there. This is possible with means that DTH providers would be in a
the help of special cameras attached to position to offer up to 100 channels. They
computers. The images are digitalised and would also offer value-added services like
bounced to the place to a person’s choice interactive media, tele-banking, tele-
by means of a modem attached to the shopping, satellite telephony, video-on-
computer. demand.

Video Tex: It is the generic name of systems
Liquid Crystal Display: Thanks to the new
which transmit text and graphic information developments in Liquid Crystal Display
stored in the computer database via the (LCD) technology, the curved television
telephone network for display on a screen - known as cathode ray tube - may
television screen. The user indicates the give to a flat screen that can be hung on a
information he would like from the database wall like a painting. Presently, LCDs are

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and the computer sends it to the user. used in a wide range of applications,
including computer monitors, televisions,

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Virtual Reality: It enables a person to enter
the world to three-dimensional (3-D) instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays,
computer-aided image. It is not like any and signage. They are common in consumer
computer graphic. In fact, it accords devices such as video players, gaming

EM
multiple sensory information, sight, sound devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and
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and touch in an effort to make the situation
realistic.

telephones.
Multi-media: Multi-media means

DTH Transmission: The Direct to Home integration of two or more media elements.
(DTH) services are all set to make an entry It is one of the most recent information
in the Indian homes in the near future. In technologies that is becoming popular
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DTH, the move from C-Band to Ku-Band world-wide due to its multi-dimensional
approach and uses.

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A
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 ROBOTICS CHRONICLE
TECHNOLOGY IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

1990 up to the present. These machines can be

INTRODUCTION
stationary or mobile, autonomous or insect type,
The word “robot” originates from the Czech with sophisticated programming, speech

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word for forced labour, or serf. It was introduced recognition and/or synthesis, and other
by playwright Karel Capek, whose fictional advanced features.

Y
robotic inventions were much like Dr. Fourth-generation robots are in the research-
Frankenstein’s monster — creatures created by and-development phase, and include features
chemical and biological, rather than mechanical, such as artificial intelligence, self-replication, self

EM
methods. But the current mechanical robots of assembly, and nanoscale size (physical
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popular culture are not much different from
these fictional biological creations.
Robotics technology is developing at a rapid
dimensions on the order of nanometers, or units
of 10 -9 meter).
A few advanced robots are called androids
pace, opening up new possibilities for because of their superficial resemblance to
automating tasks and enriching the lives of human beings. Androids are mobile, usually
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humans. From the automobile assembly line to moving around on wheels or a track drive
automatic home, vacuum cleaners, robotics has because most robots legs are unstable and
become part of our world. difficult to engineer. The android is not
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Robotics is the branch of engineering science necessarily the end point of robot evolution.
A
and technology that deals with the design, Asimov
manufacture, operation, and application of
robots. Robotics is related to electronics, Asimov is generally credited with the
mechanics, and software. popularization of the term “Robotics” which
was first mentioned in his story “Runaround”
According to the “Robot Institute of
in 1942. But probably Isaac Asimov’s most
America,” 1979, “A robot is defined as a
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important contribution to the history of the robot

reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator
is the creation of his ‘Three Laws of Robotics’:
designed to move material, parts, tools, or
specialized devices through various progra- 1. A robot may not injure a human being,
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mmed motions for the performance of a variety or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm.
of tasks.” A robot is described as a machine
designed to execute one or more tasks repeatedly, 2. A robot must obey the orders given to it
with speed and precision. There are as many by human beings except where such
different types of robots as there are tasks for orders would conflict with the First Law.
them to perform. 3. A robot must protect its own existence as
long as such protection does not conflict
PAST & FUTURE OF ROBOTS with the First or Second Law.

First-generation robots date from the 1970’s Asimov later adds a “Zeroth law” to the list:
and consists of stationary, nonprogrammable,
Zeroth law: A robot may not injure
electromechanical devices without sensors.
humanity, or, through inaction, allow humanity
Second-generation robots were developed in the
to come to harm, unless this would violate a
1980’s and could contain sensors and
higher order law.
programmable controllers. Third-generation
robots were developed between approximately In 1959, John Minsky started the Artificial

[80] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Intelligence Laboratory at the Massachusetts robot’s ability to monitor its own motion. A
Institute of Technology (MIT).This was funded standard design uses slotted wheels attached to
by Rockefeller Foundation. This gave impetus to the robot’s joints. An LED on one side of the
the field of robotics. wheel shines a beam of light through the slots to
a light sensor on the other side of the wheel.
PARTS OF ROBOT When the robot moves a particular joint, the
slotted wheel turns. The slots break the light
Arm beam as the wheel spins. The light sensor reads
the pattern of the flashing light and transmits
The ‘Robotic Arm’ of an industrial robot with
the data to the computer.
six joints closely resembles a human arm — it
has the equivalent of a shoulder, an elbow and End Effectors
a wrist. Typically, the shoulder is mounted to a

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stationary base structure rather than to a End Effector is like human palm and fingers.

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movable body. This type of robot has six degrees We can outfit robotic arms with all sorts of end
of freedom, meaning it can pivot in six different effectors, which are suited to a particular
ways. A human arm, by comparison, has seven application. One common end effector is a
simplified version of the hand, which can grasp

EM
degrees of freedom. Your arm’s job is to move
your hand from place to place. Similarly, the and carry different objects. Robotic hands often
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robotic arm’s job is to move an end effector from have built-in pressure sensors that tell the
computer how hard the robot is gripping a
place to place. You can outfit robotic arms with
all sorts of end effectors, which are suited to a particular object. This keeps the robot from
particular application. dropping or breaking whatever it’s carrying.
Other end effectors include blowtorches, drills
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Controller and spray painters.
Digital computer is major controller of a
TYPES OF ROBOTS
robot. The robot’s computer controls everything
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attached to the circuit. To move the robot, the

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Broadly there are two types of robots:
computer switches on all the necessary motors
and valves. Most robots are reprogrammable — Robots on Earth or Industrial Robots:
to change the robot’s behaviour, you simply write Typical industrial robots do jobs that are difficult,
a new program to its computer. The actuators dangerous or dull. They lift heavy objects, paint,
are all wired to an electrical circuit. The circuit handle chemicals, and perform assembly work.
powers electrical motors and solenoids directly, They perform the same job hour after hour, day
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and it activates the hydraulic system by after day with precision. They don’t get tired and
manipulating electrical valves. The valves they don’t make errors associated with fatigue
determine the pressurized fluid’s path through and so are ideally suited for performing repetitive
the machine. To move a hydraulic leg, for tasks. The major categories of industrial robots
C

example, the robot’s controller would open the by mechanical structure are:
valve leading from the fluid pump to a piston 1. Cartesian Robot/Gantry Robot: Used for
cylinder attached to that leg. The pressurized pick and place work, application of
fluid would extend the piston, swiveling the leg sealant, assembly operations, handling
forward. Typically, in order to move their machine tools and arc welding. It is a
robot whose arm has three prismatic
segments in two directions, robots use pistons
joints, whose axes are coincident with a
that can push both ways. Cartesian coordinator.
Sensors 2. Cylindrical Robot: Used for assembly
operations, handling of machine tools, spot
Sensors are the instruments that measure welding, and handling of die casting
position, force, temperature, etc. Not all robots machines. It’s a robot whose axis form a
have sensory systems, and few have the ability cylindrical coordinate system.
to see, hear, smell or taste. The most common 3. Spherical/Polar Robot: Used for handling
robotic sense is the sense of movement — the of machine tools, spot welding, die
casting, fettling machines, gas welding

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 and arc welding. It’s a robot whose axis Exploring Volcanoes: Volcanologists have
form a polar coordinate system. identified that a volcano exploration robot
4. SCARA Robot: Used for pick and place should be able to carry out a number of key
work, application of sealant, assembly operations, the most important being the ability
operations and handling machine tools. to:
It’s a robot which has two parallel rotary
joints to provide compliance in a plane. ● approach an active volcanic vent
5. Articulated Robot: Used for assembly ● collect samples of volcanic eruption
operations, die casting, fettling machines, products
gas welding, arc welding and spray ● collect other physical and chemical data
painting. It’s a robot whose arm has at
least three rotary joints. ● survey close to vent openings

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6. Parallel Robot: One use is a mobile (C) Medical Field
platform handling cockpit flight

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simulators. It’s a robot whose arms have Robots are critical to the medical field where
concurrent prismatic or rotary joints. extreme precision and delicacy is necessary, and
the margin for error is slim.

EM
APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTS ● In the Field of Surgery: Because robots

●
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Robots are used for the following reasons:
Repetitive tasks that robots can do 24/7.
are able to perform major operations while
only making small incisions, patients get
many benefits: lessened trauma, fewer
● Robots never get sick or need time off. infections, decreased healing time, and a
faster discharge from the hospital. Robots
● Robots can do tasks considered too
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are used to perform heart surgery without
dangerous for humans.
opening patient’s chests.
● Robots can operate equipment to much
● In Medical Education: Robots are
higher precision than humans.
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currently used to test medical students.

A
● May be cheaper over the long run. Pregnant humanoid robots, for instance,
prepare students for various birth
● May be able to perform tasks that are
impossible for humans. complications.
● In Hospital Administration: Robots are
(A) Industrial Robots are used in also affecting the way hospitals are run
● General materials handling and medications distributed. They make
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sure hospital visits are shorter and the risk

● Welding industries of infection minimized.
● Inspection (D) Robots in Space
C

● Improving productivity by increasing per

Space-based robotic technology at NASA falls
capita production
within three specific mission areas: exploration
● Laboratory applications robotics, science payload maintenance, and on-
orbit servicing. Related elements are terrestrial/
(B) Exploration
commercial applications which transfer
Robots are used in space missions. In 2002 technologies generated from space telerobotics
NASA launched the MER-A “Spirit” rover to the commercial sector and component
destined for Mars. technology which encompasses the development
of joint designs, muscle wire, exoskeletons and
Robots in the Antarctic Exploration
sensor technology.
Researchers from the Thayer School of
Engineering at Dartmouth College have built a
robot designed to do research in Antarctica. This NEW DEVELOPMENT IN ROBOTICS
robot is a general purpose mobile platform that Modular Robots
can carry various instruments and travel in polar
temperatures. Modular robots are a new breed of robots

[82] Chronicle IAS Academy

 that are designed to increase the utilization of never before possible. Find out how the military
the robots by modularizing the robots. Modular is applying AI logic to its hi-tech systems, and
robots are capable of adapting their morphology how in the near future Artificial Intelligence may
to tasks and environment, which makes them impact our lives.
more versatile, flexible and robust compared to
Approaches to AI
fixed-bodied ones. Most current systems lack
mechanical flexibility when increasing the Initially, researchers thought that creating an
number of modules due to hard building blocks AI would be simply writing programs for each
(modules) and highly rigid connection and every function an intelligent person
mechanisms. Although this design guarantees performs. As they went on with this task, they
controllability and stability, it minimizes realized that this approach was too shallow.
flexibility. In order to improve adaptation to Even simple functions like face recognition,

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environmental changes, softness on the module spatial sense, pattern recognition and language
level might be beneficial. comprehension were beyond their programming

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Nanorobots skills.
They understood that to create an AI, they
Nanorobotics is the emerging technology

EM
must delve deeper into natural intelligence first.
field of creating machines or robots whose
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components are at or close to the microscopic
scale of a nanometer (10 -9 meters). Also known
They tried to understand how cognition,
comprehension, decision-making happen in the
human mind. They had to understand what
as "nanobots" or "nanites", they would be
understanding really means. Some went into the
constructed from molecular machines.
study of the brain and tried to understand how
Nanobots have been popular staples in the network of neurons creates the mind. Thus,
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science fiction for some time, and have researchers branched into different approaches,
experienced periods of relative popularity but they had the same goal of creating intelligent
among futurist communities. Although they machines.
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have been created in a biological context, no

A
Neural Networks
actual mechanical nanobots have yet been
created, but they remain an area of active This is the bottom up approach. It basically
research and hold a great deal of promise for a aims at mimicking the structure and functioning
number of fields. So far, researchers have mostly of the human brain, to create intelligent
produced only parts of these complex systems, behaviour. Researchers are attempting to build
such as bearings, sensors, and synthetic a silicon-based electronic network that is
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molecular motors. Possible applications include modelled on the working and form of the human
micro surgery (on the level of individual cells), brain. Our brain is a network of billions of
utility fog, manufacturing, weaponry and neurons, each connected with the other.
cleaning.
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At an individual level, a neuron has very little

intelligence, in the sense that it operates by a
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
simple set of rules, conducting electric signals
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the area of through its network. However, the combined
computer science focusing on creating machines network of all these neurons creates intelligent
that can engage on behaviours that humans behaviour that is unrivaled and unsurpassed. So
consider intelligent. The ability to create these researchers created network of electronic
intelligent machines has intrigued humans since analogues of a neuron, based on Boolean logic.
ancient times and today with the advent of the Memory was recognized to be an electronic
computer and 50 years of research into AI signal pattern in a closed neural network.
programming techniques, the dream of smart
How the human brain works is, it learns to
machines is becoming a reality. Researchers are
realize patterns and remembers them. Similarly,
creating systems which can mimic human
the neural networks developed have the ability
thought, understand speech, beat the best
to learn patterns and remember. This approach
human chess player, and countless other feats
has its limitations due to the scale and complexity

Chronicle IAS Academy [83]

 of developing an exact replica of a human brain, a computer system in car manufacture, machine
as the neurons number in billions. Currently, tool production, computer chip production and
through simulation techniques, people create almost every high-tech process. They carry out
virtual neural networks. This approach has not dangerous tasks like handling hazardous
been able to achieve the ultimate goal but there radioactive materials. Robotic pilots carry out
is a very positive progress in the field. The complex manoeuvering techniques of unmanned
progress in the development of parallel spacecrafts sent in space. Japan is the leading
computing will aid it in the future. country in the world in terms of robotics research
and use.
Expert Systems
● Finance
This is the top down approach. Instead of

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starting at the base level of neurons, by taking Banks use intelligent software applications
advantage of the phenomenal computational to screen and analyze financial data. Softwares

Y
power of the modern computers, followers of the that can predict trends in the stock market have
expert systems approach are designing been created which have been known to beat
intelligent machines that solve problems by humans in predictive power.

EM
deductive logic. It is like the dialectic approach ● Computer Science
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in philosophy.
This is an intensive approach as opposed to
the extensive approach in neural networks. As
Researchers in quest of artificial intelligence
have created spin offs like dynamic
programming, object oriented programming,
the name expert systems suggest, these are symbolic programming, intelligent storage
machines devoted to solving problems in very management systems and many more such
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specific niche areas. They have total expertise in tools. The primary goal of creating an artificial
a specific domain of human thought. Their tools intelligence still remains a distant dream but
are like those of a detective or sleuth. They are people are getting an idea of the ultimate path
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programmed to use statistical analysis and data which could lead to it.
A
mining to solve problems. They arrive at a ● Aviation
decision through a logical flow developed by
answering yes-no questions. Airlines use expert systems in planes to
monitor atmospheric conditions and system
Chess computers like Fritz and its successors status. The plane can be put on auto pilot once a
that beat chess grandmaster Kasparov are course is set for the destination.
examples of expert systems. Chess is known as
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the drosophila or experimental specimen of ● Weather Forecast

artificial intelligence. Neural networks are used for predicting
Applications of AI weather conditions. Previous data is fed to a
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neural network which learns the pattern and

Artificial Intelligence in the form of expert uses that knowledge to predict weather patterns.
systems and neural networks has applications
● Swarm Intelligence
in every field of human endeavour. They
combine precision and computational power This is an approach to, as well as application
with pure logic, to solve problems and reduce of artificial intelligence similar to a neural
error in operation. Already, robot expert systems network. Here, programmers study how
are taking over many jobs in industries that are intelligence emerges in natural systems like
dangerous for or beyond human ability. Some swarms of bees even though on an individual
of the applications divided by domains are as level, a bee just follows simple rules. They study
follows: relationships in nature like the prey-predator
relationships that give an insight into how
● Heavy Industries and Space intelligence emerges in a swarm or collection
Robotics and Cybernetics have taken a leap from simple rules at an individual level. They
combined with artificial intelligent expert develop intelligent systems by creating agent
systems. An entire manufacturing process is now programs that mimic the behavior of these
totally automated, controlled and maintained by natural systems.

[84] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Robots and Artificial Intelligence situation. Again, modern computers can only do
this in very limited situations. They can’t absorb
Like the term “robot” itself, artificial any sort of information like a human can. Some
intelligence is hard to define. Ultimate AI would robots can learn by mimicking human actions.
be a recreation of the human thought process — In Japan, Roboticists have taught a robot to
a man-made machine with our intellectual dance by demonstrating the moves themselves.
abilities. This would include the ability to learn
just about anything, the ability to reason, the Some robots can interact socially. Kismet, a
ability to use language and the ability to robot at M.I.T’s Artificial Intelligence Lab,
formulate original ideas. Roboticists are nowhere recognizes human body language and voice
near achieving this level of artificial intelligence, inflection and responds appropriately. Kismet’s
but they have had made a lot of progress with creators are interested in how humans and

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more limited AI. Today’s AI machines can babies interact, based only on tone of speech and
replicate some specific elements of intellectual visual cue. This low-level interaction could be

Y
ability. the foundation of a human-like learning system.
Computers can already solve problems in Kismet and other humanoid robots at the
limited realms. The basic idea of AI problem- M.I.T. AI Lab operate using an unconventional

EM
solving is very simple, though its execution is control structure. Instead of directing every
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complicated. First, the AI robot or computer
gathers facts about a situation through sensors
action using a central computer, the robots
control lower-level actions with lower-level
or human input. The computer compares this computers. The program’s director, Rodney
information to stored data and decides what the Brooks, believes this is a more accurate model of
information signifies. The computer runs human intelligence. We do most things
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through various possible actions and predicts
automatically; we don’t decide to do them at the
which action will be most successful based on
highest level of consciousness.
the collected information. Of course, the
computer can only solve problems, it’s The real challenge of AI is to understand how
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A
programmed to solve — it doesn’t have any natural intelligence works. Developing AI isn’t
generalized analytical ability. Chess computers like building an artificial heart — scientists don’t
are one example of this sort of machine. have a simple, concrete model to work from. We
Some modern robots also have the ability to do know that the brain contains billions and
learn in a limited capacity. Learning robots billions of neurons, and that we think and learn
recognize if a certain action (moving its legs in a by establishing electrical connections between
different neurons. But we don’t know exactly
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certain way, for instance) achieved a desired

result (navigating an obstacle). The robot stores how all of these connections add up to higher
this information and attempts the successful reasoning, or even low-level operations. The
action the next time it encounters the same complex circuitry seems incomprehensible.
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 SCIENCE
&
TECHNOLOGY
(PART – II)

Add : D/108, Sec-2, Noida (U.P.), Pin - 201 301

Email id : helpdesk@campus100.in
 CONTENTS

Sl. No. TOPICS Pg. No.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

1. Mono Technology .................................................................................... 5-11

2. Nuclear Technology .............................................................................. 12-34

3. Defence ................................................................................................... 35-49

4. Energy Resources .................................................................................. 50-72

 MANO CHRONICLE
TECHNOLOGY IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Where the 20 th Century was the era of Typhoid Detection Kit: Using the nano-
macro-science, characterized by gigantic sensor, developed by Prof. A.K. Sood of IISc,
Boeings, roaring Shuttles, draconian Dams, Bangalore, a Typhoid Detection Kit has been
monstrous Refineries & Power plants, the 21st developed by DRDE, Gwalior. Typhoid fever
Century will be dominated by nano-science, caused by Salmonella typhi is a major health
featured with microscopic precision. Nano- problem and an important challenge to health
technology is the design, characterization, authorities of third world countries due to
production and application of structures, devices unsatisfactory water supply, poor sanitary
and systems by controlling shape and size at the conditions, malnutrition, emergence of antibiotic
nanoscale. Eight to ten atoms span one resistant strains, etc.
nanometer (nm). The human hair is approxi-
Gas Flow Induced Generation of Voltage
mately 70,000 to 80,000 nm thick. Nano-science
from Solids: Prof AK Sood, Professor of Physics
is the world of atoms, molecules, macro-
at IISc and his student Shankar Ghosh have
molecules, quantum dots, and macromolecular
found that the liquid flow in carbon nano-tubes
assemblies.
can generate electric current. One of the most
With the help of nanotechnology, a large set exciting applications to emerge from the
of materials with distinct properties (optical, discovery is the possibility of a heart pacemaker
electrical, or magnetic) can be fabricated. Nano- - like device with nano-tubes, which will sit in
particles take advantage of their dramatically the human body and generate power from blood.
increased surface area to volume ratio. Their Instead of batteries, the device will generate
optical properties, e.g. fluorescence, become a power by itself to regulate defective heart
function of the particle diameter. When brought rhythm.
into a bulk material, nano-particles can strongly Drug Delivery System: A research group
influence the mechanical properties, such as the headed by Professor A. N. Maitra of the
stiffness or elasticity. For example, traditional University of Delhi has developed 11 patentable
polymers can be reinforced by nano-particles technologies for improved drug delivery systems
resulting in novel materials e.g. as lightweight using nanoparticles. Four of these processes have
replacements for metals. In the coming days one been granted U.S. patents. One of the important
can clearly visualise the huge applications of achievements at the initial stage of drug delivery
nano-science in different fields as follows: research was development of a reverse micelles
based process for the synthesis of hydrogel and
NANO SCIENCE IN INDIA ‘smart’ hydrogel nanoparticles for encapsulating
water-soluble drugs. This method enabled one
Nano-tube Filter: The scientists from
to synthesize hydrogel nanoparticles of size less
Banaras Hindu University have devised a simple
than 100 nm diameter.
method to produce carbon nanotube filters that
efficiently remove micro to nano-scale
contaminants from water and heavy
PROGRAMMES FOR DEVELOPMENT
hydrocarbons from petroleum. Made entirely of OF NANO TECHNOLOGIES IN INDIA
carbon nanotubes, the filters are easily
Support to Nanotechnology Business
manufactured. The nanotube composition
Incubator (NBI) at NCL, Pune continued during
makes the filters strong, reusable, and heat
the year 2012-13. This NBI has nurtured activities
resistant, and they can be cleaned easily for
by 7 start-up companies on items like-
reuse.
computational modelling of flow and chemical

Chronicle IAS Academy [5]

 processes, therapeutic potential of systems; development of nano fibrous membrane
biotechnologically engineered antibodies, ocular polymer electrolytes and nano structured
and maxillofacial implants, and 12 start-up electrode materials for lithium rechargeable
companies are under incubation presently as batteries; development of hybrid nanomaterials
Resident Incubates on items like maxillo-facial for energy production from renewable sources;
surgery, organic chemical synthesis etc. Support development of titania aerogel photoanode for
to other ongoing projects in this category desensitized solar cell application; computational
continued during the year. Significant progress studies of bare and zeolite-supported metal
has been made in these projects. nanoclusters and their application in catalysis;
mechanistic studies on extra cellular biosynthesis
Centre for Nano Science and Engineering
of metal nanoparticles; development of protein
(CeNSE) nanoparticles delivery system for targeting anti-
The Centre for Nano Science and retroviral drugs to HIV infected cells;
Engineering (CeNSE) was established in 2010 to multifunctional materials for electrochemical
pursue interdisciplinary research across several energy conversion and storage devices; synthesis
disciplines with a focus on nanoscale systems. and characterization of novel nanoparticles and
Current research topics include, but are not study of their interactions with stem cells;
limited to nanoelectronics, MEMS/NEMS, development of parenteral sustained release
nanomaterials and devices, photonics, nano- dosage forms and colon targeted drug delivery
biotechnology, solar cells and computational systems for low molecular weight heparin.
nano-engineering. Apart from the regular faculty ● Folic Acid Super Paramagnetic Iron Oxide
members at CeNSE, almost 40 faculty members Nanoparticles (FA-SPIONs) were
from different departments at IISc are associated developed which are highly stable,
in the academic and research activities at the biocompatible, with prolong and better
centre. The centre offers PhD programmes in a biodistribution profile as compared to
wide range of areas, and has close interactions commercially available SPIONs. It was
with the industry. also found out that developed FA-SPIONs
A state-of-the art nanofabrication facility have high selectivity and specificity to
with a clean room spanning 1400 square meters cancer cells. Also, Folic acid conjugated
is located at the centre. In addition, there are Quantum Dots were synthesized which
several characterization labs that cater to are stable, biocompatible with good
material, electronic, mechanical, chemical and fluorescence properties. Preparation of
optical characterization. bioceramics using synthesized mullite and
colloidal silica together was done.
Basic Research Promotion
● Au-Ni, Cu-Co, Cu-Ni multilayer
25 new individual scientist-centric R&D nanowires have been synthesized using
projects were funded during the year 2012-13 potentiostatic electrodeposition. Nano-
which focused on fundamental scientific studies channels of anodic alumina membrane
on nano-scale systems. Some of these projects were used as template. Morphology of the
were related to: wires has been studied, structural
characterization has been done,
Study of catalytic activity of nano size metals
Superconducting Quantum Interference
and metal oxides prepared by novel or
Device (SQUID) was done to measure the
conventional routes; experimental and first- magnetic properties. Impedance
principles theoretical studies of metal oxide measurements were also made.
nanostructures for photoelectrochemical splitting
of water; studies on magneto-transport in ● Metal phosphide (MxPy) electrodes were
magnetic tunnel junctions; studies on bone prepared by direct electro-deposition,
targeted nano drug delivery systems for reporting the synthesis of high temperature
treatment of osteo-degenerative disease in materials at low temperature using
improvement of women health; studies on aqueous electrolyte. The nanoarchi-
superferromagnetism in magnetic nanoparticle tectured electrode assembly demonstrated

Chronicle IAS Academy [6]

 high energy capacity as well as high development of this field of research in the
power density as compared to traditional country and to tap some of its applied potential
flat lithium battery electrode using any for nation’s development. The main objectives
electroactive materials. of the Nano Mission are -basic research
promotion, infrastructure development for
● Coiled carbon nanotubes (CCNT) have
carrying out front-ranking research,
been synthesized on the carbon fibre
development of nano technologies and their
substrate. The necessary conditions for
applications, human resource development and
coiled nanostructure growth have been international collaborations. During the year
investigated. Catalyst coated and CCNT 2012-13, Nano Mission continued to record
coated substrates have been characte- expansion in its activities and break new
rized. CCNTs, carbon microcoils (CMCs) grounds in promotion of R&D and human
and CNCs of varying length, diameter and resource development in the field of
coil pitch have been synthesized. Carbon nanotechnology. In brief, the objectives of the
nanocoil coated carbon fibre reinforced Nano-Mission are:
composites shall be useful for structural
● Basic Research Promotion: Funding of
applications.
basic research by individual scientists
and/or groups of scientists and creation
NANO MISSION OF INDIA of centres of excellence for pursuing
studies leading to fundamental
The Government of India, in May 2007, understanding of matter that enables
approved the launch of a Mission on Nano control and manipulation at the
Science and Technology (Nano Mission) with an nanoscale.
allocation of Rs. 1000 crore for 5 years. The
● Infrastructure Development for Nano
Department of Science and Technology is the
Science & Technology Research:
nodal agency for implementing the Nano
Investigations on the nano scale require
Mission. Capacity-building in this upcoming area
expensive equipments like Optical
of research will be of utmost importance for the
Tweezer, Nano Indentor, Transmission
Nano Mission so that India emerges as a global
Electron Microscope (TEM), Atomic Force
knowledge-hub in this field. For this, research
Microscope (AFM), Scanning Tunneling
on fundamental aspects of Nano Science and
Microscope (STM), Matrix Assisted Laser
training of large number of manpower will
Desorption Time of Flight Mass
receive prime attention. In addition, the Nano
Spectrometer (MALDI TOF MS),
Mission will strive for development of products
Microarray Spotter & Scanner etc. For
and processes for national development,
optimal use of expensive and sophisticated
especially in areas of national relevance like safe
facilities, it is proposed to establish a chain
drinking water, materials development, sensors
of shared facilities across the country.
development, drug delivery, etc. For this, it will
forge linkages between educational and research ● Nano Applications and Technology
institutions and industry and promote Public Development Programmes: To catalyze
Private Partnerships. Applications and Technology Deve-
lopment Programmes leading to products
The Nano Mission has been structured in a
and devices, the Mission proposes to
such fashion so as to achieve synergy between
promote application-oriented R&D
the national research efforts of various agencies
Projects, establish Nano Applications and
in Nano Science and Technology and launch
Technology Development Centres, Nano-
new programmes in a concerted fashion.
Technology Business Incubators, etc.
International collaborative research efforts will
Special effort will be made to involve the
also be made wherever required.
industrial sector into nanotechnology
Objectives R&D directly or through Public Private
Partnership (PPP) ventures.
The Nano Mission is an umbrella programme
for capacity building which envisages the overall ● Human Resource Development: The

Chronicle IAS Academy [7]

 Mission shall focus on providing effective Significant results have been reported from
education and training to researchers and these projects. Extensive studies on
professionals in diversified fields so that a semiconductor nanocrystals have been
genuine interdisciplinary culture for undertaken in several projects. As semiconductor
nanoscale science, engineering and particles exhibit size-dependent properties like
technology can emerge. It is planned to scaling of the energy gap and corresponding
launch M.Sc./M.Tech. programmes, change in the optical properties, they are
create national and overseas post-doctoral considered as technologically important
fellowships, chairs in universities, etc. materials. Several projects have looked into
● International Collaborations: Apart from synthesis of important nanomaterials like CdSe,
exploratory visits of scientists, organization ZnO etc. Size-tunable, organic-soluble
of joint workshops and conferences and industrially important CdS, AlN, GaN and InN
joint research projects, it is also planned nanocrystals have been prepared by employing
to facilitate access to sophisticated research novel solvothermal techniques and some soft
facilities abroad, establish joint centres of chemical routes. In another project, it has been
excellence and forge academia-industry reported that flow of various liquids and gases
partnerships at the international level over a mat of single-walled carbon nanotube
wherever required and desirable. (SWNT) bundles generate electrical signals. This
discovery has several important technological
Organizational Structure implications. It may have several applications
The Nano Mission is a Mission-Mode in the fields of biotechnology, pharmaceutical
programme within DST. At the apex level, it is industry, drug delivery, intelligent pneumatic
steered by a Nano Mission Council (NMC). It is systems, information technology etc.
currently being chaired by Professor CNR Rao. (ii) Strengthening of Characterization
The technical programmes of the Nano Mission Facilities: Research with nanoscale
are also being guided by two advisory groups, systems requires sophisticated
viz. the Nano Science Advisory Group (NSAG) characterization facilities which were not
and the Nano Applications and Technology available in our institutions. Realizing this
Advisory Group (NATAG). gap, DST has established an array of
DST Activities in Nano Science and sophisticated equipments such as Optical
Technology: The Nano Mission is the second Tweezer, Nano Indentor, Transmission
phase of DST activities in Nano Science and Electron Microscope (TEM), Atomic Force
Technology. DST, in October 2001, had Microscope (AFM), Scanning Tunneling
launched a modest programme in Nano Science Microscope (STM), Matrix Assisted Laser
and Technology, called the Nano Science and Desorption Time of Flight Mass
Technology Initiative (NSTI), and the Nano Spectrometer (MALDI TOF MS),
Mission is the successor of this programme. Microarray Spotter & Scanner etc. at
various locations in the country.
Under NSTI, and since May 2007 under the
Nano Mission, DST has supported a number of (iii) Establishment of Centres of Excellence:
activities in Nano Science and Technology. A Eleven Units/Core Groups on Nano
brief resume of those programmes is being given Science have been sanctioned across the
below: country. These centres of excellence house
some of the more sophisticated facilities
(i) Support for R & D Projects to Individual
for sharing with other scientists in the
Scientists: Around 130 projects have been
region and would help in promoting
supported for individual scientists mainly
scientific research on nanoscale systems
working on fundamental scientific aspects
in a decentralized fashion.
of nanoscale systems. Investigations are
aimed at looking into new and improved Seven Centres for Nano Technology focusing
understanding of the relationship between on development of specific applications have
structure of various nanoscale systems and also been established. In addition, a centre of
their properties using sophisticated excellence on Computational Materials Science
characterization facilities. has also been established at JNCASR, Bangalore.

Chronicle IAS Academy [8]

 (iv) International Collaborative Programmes: schools, support for post-doctoral fellow-
As expected, Nano Science and ships through JNCASR, Bangalore, etc.
Technology has prominently figured in all
S&T cooperation agreements entered into
THE FUTURE SCOPE OF
in recent times. Joint R&D activities are
already taking place with several NANOTECHNOLOGY
countries. For example, with the US, 1. Creating better Computing Devices:
several projects have been funded on Perhaps more than anywhere else, the
CNTs in composites, nano-encapsulating promise of nanotechnology is causing
materials, etc. under the DST-NSF excitement in the computer chip and
programme. Several Indo-US Workshops memory business for very good reasons:
have also been held. With Germany, a it would enable computer designers to
programme on engineered functional break through the Moore’s law. Intel co-
nano-composites has started which would founder Dr Gordon Moore predicted that
focus on magnetic properties, magnetic
technology that went into integrated
interactions, gas-solid interactions
circuits would roughly double in power
including catalysis, etc. Programmes are
every 12-18 months. That is why the latest
also on with Italy, EU and developing
Pentium 4 chip clocking 2.4 gigahertz, is
with Taiwan. ARCI, Hyderabad, which
about 25,000 times faster and packs
is an autonomous institute of DST has
25,000 as many transistors on board as
active programme in nano-material with
the first ever microchip, the Intel 4004 of
institutions in Russia, Ukraine, Japan,
Germany and USA. 1971. Physicists say: it will take at least
10 years at the most before we are able to
(v) Joint Institution-Industry Linked dream up a bigger, better, microchip on
Projects and Public Private Partnership that slab of silicon. And that is where
activities: In order to focus the existing nano-technology comes in: the ability to
expertise in research and educational fashion electronic circuits-entire
institutions towards developing products computers-with atom-length nanowires or
and processes of direct interest to nanotubes, made from carbon rather than
industries, DST, under the Nano silicon, may allow computer hardware to
Programme, has promoted Joint progress beyond physical barriers of
Institution-Industry Linked Projects and Moore’s Law.
some other Public Private Partnership
activities in recent times. In many of these 2. Nano Biology: The demand for
activities, the industrial partners have also environmentally sustainable industrial,
invested financially in the project. These agricultural, aquacultural, and silvi-
activities will help us to simultaneously cultural technologies is bringing about a
leverage the scientific knowledge-base shift from chemical-based solutions to
existing in our research and educational biological based ones.
institutions and the commercial vision of 3. Nano Medicine: Nanotechnology would
our industry to generate competitive build fleets of computer- controlled
technologies leading to products and molecular tools (called nanobots or cell
devices. Six such projects have received machines) much smaller than a human
financial support so far. cell and built with the accuracy and
(vi) Human Resource Development in Nano precision of drug molecules. If you get a
cold or have contracted AIDS, you’d just
Science & Technology: In order to train
drink a teaspoon of liquid that contained
and nurture human resource in the area
an army of molecule-sized nanobots
of Nano Science and Technology, a
programmed to enter your body’s cells
number of activities have already been
and fight viruses.
undertaken; for example, organization of
national and international conferences, 4. Nanotechnology and Ecology:
national review meetings and advanced Nanotechnology has the potential of

Chronicle IAS Academy [9]

 making our environment cleaner. For from titanium versus a diamondoid
instance, if you make plastic with composite material, it is estimated that
nanotechnology, you can feed stocks of single stage to orbit transportation costs
pure elements like carbon, hydrogen, and would drop (in one scenario) from $16,000
oxygen and force individual atoms / kg to $3.54 / kg.
deliberately into chemical bonds without
intermediate steps that produce all those NEW DEVELOPMENTS
environmentally unfriendly waste
products. Bio-Nanotechnology
5. Nanotechnology in Agriculture: With The biological and medical research scientists
nanotechnology, growing food crops to have exploited the unique properties of nano-
feed the hungry and starving would no materials for various applications e.g., contrast
longer be a problem. Higher crop yields agents for cell imaging and therapeutics for
could be achieved by intensive greenhouse treating cancer. Biological tests measuring the
agriculture. Plants grown in controlled presence or activity of selected substances become
environments (with optimal temperature, quicker, more sensitive and more flexible when
CO2, water, nutrients, etc) can grow year certain nanoscale particles are put to work as
round and produce an order of magnitude tags or labels. Magnetic nano-particles, bound
more food per acre than the existing to a suitable antibody, are used to label specific
methods. molecules, structures or microorganisms. For
6. Nanotechnology and Use of Natural example, gold nano-particles tagged with short
Resources: Rather than felling forests to segments of DNA can be used for detection of
make paper, we’d have assemblers genetic sequence in a sample.
synthesizing paper. Rather than using oil The overall drug consumption and side-
for energy, we’d have molecule-sized solar effects can be lowered significantly by depositing
cells mixed into road pavement. With such the active agent in the morbid region only and
solar nanocells, a sunny patch of in no higher dose than needed. This highly
pavement of a few hundred square miles selective approach reduces costs and human
could generate enough energy for a sufferings. They could hold small drug molecules
country of the size of India. transporting them to the desired location. Some
7. Nano Economy: Nanotechnology will potentially important applications include
fundamentally revolutionize most cancer treatment with iron nano-particles or gold
industries. Assemblers will be able to build shells.
copies of themselves quickly, using Nanotechnology can help to reproduce or to
inexpensive materials, little energy, and repair damaged tissue. This so called “tissue
no human labour, a single assembler can engineering” makes use of artificially stimulated
be used to make billions. cell proliferation by using suitable nanomaterial-
8. Nanoweapons: The weapons of the based scaffolds and growth factors. Tissue
nanogeneration will not only be much engineering might replace today’s conventional
smaller than today’s, but much deadlier. treatments, e.g. transplantation of organs or
Distributed surveillance systems could artificial implants.
quickly identify arms buildups and
Chemistry & Environment
offensive weapons deployments, while
lighter, stronger, and smarter materials Chemical catalysis and filtration techniques
controlled by powerful molecular are two prominent examples where
computers would let us make radically nanotechnology already plays a role. The
improved versions of existing weapons. synthesis provides novel materials with tailored
features and chemical properties e.g. nano-
9. Nanotechnology in Space Science: Space
particles with a distinct chemical surrounding
transportation costs could be reduced
or specific optical properties. Chemical catalysis
considerably with nanotechnology.
benefits especially from nano-particles, due to
Comparing structural components made

Chronicle IAS Academy [10]

 the extremely large surface of volume ratio. The Information & Communication
application potential of nano-particles in
catalysis ranges from fuel cell to catalytic Current high-technology production
converters and photocatalytic devices. Catalysis processes are based on traditional top down
is also important for the production of chemicals. strategies, where nanotechnology has already
A strong influence of nano-chemistry on waste- been introduced silently. The critical length scale
water treatment, air purification and energy of integrated circuits is already at the nanoscale
storage devices is to be expected. Mechanical or (50 nm and below) regarding the gate length of
chemical methods can be used for effective transistors in CPUs or DRAM devices. In the
filtration techniques. Nano-porous membranes modern communication technology, traditional
are suitable for a mechanical filtration with analog electrical devices are increasingly
extremely small pores smaller than 10 nm. replaced by optical or optoelectronic devices due
Nanofiltration is mainly used for the removal of to their enormous bandwidth and capacity,
ions or the separation of different fluids. respectively. Two promising examples are
photonic crystals and quantum dots.
Energy
Consumer Goods
The most advanced nanotechnology projects
related to energy are: storage, conversion, Nanotechnology is already impacting the
manufacturing improvements by reducing field of consumer goods, providing products with
materials and process rates, energy saving e.g. novel functions ranging from easy-to-clean to
by better thermal insulation, and enhanced scratch-resistant. Already in use are different
renewable energy sources. Nanotechnology can nano-particle improved products. Nano-
help to increase the efficiency of Solar light technology can be applied in the production,
conversion by specifically designed processing, safety and packaging of food. A
nanostructures. The degree of efficiency of nanocomposite coating process could improve
combustion engines is not higher than 15-20 per food packaging by placing anti-microbial agents
cent at the moment. Nanotechnology can directly on the surface of the coated film.
improve combustion by designing specific Nanocomposites could increase or decrease gas
catalysts with maximized surface area. permeability of different fillers as is needed for
different products. They can also improve the
The most prominent nanostructured material mechanical and heat-resistance properties and
in fuel cells is the catalyst consisting of carbon lower the oxygen transmission rate.
supported noble metal particles with diameters
of 1- 5 nm. Suitable materials for hydrogen The first sunglasses using protective and
storage contain a large number of small antireflective ultrathin polymer coatings are in
nanosized pores. Many nanostructured the market. For optics, nanotechnology also offers
materials like nanotubes, zeolites or alanates are scratch resistant coatings based on
under investigation. Nanotechnology can nanocomposites. The use of nanofibres makes
contribute to the further reduction of combustion clothes water and stain-repellent or wrinkle-free.
engine pollutants by nanoporous filters, which Textiles with a nanotechnological finish can be
can clean the exhaust mechanically, by catalytic washed less frequently and at lower
converters based on nanoscale noble metal temperatures. Nanotechnology has been used to
particles or by catalytic coatings on cylinder integrate tiny carbon particles membrane &
walls and catalytic nano-particles as additives guarantee full-surface protection from
for fuels. electrostatic charges for the wearer.

Chronicle IAS Academy [11]

 be coal- or lignite-fired, and only 3.4 GWe Company under the Companies Act, 1956 in
nuclear, including two imported 1000 MWe units September 1987 with the objective of operating
planned at one site and two indigenous 700 the atomic power stations and implementing the
MWe units at another. By 2032 total installed atomic power projects for generation of
capacity of 700 GWe is planned to meet 7-9 per electricity in pursuance of the schemes and
cent GDP growth, and this was to include 63 programmes of the Government of India under
GWe nuclear. The OECD’s International Energy the Atomic Energy Act, 1962.
Agency predicts that India will need some $1600
NPCIL is a MOU signing Company with
billion investment in power generation,
DAE. Presently NPCIL is operating twenty
transmission and distribution to 2035.
nuclear power plants with total installed
India has a vision of becoming a world leader capacity of 4780 MWe. NPCIL has achieved
in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast more than 379 reactor years of safe nuclear

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reactors and thorium fuel cycle. Per capita power power plant operating experience. NPCIL

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consumption in India is around 400 Kwh/yr, operates plants with motto ‘Safety first and
which is much below the world average Production next’. The reactor fleet comprises two
consumption of 2400 Kwh/yr. Thus, massive Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs) and eighteen

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increase in the power generation to match the Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)
world average consumption is needed in the including one 100 MW PHWR at Rajasthan
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coming years to enhance the overall national which is owned by DAE, Government of India.
growth rate. The estimated coal deposits in India Currently it has six reactors under various stages
is 206 billion tonnes (6% of the world coal of construction totaling 4800 MW capacity out
reserves) and the distribution of conventional of which one reactor of 1000 MW capacity at
energy sources in India is: Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu, has attained
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Coal & Lignite – 68% criticality on July 13, 2013.

Natural gases - 12% The target since about 2004 has been for
nuclear power to provide 20 GWe by 2020, but
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Petroleum – 12 %
A
in 2007 the Prime Minister referred to this as
This is far from adequate to meet the "modest" and capable of being doubled with the
increasing future energy demands. Moreover the opening up of International cooperation.
high sulphur and ash content in Indian coal However, it is evident that even the 20 GWe
creates environmental and ecological problems. target would require substantial uranium
Hydel power generation capacity is limited and imports. In June 2009, NPCIL said it aimed for
depends on erratic monsoon. 60 GWe nuclear by 2032, including 40 GWe of
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PWR capacity and 7 GWe of new PHWR

India has consciously proceeded to explore capacity, all fuelled by imported uranium. This
the possibility of tapping nuclear energy for the 2032 target was reiterated late in 2010 and
purpose of power generation and the Atomic increased to 63 GWe in 2011. But in December
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Energy Act was framed and implemented with

2011 Parliament was told that more realistic
the set objectives of using two naturally
targets were 14,600 MWe by 2020-21 and 27,500
occurring elements Uranium and Thorium
MWe by 2032, relative to present 4780 MWe and
having good potential to be utilized as nuclear
10,080 MWe when reactors under construction
fuel in Indian Nuclear Power Reactors. The
were on line in 2017.
estimated natural deposits of these elements in
India are: The XII Plan envisages start of work on eight
● Natural Uranium deposits - 70,000 tonnes indigenous 700 MW Pressurised Heavy Water
Reactors (PHWRs), two 500 MW Fast Breeder
● Thorium deposits - 3,60,000 tonnes Reactors (FBRs), one 300 MW Advanced Heavy
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited Water Reactor (AHWR) and eight Light Water
(NPCIL) is a Public Sector Enterprise under the Reactors of 1000 MW or higher capacity with
administrative control of the Department of foreign technical cooperation. These nuclear
Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India. The power reactors are expected to be completed
Company was registered as a Public Limited progressively in the XIII and XIV Plans. The

Chronicle IAS Academy [17]

 power generation increased by 23 percent lifespans extended to 2033/36. Kakrapar unit 1
during the year 2011-12, 32455 Million KWh as was repaired and upgraded in 2009, as was
against 26472 Million KWh during the year Narora-2.
2010-11. The net export increased by 24 percent
Following the Fukushima accident in March
during the year 2011-12, 29123 Million KWh as
2011, four NPCIL taskforces evaluated the
against 23533 Million KWh during the year
situation in India and in an interim report in July
2010-11.
made recommendations for safety improvements
The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd of the Tarapur BWRs and each PHWR type. The
(NPCIL) is responsible for design, construction, report of a high-level committee appointed by
commissioning and operation of thermal nuclear the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)
power plants. Its funding model is 70% equity was submitted at the end of August 2011, saying

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and 30% debt financing. However, it is aiming that the Tarapur and Madras plants needed

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to involve other public sector and private some supplementary provisions to cope with
corporations in future nuclear power expansion, major disasters. The two Tarapur BWRs have
notably National Thermal Power Corporation already been upgraded to ensure continuous
(NTPC). NTPC is largely government-owned, cooling of the reactor during prolonged station

EM
and the 1962 Atomic Energy Act prohibits
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private control of nuclear power generation. containment structures, but further work is
recommended. Madras needs enhanced flood
The two Tarapur 160 MWe Boiling Water
defences in case of tsunamis higher than that in
Reactors (BWRs) built by GE on a turnkey
2004. The prototype fast breeder reactor (PFR)
contract before the advent of the Nuclear Non-
under construction next door at Kalpakkam has
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Proliferation Treaty were originally 200 MWe.
defences which are already sufficiently high,
They were down-rated due to recurrent
following some flooding of the site in 2004.
problems but have run well since. They have been
using imported enriched uranium and are under
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NUCLEAR PROGRAMME
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
A
safeguards. However, late in 2004 Russia The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
deferred to the Nuclear Suppliers’ Group and (TIFR), which came up in 1945, provided the base
declined to supply further uranium for them. and the structure for organising the early efforts
They underwent six months refurbishment over for India’s nuclear energy programme. Hence,
2005-06, and in March 2006 Russia agreed to it is also referred to as the ‘cradle of Indian
resume fuel supply. In December 2008 a $700 nuclear power programme.’
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million contract with Rosatom was announced

for continued uranium supply to them. The horrors of the nuclear holocaust
unleashed in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were
The two small Canadian (Candu) PHWRs followed by a new vista of atoms for peace, of
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at Rajasthan nuclear power plant started up in nuclear power generation, transformations in

1972 and 1980, and are also under safeguards. agriculture and medical diagnostics and therapy
Rajasthan-1 was down-rated early in its life and for using atomic Science & Technology. It’s in
has operated very little since 2002 due to ongoing this context that in April 1948, the Atomic
problems and has been shut down since 2004 as Energy Bill was enacted with the primary
the government considers its future. Rajasthan- objective to develop, control and use atomic
2 was restarted in September 2009 after major energy for peaceful purposes, a clear departure
refurbishment, and running on imported from the policy followed by the nuclear powers,
uranium at full rated power. often forgotten or ignored by the international
community. India under the leadership of
The 220 MWe PHWRs (202 MWe net) were
Jawaharlal Nehru was dedicated to the peaceful
indigenously designed and constructed by
uses of atomic energy but it couldn’t wish away
NPCIL, based on a Canadian design. The
the lurking threat posed by nuclear weapons,
Kalpakkam (MAPS) reactors were refurbished
and so per force Indian option for nuclear
in 2002-03 and 2004-05 and their capacity
weapons was kept open. For both areas peaceful
restored to 220 MWe gross (from 170). Much of
applications and the weapon option, Dr. Homi
the core of each reactor was replaced, and the

[18] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Bhabha, the architect of India’s nuclear first nuclear power plant to obtain ISO-
programme, had a clear strategic vision and 14001 accreditation for its environment
priorities. management system.
Subsequently, India’s Atomic Energy ● Kakrapar Atomic Power Station was the
Commission was set up on 10 August, 1948 first Indian nuclear power plant to
under the Chairmanship of Dr. Bhabha with the undergo a peer review by an international
sole objective of formulation and implementation team of experts from the World
of the governmental policy relating to the Association of Nuclear Operators
development of nuclear power in India. In fact, (WANO). All other Indian nuclear power
India was among the first eight countries of the stations are also peer reviewed by WANO.
world to have an Atomic Energy Commission.
The next step was the establishment of the N-POWER POLICY OF INDIA

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Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) with

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Bhabha as its Secretary in August 1954, the In the beginning of the Eighth Plan, it was
objectives of which, inter alia included: aimed to produce 10,000 MW of power by 2000,
to increase the nuclear power share in total
(i) Proper use of the latest technologies for
power production. In order to achieve the above

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the development of nuclear power.
objective, the Central Government established
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(ii) To ensure nuclear power generation
against global economic competition by
Nuclear Power Corporation to coordinate
various nuclear power organisations, in 1989.
exploiting natural resources. But, it was unlikely to achieve this objective,
(iii) Establishment of nuclear power reactors particularly after the disintegration of USSR, and
and safe use of radioactive substances. then the target was reduced to 9000 MW.
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However, still it was not possible in the near
(iv) Production of nuclear power for meeting
future. Indian scientists have planned to achieve
the defence requirements of India.
the above target in future through the
(v) To understand the role of nuclear power development of three generations of nuclear
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A
in economic development. reactors:
(vi) To carry out programmes on isotopes and (a) 1st Generation Nuclear Reactors: These
radiation technology. are the pressurized Heavy Water reactors
with the capacity of 235 HW each and
(vii) To support basic research in nuclear
energy and other frontier areas of science. use natural uranium as fuel. Plutonium is
the by-product.
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Thus, India directed its nuclear power

(b) 2nd Generation Nuclear Reactors: These
programme for attaining self -reliance on a broad
are planned to be the fast breeder reactors
front which comprised mineral exploration and
with the capacity of 500 HW each, and
mining, extraction of uranium and zirconium,
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use Plutonium, a by-product of the first

designing and fabricating reactor control
generation reactors, as the fuel.
systems, production of heavy water, making
radio isotopes and promoting their use in (c) 3rd Generation Nuclear Reactors: These
agriculture, medicine, etc., safety of nuclear are also planned to be the fast breeder
power reactors and monitoring the radiation level reactors. This generation reactors will use
for ensuring a safe limit. fuel derived from second generation
Key milestones of Nuclear Programme: reactors and convert more Thorium into
Uranium-233. So, the plan is to use vast
● Tarapur units 3&4, at Tarapur in Thorium deposits found in India.
Maharashtra, are the largest in India with
a capacity of 540 MW for each unit. India has established 1st generation nuclear
● Rajasthan Atomic Power Station, reactors at Tarapur, Kalpakkam, Narora and
Rawatbhata in Rajasthan, is India’s first Rawatbhata. Other two reactors of this grade
nuclear park. are located at Kakrapar (Gujarat) and Kaiga
(Karnataka). The first generation reactors have
● Narora Atomic Power Station is Asia’s

Chronicle IAS Academy [19]

 reached commercial stage. The generation of to its higher density and thermal
power from nuclear energy began in India in conductivity.
1969 with the commissioning of first atomic
power station at Tarapore (TAPS). Why India Prefers Fast Breeders : A fast
breeder reactor (FBR) breeds more fuel than it
The second generation reactor has consumes that is it produces more plutonium than
commenced with the successful operation of the it consumes while generating power. For a
Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) named uranium scarce country like India, it is an
KAMINI (Kalpakkam Mini Reactor) in 1985 at attractive technology. Plutonium produced in
the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research the thermal reactors as spent fuel is ideally
(IGCAR) at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. suitable as the fuel material for use in the FBR
due to its high fission neutron yield. Since the

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The Kalpakkam reactor is the world’s first number of neutrons produced in plutonium
fast-breeder reactor. The reactor has successfully

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fission is high, it helps to produce more
used the mixed uranium - plutonium carbide plutonium from uranium (U-238) used as a
fuel, hitherto untried elsewhere. Progress has blanket surrounding the fuel core of the FBR. FBR
also been made in the third generation reactor also consumes less uranium and that too very

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with the successful development of a U-233 effectively. While the thermal reactors exploit
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based fuel. Work has commenced on the design
of an Advanced Heavy Water Reactor which
will make the use of thorium in power
only 0.6 per cent of uranium, a FBR utilises 70-
75 per cent of it. Thus, it leaves less radioactive
waste to dispose of. In fact, many scientists in
generation. India prefer FBRs for this reason.
Chief Features of FBTR
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RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
(i) The nuclear chain reaction in the uranium
fuel in a thermal reactor is sustained by The Atomic Energy Commission, set up in
slowing down the neutrons by a 1948, is responsible for formulating the policy
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moderator. The chain reaction in FBTR is for all atomic energy activities in the country.
A
sustained by fast neutrons. The number The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is the
of neutrons released per fission is more executive agency for implementing the atomic
compared to that of thermal reactor. The energy programme. There are three public sector
extra neutrons are available for absorption undertakings under the administrative control
in uranium-238 to transform it to fissile of DAE:
plutonium-239.
1. Indian Rare Earth’s Limited (IREL) which
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(ii) In a thermal reactor typically only about has set up the Orissa Sands Complex
1-2 per cent of the natural uranium is (OSCOM) at Chhattarpur for enhancing
utilized whereas in FBTRs, the utilization Rare Earth’s production,
is increased 60 to 70 times.
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2. Uranium Corporation of India Limited

(iii) Considering the nuclear and heat transfer (UCIL) with mines at Jaduguda in
properties of various possible coolants, Jharkhand, and
Sodium has been universally accepted as
the coolant for FBTRs. In Thermal reactors 3. Electronics Corporation of India Limited
water is used as a coolant. (ECIL) which manufactures electronic
instruments and equipment for nuclear as
(iv) The radioactivity released to the
well as non-nuclear users.
atmosphere and the radiation dose
received by the operating personnel in The Nuclear Power Corporation of DAE is
FBTRs has been much less compared to responsible for design, construction and
the water control reactors. operation of nuclear power stations. Presently,
(v) FBTR is based on the design of the Nuclear Power Corporation is operating 20
Rhapsodic reactor, France. nuclear power reactors, including 18 PHWRs
(vi) The fuel used to FBTR is mixed carbide of and 2 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR), with an
plutonium and natural uranium. The installed capacity of 4,780 MW; six nuclear
carbide fuel has higher breeding ratio due power reactors with an aggregate capacity of

[20] Chronicle IAS Academy

 4,800 MW are under different stages of Atomic Energy Act-1962. It lays down safety
construction. The Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) standards, and frames rules and regulations in
at Hyderabad fabricates nuclear fuel for the regard to regulatory and safety requirements.
power reactors. NPCIL indigenously scaling up
The Fast Breeder Test Reactor with a design
the capacity of PHWRs from 220 MW to 700 MW
capacity of 40 MW thermal and 13 MW electrical
and attaining and sustaining over 90%
power, attained its first criticality on October 18,
availability factor. NPCIL Power Stations are:
1985 at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
■ Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS) Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam. The fuel used
■ Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS) in FBTR is a mixed carbide of plutonium and
natural uranium, the proportion of the latter
■ Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS) being 30 per cent. Such a composition is being
■ Kaiga Generating Station used for the first time in the world. The

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technology for the fabrication of the fuel was
■ Narora Atomic Power Station (NAPS)

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developed at the Radio-metallurgy Division of
■ Kakrapar Atomic Power Station (KAPS) BARC. The next step after FBTR is to design and
construct a Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor
There are three research reactors in operation (PFBR) of 500 MW capacity. The 500 MW size

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at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre at
C IC of reactor has been selected to match the size of
Trombay. These are: APSARA (one MW
coal fired thermal power stations and PHWRs.
swimming pool reactor), CIRUS (40 MW thermal
The PFBR will be cooked by sodium as in the
reactor) and DHRUVA (100 MW thermal
case of FBTR, but it will use the pool-type concept
reactor). A mini pool 30 KW reactor KAMINI,
which is more favoured in recent times due to
containing Uranium -233 fuel is in an advanced
better safety and more operating experience.
stage of construction at Kalpakkam. Plutonium-
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fuelled fast reactor PURNIMA-I was built at
Trombay in 1972. Later in 1984, it was modified RESEARCH CENTRES
as a homogenous reactor PURNIMA-II which Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC),
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uses Uranium-233 fuel in the form of a solution. Trombay, Mumbai, is the country’s premier
A
PURNIMA-III is the modified form of nuclear research facility. BARC is a multi-
PURNIMA-II to test the KAMINI core. disciplinary research centre with extensive
PURNIMA-III is a zero-energy reactor and is the infrastructure for advanced research and
world’s first experimental research reactor to use development covering the entire spectrum of
Uranium-233 as fuel. nuclear science, engineering and related areas.
The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic BARC's core mandate is to sustain peaceful
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Research (IGCAR) at Kalpakkam carries out applications of nuclear energy, primarily for
research and development pertaining to latest power generation.
reactor technology. The major facility at the
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
centre is the indigenously constructed 40 MW
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(TIFR), Mumbai, is a national centre for

and 13 MW Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR).
advanced research in nuclear physics,
The FBTR is a major step in the country’s nuclear
power programme. It has paved the way for mathematics and high - energy physics and
using our vast thorium resources. The Centre for astrophysics.
Advanced Technology was set up in 1984 at Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
Indore to spearhead research in high technology (IGCAR) is a multi-disciplinary R & D centre
fields such as fusion, lasers and accelerators. The mainly concerned with FBR technology and
country’s first heavy ion accelerator of medium associated fuel cycle, material sciences, fuel
energy capacity called, ‘Pelletron’ has become reprocessing and sodium technology. IGCAR has
fully operational at the TIFR. Pelletron is based developed several relatively cheap and highly
on a tandem Van De Graff accelerator with 14 sensitive electrochemical sensors to continuously
million volts terminal voltage. monitor the purity of liquid sodium used as
The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board coolant in FBR. As a next step, design of 500
(AERB), set up in 1985, carries out regulatory MWe proto-type has been completed and the
and safety functions as envisaged under the same is undergoing review.

Chronicle IAS Academy [21]

 Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT), Purnima I, Purnima II, Purnima III and Zerlina.
established in Indore in 1984, focuses its research India’s first research reactor, APSARA, a 1 MWe
on lasers, accelerators, high vacuum technology ‘swimming pool’ type, built indigenously,
and cryogenics. It has set up two synchrotron became operational at Trombay in 1956,
Radiation Sources (INDUS - 1 & INDUS -2) and heralding a novel nuclear age in Asia. ZERLINA,
developed versatile lasers such as 70 W and 400 a zero energy tank type research reactor was built
W carbon dioxide lasers for industrial, medical indigenously in 1961. CIRUS, a tank type reactor
and research applications. The Variable Energy of 40 MWe was commissioned at Tarapur in
Cyclotron Centre (VECC) at Kolkata is a national 1960 with the assistance of Canada, for
facility for advanced research in nuclear physics, engineering experimental work with facilities for
nuclear chemistry, production of novel medical materials testing and radioisotope production.
isotopes and study of radiation damage in reactor

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Moreover, with the commissioning of PURNIMA
materials. The Seismic Activity Monitoring I & PURNIMA II respectively in 1972 and 1984,

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Station at Gauribidanur near Bengaluru helps India achieved an important milestone in its ‘fast
in detection and identification of underground
reactor’ programme. DHRUVA, an indigenous
nuclear explosions anywhere in the world.
tank type 100 MWe reactor went into operation

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Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced in 1985 for research in advanced nuclear physics
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Technology (RRCAT) was established in May,
1984 by the Department of Atomic Energy, India
to expand the activities carried out at Bhabha
and for isotope production. PURNIMA III, also
a tank type reactor of 1 MWe attained criticality
on 9 November, 1990. The sole objective of this
Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, in reactor is to conduct mock up studies for Kamini
two frontline areas of science and technology reactor.
namely Lasers and Accelerators. Since then, the
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centre has rapidly grown into a premier institute The construction of KAMINI (Kalpakkam
for research and development in lasers, Mini Reactor) in 1996 marks an important land
accelerators and their applications. mark in India’s endeavour at mastering uranium
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-233-based nuclear fuel. Designed on the basis

A
Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC) of Rapsody reactor of France, it is the only
is a premier R & D unit of the Department of reactor in the world which uses U-233 as fuel. It
Atomic Energy, Government of India and one will be mainly used to study the highly
of the constituent institutions of Homi Bhabha radioactive fuel elements which are discharged
National Institute. This Centre is dedicated to from FBTR at Kalpakkam. This will help in the
carry out frontier research and development in development of high performance plutonium
the fields of Accelerator Science & Technology,
fuel elements for the proto-type FBR to be built
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Nuclear Science (Theoretical and Experimental),

in the next century. It is also called the ‘Zero -
Material Science, Computer Science &
Power’ reactor as the amount of electricity
Technology and in other relevant areas.
produced (40 MWe) is consumed by the reactor
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Atomic Minerals Directorate for Explo- itself for research purposes. The design for India’s
ration and Research’s prime mandate is to next generation of reactors, called Advanced
identify and evaluate uranium resources Heavy Water Reactors (AHWRs), which will
required for the successful implementation of employ thorium-based fuel, has already been
Atomic Energy programme of the country. For prepared.
implementing this important task investigations
are taken up across the length and breadth of BARC has developed comprehensive
the country from Regional Exploration & technology for industrial operations in fuel
Research Centres located at New Delhi , reprocessing and waste management.
Bengaluru, Jamshedpur, Shillong, Jaipur, Reprocessing plants are operational in Trombay
Nagpur and Hyderabad (Headquarter & South and Tarapur. The first fuel reprocessing plant at
Central Region). Trombay is based on hot - cell technology. A
comprehensive waste management technology
INDIAN RESEARCH REACTORS for handling and safe disposal of all types of
waste, generated in nuclear industries, has been
There are seven Research Reactors working perfected by the centre. It has also undertaken
in the country named as: Apsara, Cirus, Kamini, the recent studies of high-energy-density systems.

[22] Chronicle IAS Academy

 BARC has been able to develop a plasma - based India under the provisions of the Atomic Energy
aerosol generator and also achieved plasma Act,1962. It is a forerunner of commercial fast
coatings of alumina on carbon steel moulds. breeder power reactors in the country and in this
Moreover, BARC has also been working on the regard, it marks a major step in the country’s
pulsed electron beam system and has developed efforts to ensuring energy security through the
Kilo Ampere Linear Injector (KALI - 5000) which use of atomic energy.
finds applications in high power microwave
BHAVINI is currently constructing a
generation and pulsed intense neutron source.
500MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)
BARC has undertaken an extensive at Kalpakkam. The PFBR is the forerunner of the
programme on laser cooling and trapping of future Fast Breeder Reactors and is expected to
atoms. Very recently, it has been able to develop provide energy security to the country. The PFBR
the atom laser, which uses coherent beam of is being built with the design and technology

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massive bosons. The objectives of this programme developed at the Indira Gandhi Centre for

Y
are two-fold: first, to study the ultra-high Atomic Research (IGCAR) located at
resolution spectrospectry for fundamental Kalpakkam. The four other PSUs under the
physics experiments and second, experiments Department are Nuclear Power Corporation of

EM
leading to Bose - Einstein condensation. India Ltd. (NPCIL), Electronics Corporation of
Following the global interest in fabricating high India Ltd. (ECIL), Indian Rare Earths Ltd. (IREL)
C IC
temperature superconducting materials, BARC and Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. (UCIL).
has succeeded in synthesising a single phase
The engineering design and technical
superconducting compound of bismuth-lead-
expertise for BHAVINI will be drawn from the
calcium-strontium and copper oxide with a
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
temperature equivalent to 120K.
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(IGCAR), which has accumulated over two
India’s tokamak, Aditya, was installed in decades of experience in fast breeder reactor
1989 at the Institute of Plasma Research in technology. NPCIL, which will take 5% of the
Gandhinagar, Ahmedabad. It is an indigenous equity in the new company, will provide the
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A
effort, which can generate plasma at 5 million expertise for project management to enable
degree Celsius. The discoveries made by Aditya timely construction and commissioning of the
in plasma research and edge turbulence have project. NPCIL is at present operating 20 nuclear
had an impact on the world fusion research power reactors and setting up 3 more at different
programme. locations in the country.
BHAVINI When completed, PFBR would produce
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electricity through recycle of plutonium and

The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in depleted uranium recovered from the spent fuel
its Golden Jubilee Year has set up its fifth public of Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors being
sector unit -Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam operated by NPCIL.
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Limited (BHAVINI). BHAVINI is a wholly

owned Enterprise of Government of India under URANIUM FUEL CYCLE
the administrative control of the Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE) incorporated on 22nd DAE’s Nuclear Fuel Complex at Hyderabad
October 2003 as Public Limited Company. It undertakes refining and conversion of uranium,
was incorporated under the Companies Act which is received as magnesium diuranate
1956, with an authorized share capital of Rs. (yellow cake) and refined. The main 400 t/yr
5000 crore, BHAVINI is responsible for the plant fabricates PHWR fuel (which is
construction and commissioning of the country’s unenriched). A small (25 t/yr) fabrication plant
first 500 MWe Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) project makes fuel for the Tarapur BWRs from imported
at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu and to pursue enriched (2.66% U-235) uranium. Depleted
construction, commissioning, operation and uranium oxide fuel pellets (from reprocessed
uranium) and thorium oxide pellets are also
maintenance of subsequent Fast Breeder Reactors
made for PHWR fuel bundles. Mixed carbide fuel
for generation of electricity in pursuance of the
for FBTR was first fabricated by Bhabha Atomic
schemes and programmes of Government of
Research Centre (BARC) in 1979.

Chronicle IAS Academy [23]

 Heavy water is supplied by DAE’s Heavy In February 2012, 152,000 tU was claimed by
Water Board, and the seven plants are working DAE. Accordingly, India expects to import an
at capacity due to the current building increasing proportion of its uranium fuel needs.
programme. In 2013 it was importing about 40% of uranium
requirements.
A very small enrichment plant - insufficient
even for the Tarapur reactors - is operated by Mining and processing of uranium is carried
DAE’s Rare Materials Plant at Ratnahalli near out by Uranium Corporation of India Ltd
Mysore. Some centrifuge R&D is undertaken by (UCIL), a subsidiary of the Department of
BARC. Atomic Energy (DAE). The Company is having
its mining operations at Bagjata, Jaduguda,
Fuel fabrication is by the Nuclear Fuel
Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamdih underground

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Complex in Hyderabad, which is setting up a
mines and Banduhurang opencast mines and
new 500 t/yr PHWR fuel plant at Rawatbhata

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upcoming mining projects at Mohuldih in East
in Rajasthan, to serve the larger new reactors.
Singhbhum district of Jharkhand and at
Each 700 MWe reactor is said to need 125 t/yr
Tummalapalle mining project in Andhra
of fuel. The company is proposing joint ventures
Pradesh and Gogi mining project at Karnataka.

EM
with US, French and Russian companies to
C IC It has two processing plants at Jaduguda and
produce fuel for these reactors.
Turamdih and an upcoming milling project at
Reprocessing: Used fuel from the civil Tummalepalle in Andra Pradesh. KPM opencast
PHWRs is reprocessed by Bhabha Atomic mining and milling project at Meghalaya is in
Research Centre (BARC) at Trombay, Tarapur the pipeline.
and Kalpakkam to extract reactor-grade
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Plans were announced to invest almost US$
plutonium for use in the fast breeder reactors.
700 million to open further mines in Jharkhand
Small plants at each site were supplemented by
at Banduhurang, Bagjata and Mohuldih; in
a new Kalpakkam plant of some 100 t/yr
Meghalaya at Domiasiat-Mawthabah (with a
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commissioned in 1998, and this is being extended

mill) and in Andhra Pradesh at Lambapur-
A
to reprocess FBTR carbide fuel. Apart from this
Peddagattu (with mill 50km away at Seripally),
all reprocessing uses the Purex process. Further
both in Nalgonda district.
capacity is being built at Tarapur and
Kalpakkam, to come on line by 2010. India will In Jharkhand, Banduhurang is India’s first
reprocess the used fuel from the Kudankulam open cut mine and was commissioned in 2007.
reactors and will keep the plutonium. Bagjata is underground and was opened in
December 2008, though there had been earlier
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In 2003, a facility was commissioned at

small operations 1986-91. A new mill at
Kalpakkam to reprocess mixed carbide fuel using
Turamdih in Jharkhand, with 3000 t/day
an advanced Purex process. Future FBRs will also
capacity, was commissioned in 2008. The
have these facilities co-located.
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Mohuldih underground mine of Jharkhand has

The PFBR and the next four FBRs to be been developed as a modern underground mine
commissioned by 2020 will use oxide fuel. After and was commissioned by Chairman &
that it is expected that metal fuel with higher Managing Director, UCIL on 17th April 2012.
breeding capability will be introduced and burn- UCIL now operates six underground mines and
up is intended to increase from 100 to 200 GWd/t. one openpit mine in the state of Jharkhand in
addition to an underground mine in Andhra
Under plans for the India-specific safeguards
Pradesh.
to be administered by the IAEA in relation to
the civil-military separation plan several fuel In Andhra Pradesh there are three kinds of
fabrication facilities will come under safeguards. uranium mineralisation in the Cuddapah Basin,
including unconformity-related deposits in the
Uranium Resources in India
north of it. The northern Lambapur-Peddagattu
India's uranium resources are modest, with project in Nalgonda district 110 km southeast of
102,600 tonnes U as reasonably assured Hyderabad has environmental clearance for one
resources (RAR) and 37,200 tonnes as inferred open cut and three small underground mines
resources in situ (to $260/kgU) at January 2011. (based on some 6000 tU resources at about

[24] Chronicle IAS Academy

 0.1%U) but faces local opposition. In August UCIL to explore for uranium in Assam.
2007 the government approved a new US$ 270
Uranium Imports
million underground mine and mill at
Tummalapalle near Pulivendula in Kadapa By December 2008, Russia's Rosatom and
district, at the south end of the Basin and 300 Areva from France had contracted to supply
km south of Hyderabad, for commissioning has uranium for power generation, while
been initiated. A further northern deposit near Kazakhstan, Brazil and South Africa were
Lambapur-Peddagattu is Koppunuru, in Guntur preparing to do so. The Russian agreement was
district. to provide fuel for PHWRs as well as the two
small Tarapur reactors, the Areva agreement was
In Meghalaya, close to the Bangladesh
border in the West Khasi Hills, the Domiasiat- to supply 300 tU.
Mawthabah mine project (near Nongbah-Jynrin)

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In February 2009 the actual Russian contract
is in a high rainfall area and has also faced was signed with TVEL to supply 2000 tonnes of

Y
longstanding local opposition partly related to natural uranium fuel pellets for PHWRs over ten
land acquisition issues but also fanned by a years, costing $780 million, and 58 tonnes of low-
campaign of fear mongering. For this reason, and enriched fuel pellets for the Tarapur reactors.
despite clear state government support in

EM
The Areva shipment arrived in June 2009. RAPS-
principle, UCIL does not yet have approval from
C IC
the state government for the open cut mine at
Kylleng-Pyndeng-Shahiong (also known as
2 became the first PHWR to be fuelled with
imported uranium, followed by units 5 & 6 there.

Kylleng-Pyndengshohiong-Mawthabah and In January 2009 NPCIL signed a

formerly as Domiasiat) though pre-project memorandum of understanding with
development has been authorised on 422 ha. Kazatomprom for supply of 2100 tonnes of
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uranium concentrate over six years and a
India's Forest and Environment Ministry has
feasibility study on building Indian PHWR
given clearance to the UCIL to start uranium
reactors in Kazakhstan. Under this agreement,
mining in Meghalaya. UCIL has earmarked an
300 tonnes of natural uranium was to come from
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investment of $229-million to develop the

A
Kazakhstan in the 2010-11 year. Another 210 t
uranium reserves in Meghalaya. However, the
would come from Russia. A further agreement
environmental approval in December 2007 for
in April 2011 covered 2100 tonnes by 2014. In
a proposed uranium mine and processing plant
March 2013 both countries agreed to extend the
here and for the Nongstin mine has been
civil nuclear cooperation agreement past 2014.
reported. There is sometimes violent opposition
by NGOs to uranium mine development in the In September 2009 India signed uranium
West Khasi Hills, including at Domiasiat and
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supply and nuclear cooperation agreements with

Wakhyn, which have estimated resources of 9500 Namibia and Mongolia. In March 2010 Russia
tU and 4000 tU respectively. Tyrnai is a smaller offered India a stake in the Elkon uranium
deposit in the area. The status and geography of mining development in its Sakha Republic, and
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all these is not known. The clearance comes agreed on a joint venture with ARMZ Uranium
despite decades of opposition to uranium Holding Co. In 2013 negotiations for a bilateral
exploration and mining in the province by locals supply treaty with Australia were to commence.
claiming to be victims of radiation and toxic
waste resulting from exploratory drillings by In July 2010 the Minister for S&T reported
UCIL. However, plans for an opencast mine to that India had received 868 tU from France,
extract the mineral from the West Khasi Hills Russia & Kazakhstan in the year to date: 300 tU
have been hanging fire since 1992 on fears of natural uranium concentrate from Areva, 58 tU
radiation and environmental hazards. as enriched UO2 pellets from Areva, 210 tU as
natural uranium oxide pellets from TVEL and
However, India has reserves of 290,000
300 tU as natural uranium from Kazatomprom.
tonnes of thorium - about one quarter of the
world total, and these are intended to fuel its As of August 2010 the DAE said that seven
nuclear power programme for a longer-term. reactors (1400 MWe) were using imported fuel
and working at full power, nine reactors (2630
In September 2009 state-owned oil company
MWe) used domestic uranium.
ONGC proposed to form a joint venture with

Chronicle IAS Academy [25]

 THORIUM FUEL CYCLE range of experiments, to help validate the reactor
physics of the AHWR through computer codes
DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
and in generating nuclear data about materials,
The long-term goal of India’s nuclear such as thorium-uranium 233 based fuel, which
programme has been to develop an advanced have not been extensively used in the past.” It
heavy-water thorium cycle. The first stage of this has all the components of the AHWR’s core
employs the PHWRs fuelled by natural uranium, including fuel and moderator, and can be
and light water reactors, to produce plutonium. operated in different modes with various kinds
of fuel in different configurations.
Stage 2 uses fast neutron reactors burning
the plutonium to breed U-233 from thorium. The In 2009 the AEC announced some features
of the 300 MWe AHWR – It is mainly a thorium-

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blanket around the core will have uranium as
well as thorium, so that further plutonium fuelled reactor with several advanced passive

Y
(ideally high-fissile Pu) is produced as well as safety features to enable meeting next generation
the U-233. safety requirements such as three days grace
period for operator response, elimination of the
Then in Stage 3, Advanced Heavy Water need for exclusion zone beyond the plant

EM
Reactors (AHWRs) burn the U-233 from stage 2 boundary, 100-year design life, and high level
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and this plutonium with thorium, getting about
two thirds of their power from thorium.
of fault tolerance. The advanced safety
characteristics have been verified in a series of
experiments carried out in full-scale test facilities.
In 2002 the regulatory authority issued
approval to start construction of a 500 MWe Also, per unit of energy produced, the amount
prototype fast breeder reactor at Kalpakkam and of long-lived minor actinides generated is nearly
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is in an advanced stage of completion, half of that produced in current generation Light
construction by BHAVINI. The unit is expected Water Reactors. Importantly, a high level of
to be operational in 2013, fuelled with uranium- radioactivity in the fissile and fertile materials
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plutonium oxide (the reactor-grade Pu being recovered from the used fuel of AHWR, and their
A
from its existing PHWRs). It will have a blanket isotopic composition, preclude the use of these
with thorium and uranium to breed fissile U- materials for nuclear weapons.
233 and plutonium respectively. This will take At the same time the AEC announced an
India’s ambitious thorium programme to stage LEU version of the AHWR. This will use low-
2, and set the scene for eventual full utilisation enriched uranium plus thorium as a fuel,
of the country’s abundant thorium to fuel dispensing with the plutonium input. About
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reactors. Six more such 500 MWe fast reactors 39% of the power will come from thorium (via
have been announced for construction, four of in situ conversion to U-233, of two thirds in
them by 2020. AHWR), and burn-up will be 64 GWd/t.
Uranium enrichment level will be 19.75%, giving
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So far about one tonne of thorium oxide fuel

has been irradiated experimentally in PHWR 4.21% average fissile content of the U-Th fuel.
reactors and has reprocessed and some of this Plutonium production will be less than in light
has been reprocessed, according to BARC. A water reactors, and the fissile proportion will be
reprocessing centre for thorium fuels is being set less and the Pu-238 portion three times as high,
up at Kalpakkam. giving inherent proliferation resistance. The
design is intended for overseas sales, and the
Design is largely complete for the first 300 AEC says that “the reactor is manageable with
MWe AHWR, though no site has yet been modest industrial infrastructure within the reach
announced. It will have vertical pressure tubes of developing countries”.
in which the light water coolant under high
pressure will boil, circulation being by NUCLEAR ENERGY PARKS IN INDIA
convection. A large heat sink - “Gravity-driven
water pool” - with 7000 cubic metres of water is In line with past practice such as at the eight-
near the top of the reactor building. In April unit Rajasthan nuclear plant, NPCIL intends to
2008 an AHWR critical facility was set up five more "Nuclear Energy Parks", each
commissioned at BARC “to conduct a wide with a capacity for up to eight new-generation

[26] Chronicle IAS Academy

 reactors of 1,000 MWe, six reactors of 1600 MWe preliminary environmental assessment for the
or simply 10,000 MWe at a single location. By whole project was completed in January 2013.
2032, 40-45 GWe would be provided from these Westinghouse signed an agreement with NPCIL
five. NPCIL says it is confident of being able to in June 2012 to launch negotiations for an early
start work by 2012 on at least four new reactors works agreement which was expected in a few
at all four sites designated for imported plants. months. The first stage of two units is due on
The new energy parks are to be: line in 2019-20, the others to 2024.
Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu: Three more Kovvada in Andhra Pradesh will host six
pairs of Russian VVER units, making 9200 MWe. GE Hitachi ESBWR units. GE Hitachi said in June
Environmental approval has been given for the 2012 that it expected soon to complete an early
first four. A general framework agreement for works agreement with NPCIL to set terms for
construction of units 3 & 4 was planned to be obtaining approval from the Government for the

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signed in mid 2010, with equipment supply and project. Site preparation is under way, and a

Y
service contracts soon after, but these were preliminary environmental assessment is being
delayed on account of supplier liability questions, prepared.
with India wanting the units to come under its
Haripur in West Bengal to host four or six
2010 vendor liability law. In July 2012 Russia

EM
further Russian VVER-1200 units, making 4800
agreed to $3.5 billion in export financing for
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units 3 & 4, to cover 85% of their cost. A further
credit line of $800 million is available to cover
MWe. NPCIL says it has initiated pre-project
activities here, with groundbreaking planned for
2012. However, strong local opposition led the
fuel supplies. The credit lines carry interest at West Bengal government to reject the proposal
4% pa and would be repayable over 14 years in August 2011, and change of site to Orissa state
and 4 years respectively, from one year after the has been suggested
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start of power generation. The Indian
government said it expected to take up the credit Kumharia and Gorakhpur in the
offers to the value of $3.06 billion, about 53% of Fatehabad district in Haryana is earmarked for
four indigenous 700 MWe PHWR units and the
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the $5.78 billion estimated total project cost. In

A
March 2013 cabinet approved construction of AEC had approved the state's proposal for a 2800
units 3 & 4, and site work began. MWe nuclear power plant.

Jaitapur in Maharashtra: An EUR 7 billion Bargi or Chuttka in Madhya Pradesh is

framework agreement with Areva was signed also designated for two indigenous 700 MWe
in December 2010 for the first two EPR reactors, PHWR units.
along with 25 years supply of fuel. Environ- At Markandi (Pati Sonapur) in Orissa there
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mental approval has been given for these, and are plans for up to 6000 MWe of PWR capacity.
site work was planned to start in 2011 with a
view to 2013 for construction. In July 2009 Areva NUKE COMMAND
submitted a bid to NPCIL to build the first two
C

EPR units, which will have Alstom turbine- Formalizing the country’s nuclear command
generators, accounting for about 30% of the total and control structure, India’s cabinet on January
EUR 7 billion plant cost. The site will host six 4, 2003 decided to place ultimate control of the
units, providing 9600 MWe. Areva now hopes country’s nuclear forces in the hands of a
to obtain export credit financing and sign a political council chaired by then Prime Minister
contract which would put the first two units on Atal Behari Vajpayee. It took more than four and
line in 2020 and 2021. In 2013 negotiations a half years after declaring itself a nuclear
continued and the government said it expected weapon power, to make public a set of political
the cost of the first two units to be 1,20,000 crore principles and administrative arrangement to
($21 billion). manage its arsenal of atomic weapons. The
Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) met to
Mithi Virdi in Gujarat will host up to six review progress in implementing India’s nuclear
Westinghouse AP1000 units built in three doctrine, the state of readiness of its strategic
satages. NPCIL says it has initiated pre-project forces and the procedures for their command
activities here, with groundbreaking in 2012. A and control.

Chronicle IAS Academy [27]

 Through the CCS statement the government individual capacity based on military advice,
has tried to share information on some key especially when one is going to act only in
aspects of its nuclear weapons management retaliation.
with the Indian public and the world. Although
The security committee expressed
the broad outline of India’s nuclear doctrine was
satisfaction with the overall preparedness of its
known for a while, the nature of its command
arsenal and reiterated the decision to limit India’s
and control over the atomic arsenal had
capability to a “credible minimum deterrent” and
remained unclear.
the commitment to use nuclear weapons only in
N-Command Structure: The government retaliation. India also reaffirmed that it would
accounted the formation of “Nuclear Command not use the weapons against non-nuclear
Authority” (NCA) which will be solely weapon powers. Against nuclear weapon

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responsible for ordering a nuclear strike. The powers, its strategy would remain on the policy
of “No-first use”. India is committed not to use

Y
NCA will have two bodies: Political council and
Executive council. nuclear arms first in any conflict, but only in
retaliation for a nuclear attack against it or its
Political Council: Political council is the sole forces. But in the event of a major attack

EM
body, which can authorize the use of nuclear involving chemical or biological weapons, India
C IC
weapon. It represents the civilian leadership. As
the first among equal, the Prime Minister will
symbolically have his finger on the nuclear
reserves the right to use nuclear weapons.
The nuclear draft doctrine was released by
the National Security Advisory Board set up after
button. An alternative chain of command has
also been approved to take charge in case the May 1998 tests, in August 1999. The
announcement has confirmed the essence of that
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command chain is disturbed in any way. It has
draft as official policy. The only new element in
not been made public besides the Prime Minister,
the doctrine is the interesting caveat it has
as the chairperson, the political council will also
introduced to its No-first use posture. The United
be represented by the Home Minister, the
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States has retained a similar option to prevent

Defence Minister, the Foreign Minister and the
A
nations with chemical and biological weapons
Finance Minister.
from assuming that the use of these weapons of
Executive Council: The executive council mass destruction will not invite a nuclear
chaired by the National Security Advisor to the response. While India has consciously chosen not
Prime Minister, will provide inputs for decision to use nuclear weapons first, it warned potential
making by the National command Authority and adversaries that the nuclear retaliation to a first
execute the directives given to it by the Political strike will be massive and designed to inflict
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council. The real strength of the council has not unacceptable damage.
been announced by the Cabinet Committee on Alternative N-Command: India has more
Security. than one alternative nuclear command structure
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The cabinet committee also approved the in place. In the event of a surprise attack, these
appointment of a “Commander-in-chief, alternative command authorities will be in
strategic forces command” who would be position to take retaliatory action. An alternative
responsible for the administration of the nuclear command puts the final touch to India’s nuclear
force. It will be the custodian of all nuclear deterrent. If an enemy knows that such a
weapons and delivery systems. It will also command exists, but does not know where they
formulate the strategy for retaliation and advise are; this will deter a surprise attack.
the chiefs of staff committee and actually fire the India may have two or three alternative
nukes. A senior officer of the Indian Air Force is command structures. Both the location and
expected to be nominated to the post. Once the nature of the command will remain a secret. This
“chief of staff committee” receives inputs from will never be disclosed. The succession ladder of
the strategic forces command, it will provide various officials had also been worked out.
military advice to the political council of the During the Kargil war and mobilization crisis,
nuclear command authority through the India had made adequate preparation on the
executive council. The final decision has to be nuclear front and could have retaliated if there
made by the leader (Prime Minister) in his had been any need.

[28] Chronicle IAS Academy

 The civil chain of command has also not been effective intelligence; (d) comprehensive
made public. In a setting in which the Prime planning and training for operations; (e) the will
Minister who has been vested with the sole to employ nuclear forces and weapons. Special
authority over the nuclear button, is unable to focus is to be given to ensure nuclear safety and
function, conventional nuclear command and improvement in R&D programmes to sustain
control hierarchy demands that the next in the technological advancements. India will focus on
line of succession be identified. In the US, for developing a strong disaster control system and
instance, where the President has authority over continue to strive for making a nuclear-free
the nuclear button, the structure identifies 16 world. In a nutshell, India’s nuclear doctrine
others in the line of succession. firmly adheres to a tolerant defensive policy as
well as explicitly reflects its nuclear prowess. The
India has also full-fledged delivery system.
doctrine is indicative of the endurance, tolerance,
There are multiple agencies tasked with

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strength and greatness of a nuclear India.
responsibility on nuclear issues. Some of these,

Y
like the Department of Atomic Energy are Civil
NUCLEAR POWER VISION
and some, like the Army’s 333 Missiles Group,
are military. India’s Prithvi and Agni missiles and The vision 2020 document of 2000 and the

EM
its Mi ranges and Sukoi-30 fighter bombers are Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007) say nuclear
nuclear capable. A sea based nuclear deterrent
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will be ready once India has submarine-launched
power is India’s insurance for energy security.
“Aggressively build capabilities and capacity in
cruise missile. nuclear power to progressively raise its share in
India’s fuel mix,” according to the Tenth Five
INDIAN NUCLEAR DRAFT Year Plan that advocated for more nuclear
energy. To achieve this, it suggested partial
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The acquisition of an advanced nuclear privatisation of nuclear power generation and
weapon capability also necessitated the market financing for projects.
formulation of a nuclear draft. It was in this
context that the Indian Nuclear Draft was India would need 500,000 MW of power by
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A
released by National Security Advisory Board of 2050. It has a vast coal reserve, but there are
India on 17 Aug. 1999. This document prepared doubts whether all of it can be mined. The
on India’s nuclear doctrine was designed for country’s hydrocarbon resources won’t last long
informal public debate, details regarding the and it will become even more dependent on
configuration of nuclear forces and targeting imports. India would have harnessed all its
schemes flowing from the broad framework. hydroelectricity resources by 2050, and non-
conventional energy is unlikely to be cost-
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The prime objective of India is to achieve effective. A mix of all these resources could help
economic, political, social, scientific and but DAE feels that nuclear energy is the only
technological developments within a peaceful solution, which can fill the gap between
and democratic framework. It considers India’s demands and supply. The government agrees
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security as an integral component of its and has decided to cut the estimated 70 per cent
development process. The notion adheres firmly contribution of coal-based power to 62 per cent
to its continued commitment to certain principles by 2020 and compensate the shortfall through
- (a) to restrict the purpose of nuclear weapons nuclear stations. The government wants that by
to credible minimum deterrence against nuclear 2050 nuclear reactors supply 25 per cent of
weapons only and not visualizing use of these India’s total power production. The DAE is sure
weapons in nuclear scenario and (b) to have that it can generate 10,000 MW of nuclear power
commitment to a policy of ‘no first use’. by 2010 and 20,000 MW by 2020. Its confidence
is based on an indigenous technology, which
The draft earnestly seeks to enhance the
recycles spent fuel of thermal nuclear reactors
credibility of India’s nuclear deterrence and
to get plutonium for FBRs. The Nuclear Power
acquire adequate retaliatory capability.
Corporation says it will generate 1,300 MW
Deterrence requires that India maintains: (a)
during the Tenth Five Year Plan and 4,660 MW
sufficient survivable and prepared nuclear force;
during Eleventh Plan to make up for the first
(b) robust communication & control system; (c)
10,000 MW target within the next six years.

Chronicle IAS Academy [29]

 Three-stage nuclear energy programme aims 2. A design of the nuclear facilities under
at generating 20,000 MW of electricity by 2020. control.
The programme will begin by using scarce 3. Provision of records.
uranium in the first stage to thorium in the third
stage by 2020. 4. Reports to the agency based upon the
records.
Stage-I: Twenty-one pressurized heavy
water reactors using natural uranium to generate 5. Onsite inspection by the agency.
10,000 MW of power by 2010. Structural weaknesses of the NPT
Stage-II: Fast breeder reactors (FBRs) will use (a) The imbalance in the distribution of
plutonium extracted from spent uranium fuel of obligations and benefits between the

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Stage-I to generate 10,000 MW by 2020, which nuclear weapon powers and the non nuclear
means 12.5 per cent of India’s electricity need. weapon states.

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Stage III: Advanced heavy water reactors (b) The omission of any reference to the
to use plutonium and new fuel of thorium. vertical proliferation in the treaty.

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India’s 3,00,000 tonnes of thorium supposed to (c) The technological denials embodied in the
produce electricity for 400 years.
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safeguards (Art. III), right to peaceful uses
NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION of nuclear energy (Art. IV) and right to
peaceful nuclear explosives PNEs (Art. V).
As per the current definition, Nuclear
proliferation includes, apart from acquisition of (d) The omission of nuclear security
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nuclear weapons, the acquisition of fissionable guarantees to non-nuclear weapon states
materials like plutonium and enriched uranium in the Treaty.
and also the ability to produce them. (e) The fragile UN resolution 225 on nuclear
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Nuclear proliferation can be accomplished security guarantee in 1968.

A
in two ways, horizontal and vertical. If non- Political Instrument Devised by the Super
nuclear regions or states become nuclear powers, Powers
it is the case of horizontal proliferation. A nuclear
(a) To perpetuate the status quo and the
power state when goes on adding to its nuclear
hierarchical character of the international
arsenal, the case is of vertical proliferation. The
system.
emphasis on horizontal proliferation totally
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ignoring vertical proliferation has been the real (b) To restrict the nuclear club membership
cause of confrontation between the nuclear only to five nuclear weapon powers.
haves and have-nots. (c) To establish a clientele relationship
between the nuclear powers and the non-
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In order to check the horizontal proliferation

nuclear haves devised various inspection and nuclear powers.
control mechanisms based on bilateral accord. (d) To sharply divide nations into the nuclear
But this was not enough as the fear that nations haves and nuclear have nots.
may strop around and buy their materials from
states that imposed the least control and even (e) To establish technological hegemony over
no controls prompted them to establish the developing nations.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to N-safety & Regulation
preserve the “long term and safe” foreign
markets for its nuclear materials and technology The nuclear safety in India is regulated by
and international system of safeguards. an autonomous body, the Atomic Energy
Regulatory Board (AERB) established under
This control system consists of five basic
section 27 of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 on 15
elements:
Nov. 1983. Moreover, in recent times, environ-
1. An agreement between the agency and mental issues have assumed significance mainly
the recipient country regarding control for ensuring sustainable development in all
provisions. spheres. The AERB has issued the guidelines

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 fixing the upper limit for radiation annually under the treaty. It tantamounts to nuclear
which is 30 mSv. Besides, the BARC has set up a hegemony creating an inequality in the world
Health Safety and Environmental Group in the order. India says that it can become a part of
premises of every nuclear power plant to monitor treaty, but first there should be complete
radiation. disarmament. Despite several resolutions and
treaties, no substantial development has been
In fact, the AERB together with the Safety done by NWS (Nuclear Weapon States). It is a
Review Committee for Operating Plants matter of great concern to India’s security, as
(SARCOP) is responsible for regulating the safety we have China and Pakistan as nuclear states.
standards. In order to deal with nuclear The government of India is in favour of
emergencies, a Crisis Management Group expansion of exclusive club of nuclear power by
(CMG) was constituted in 1987, which comprises induction of it. So, NPT has to be genuine to its
members from organisations like NPCIL, BARC, goal, either we have a range of states having

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AERB, HWB (Heavy Water Board) etc. With a nuclear war heads to balance global power or

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view to managing the crises situation, the DAE all the countries of the world adopt a totally
has identified an Exclusion Zone of 1.6 km nuclear weapons free world. However, in the
surrounding the power station where habitation light of recent tests of China and France and
has been prohibited. Besides, an area of 16 km proposed NMD of US and its withdrawal from

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radius around the plant has been identified as ABM 1972, there is not much light of hope.
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the EPZ.
INDIA AND CTBT
INDIA AND NPT
The another very substantial step, to get a
After the end of the Second World War, the world in which there would be supremacy of
world which had experienced the catastrophic
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five countries rather than a world free from
effect of atom bomb embarked on the path not nuclear weapon, was taken in June 1995 in
to have a repetition of nuclear history. After Geneva to adopt the Comprehensive Test Ban
eighteen years of futile discussions a series of Treaty (CTBT). The treaty contains a
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substantial developments got its origin and its comprehensive plan to prohibit nuclear tests. The
A
manifestation came in the form of Partial Test treaty comprised 154 countries and verified by
Ban Treaty, 1963. The process yielded a very 51 countries before a review conference was held
important and relevant treaty in 1968 known as in Vienna in October 1999. The ratification of
Non proliferation Treaty or NTP. This treaty America and China is required to get the treaty
prohibits further spread of nuclear weapons. The into force. But these countries have not yet
decade of 1970, which was declared as ratified it and one of the bizarre points is that
Disarmament Decade by U.N. had an auspicious
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America, that preaches other countries to sign

starting by having 43 countries ratifying the it, didn’t get it approved by its Senate as they
treaty. Thus the treaty came into force on 5 treated it as against the interest of US security.
March, 1970. A total of 190 parties joined the Russia signed the treaty on Sep 24, 1996 and
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Treaty, with five states being recognized as ratified it on Jun 30, 2000.
nuclear-weapon states: the United States, Russia,
the United Kingdom, France, and China. The 44 countries, including five nuclear
powers are considered as having nuclear
The Indian stand is that it has refused to sign capability. Out of 44, 41 countries have signed
the treaty on the ground that it is discriminatory it, while 26 countries have ratified it. As of June
and unequal. The official stand of India over the 2013, 159 states had ratified the CTBT and
treaty was in crystal clear manner aircasted by another 24 states signed it but not ratified it.
Mr. K. P. Unnikrishnan in U. N. General There are 183 signatories of CTBT.
Assembly that India would not subscribe to a
treaty of an attitude that divides the world into India opposes the treaty on the ground that
haves and have-nots. it doesn’t speak about destruction of existing
nuclear stockpiles. The treaty doesn’t contain any
The NPT professes for a world where five time bound destruction programme. So
countries would have nuclear weapons and rest according to the treaty, disarmament of the
of the countries would be devoid of it as the weapons would solely depend on the attitude
proliferations of nuclear weapon is prohibited of NWS. The recent tests of China, France and

Chronicle IAS Academy [31]

 US, underground subcritical tests of Nevada put Minister Manmohan Singh issued a Joint
a huge question mark on their intention. The Statement resolving to establish a global
recent development in US Congress and partnership between their two countries through
withdrawal from ABM clearly shows that future increased cooperation on numerous economic,
is by no way going to be nuclear free world. security, and global issues. In this Joint Statement,
In such a condition India says that her the Bush Administration dubbed India a
security concerns demand nuclear power, as we responsible state with advanced nuclear
have in our surrounding nuclear China and technology and vowed to achieve full civilian
Pakistan. India is willing to have a consensus nuclear energy cooperation with India.
over CTBT in country only if some of her The Joint Statement acknowledged that
demands are conceded. It demands that India India’s nuclear programme has both a military

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should be included in the club of NWS and and a civilian component. Both sides agreed that

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countries having nuclear arms should go for a the purpose was not to constrain India’s strategic
comprehensive programme for disarmament programme but to enable resumption of full civil
with specific time bound resolution. nuclear energy cooperation in order to enhance
global energy and environmental security. Such

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But no proper attention is given to our
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demands and India has refused to become a cooperation was predicated on the assumption
party of the treaty. The self moratorium imposed that any international civil nuclear energy
by India is an example of our stand that, our cooperation (including by the US) offered to
nuclear programme is only for alternate purpose. India in the civilian sector should, firstly, not be
The commitment becomes more authentic with diverted away from civilian purposes, and
our proposal of ‘no first use’ which was rejected secondly, should not be transferred from India
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by Pakistan. to third countries without safeguards. These
concepts will be reflected in the Safeguards
India has been voicing since 1960 in favour Agreement to be negotiated by India with
of disarmament and has actively participated in
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International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

A
it. But it is against a global order where some
countries have weapons of mass destruction and Principles which Guided India
the rest are at their mercy. We aspire for a world • Credible, feasible, and implementable in
based on equality and respect for each other. a transparent manner;
India believes in peace based on cooperation, and • Consistent with India’s national security
not under the cover of fear. and R&D requirements as well as not
prejudicial to the three-stage nuclear
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India’s Objections
programme in India;
● No time frame to denuclearize the five
(US, UK, France, Russia, China) nuclear • Must be cost effective in its
weapon States. implementation; and
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● Treaty allows withdrawal without • Must be acceptable to Parliament and

sanction of signatories. public opinion.
● The entry into force clause is Based on these principles, India will:
unacceptable.
Include in the civilian list only those facilities
● The Treaty is not comprehensive; it bans offered for safeguards that, after separation, will
nuclear tests but allows computer no longer be engaged in activities of strategic
“simulations. significance.
The overarching criterion would be a
INDO-US NUCLEAR DEAL judgement whether subjecting a facility to IAEA
In the current scenario, the then President safeguards would impact adversely on India’s
George W. Bush called India a natural partner national security.
of the United States and his Administration However, a facility will be excluded from the
sought to assist India’s rise as a major power. In civilian list if it is located in a larger hub of
July 2005, President Bush and Indian Prime strategic significance, notwithstanding the fact

[32] Chronicle IAS Academy

 that it may not be normally engaged in activities offered for safeguards.
of strategic significance. ● The heavy water production plants at
A civilian facility would therefore, be one that Thal, Tuticorin and Hazira are proposed
India has determined not to be relevant to its to be designated for civilian use. We do
strategic programme. not consider these plants as relevant for
safeguards purposes.
Taking the above into account, India, on the
basis of reciprocal action by the US, would like Downstream facilities:
to adopt the following approach:
The following downstream facilities would
Thermal Power Reactors: India will identify be identified and separated as civilian.
and offer for safeguards 14 thermal power ● India is willing to accept safeguards in
reactors between 2006 and 2014. This will

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the ‘campaign’ mode in respect of the
include the 4 presently safeguarded reactors Tarapur power reactor fuel reprocessing

Y
(TAPS 1&2, RAPS 1&2) and in addition KK 1&2 plant.
that are under construction and other PHWRs,
● The Tarapur and Rajasthan away from
each of a capacity of 220MW, will also be offered.
reactors’ spent fuel storage pools would

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Phasing of specific thermal power reactors, be made available for safeguards with
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being offered for safeguards would be indicated
separately by India. Such an offer would, in
appropriate phasing.
Research Facilities: India will declare the
effect, cover 14 out of the 22 thermal power
following facilities as civilian:
reactors in operation or currently under
construction to be placed under safeguards, and (a) Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
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would raise the total installed Thermal Power (b) Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre
capacity by MWs under safeguards from the (c) Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics
present 19% to 65% by 2014.
(d) Institute for Plasma Research
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Fast Breeder Reactors: India is not in a (e) Institute of Mathematics Science

A
position to accept safeguards on the Prototype (f) Institute of Physics
Fast Breeder Reactors (PFBR) and the Fast
Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR), both located at (g) Tata Memorial Centre
Kalpakkam. The Fast Breeder Programme is at (h) Board of Radiation and Isotope
the R&D stage and its technology will take time Technology
to mature and reach an advanced stage of (i) Harish Chandra Research Institute
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development.
These facilities are safeguards-irrelevant. It
Future Reactors: India has decided to place is our expectation that they will play a prominent
under safeguards all future civilian thermal role in international cooperation.
power reactors and civilian breeder reactors, and
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Safeguards
the Government of India retains the sole right to
determine such reactors as civilian. The United States has conveyed its
commitment to the reliable supply of fuel to
Research Reactors: India will permanently
India. Consistent with the July 18, 2005, Joint
shut down the CIRUS reactor. It will also be
Statement, the United States has also reaffirmed
prepared to shift the fuel core of the APSARA
its assurance to create the necessary conditions
reactor that was purchased from France outside
for India to have assured and full access to fuel
BARC and make the fuel core available to be
for its reactors.
placed under safeguards.
To further guard against any disruption of
Upstream facilities:
fuel supplies, the United States is prepared to
The following upstream facilities would be take the following additional steps:
identified and separated as civilian: (i) The United States is willing to incorporate
● List of those specific facilities in the assurances regarding fuel supply in the
nuclear fuel complex, which will be bilateral U.S.-India agreement on peaceful

Chronicle IAS Academy [33]

 uses of nuclear energy under Section 123 nuclear radiations can damage and cause
of the U.S. Atomic Energy Act, which irreparable damage to cells and in some cases
would be submitted to the U.S. Congress. even lead to death.
(ii) The United States will join India in The waste material produced during the
seeking to negotiate with the IAEA an various steps of the nuclear energy production
India-specific fuel supply agreement. is collectively known as nuclear wastes. These
are harmful nuclear radiations. If these
(iii) The United States will support an Indian radioactive wastes are dumped in garbage bins,
effort to develop a strategic reserve of they will emit nuclear radiations, and pose a
nuclear fuel to guard against any threat to the life of humans and animals. Also if
disruption of supply over the lifetime of they are dumped in rivers or sea, they will
India’s reactors.

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contaminate water and damage aquatic life. So,
(iv) If despite these arrangements, a disruption there is a great problem of disposal of nuclear

Y
of fuel supplies to India occurs, the United waste.
States and India would jointly convene a
group of friendly supplier countries like NUCLEAR WASTE MANAGEMENT

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Russia, France and the United Kingdom
No discussion on nuclear power is complete
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to pursue such measures as would restore
fuel supply to India.

In the light of the above understanding with

without consideration of safety and
environmental factors. These are issues of
legitimate concern to the public in the aftermath
the United States, an India-specific safeguards of the Chernobyl accident and because of the
agreement will be negotiated between India and alarming scenarios of nuclear power appearing
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the IAEA providing for safeguards to guard in the media. More than 99 per cent of the total
against withdrawal of safeguarded nuclear radioactivity in the entire nuclear fuel cycle is
material from civilian use at any time as well as generated from the fuel processing plants. To
providing for corrective measures that India may ensure that this highly radioactive waste stream
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does not pose any hazards to the environment,

A
take to ensure uninterrupted operation of its
civilian nuclear reactors in the event of disruption a three-stage approach has been adopted. First,
of foreign fuel supplies. Taking this into account, the waste will be incorporated in stable and inert
India will place its civilian nuclear facilities under solid matrices. The conditioned waste will then
India-specific safeguards in perpetuity and be placed in canisters and kept in a retrievable
negotiate an appropriate safeguards agreement store under cooling and constant surveillance.
to this end with the IAEA. This plan is in Ultimately, the canisters will be stored in suitable
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conformity with the commitments made to geological media.

Parliament.
A waste immobilization plant for
incorporating the high level radioactive wastes
NUCLEAR POLLUTION
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generated from the fuel processing plants is set

It is not only the use of fossil fuels that up along with the solid storage surveillance
pollutes our surroundings; even the use of facility of Tarapur. Immobilization involves
nuclear energy gives rise to pollutants and, verification of radioactive waste, which is coded
hence, pollutes our environment. In fact, the at underground disposal. The canisters in storage
pollution caused by the use of nuclear energy will be air-cooked by natural convection and
from fission process is much more damaging when the heat and the radioactivity in canisters
than the pollution caused by burning fossil fuels. decay to desired level, they will be transported
The fuels like U-235 are radio-active substances, to a suitable geological formation for ultimate
which keep on emitting some nuclear radiations storage. The work on identifying suitable
all the time. geological formations for ultimate disposal has
The dangerous nuclear radiations can enter been completed and a graveyard for storage of
into the environment by leakage from nuclear nuclear wastes has been established in Trombay.
reactors where fission of U-235 is going on. These

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 DEFENCE
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

The Supreme Command of the Armed stores, equipment and spares, planning
Forces vests with the President of India. The and control of departmental production
responsibility for national defence rests with the units of the Ordnance Factory Board and
Cabinet. This is discharged through the Ministry for Defence Public Sector Undertakings

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of Defence, which provides the policy (DPSUs).
framework and wherewithal to the Armed
• The Department of Defence Research and

Y
Forces to discharge their responsibilities in the
Development (DDR&D) is headed by a
context of the defence of the country. The
Secretary, who is also the Scientific
Defence Minister is the head of the Ministry of
Adviser to the Raksha Mantri. Its function

EM
Defence. The principal task of the Defence
is to advise the Government on scientific
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Ministry is to obtain policy directions of the
Government on all defence and security related
aspects of military equipment and logistics
and the formulation of research, design
matters and communicate them for
implementation to the Services Headquarters, and development plans for equipment
Inter-Services Organizations, Production used by the Services.
Establishments and Research and Development • The Department of Ex-Servicemen
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Organisations. It is also required to ensure Welfare (DESW) is headed by an
effective implementation of the Government•fs Additional Secretary and deals with all
policy directions and the execution of approved re-settlement, welfare and pensionary
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programmes within the allocated resources. matters of Ex-Servicemen.

A
Ministry of Defence comprises four Departments
viz. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENCE
• Department of Defence (DOD) RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
• Department of Defence Production (DDP)
The Indian Security is based on armed forces.
• Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare
The arms and ammunitions for these forces are
(DESW)
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provided by the Department of Defence

• Department of Defence Research & Research and Development. The department is
Development (DDR&D) dedicatedly working towards enhancing self-
reliance in Defence Systems. The Department
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Principal functions of all the Departments are

undertakes design & development leading to
as follows:
production of world class weapon systems and
• The Department of Defence (DOD) deals equipment in accordance with the expressed
with the Integrated Defence Staff (IDS) needs and the qualitative requirements laid down
and three Services and various Inter- by the three services. The Department is working
Service Organisations. It is also responsible in various areas of military technology which
for the defence budget, establishment include aeronautics, armaments, combat
matters, defence policy, matters relating vehicles, electronics, instrumentation
to Parliament, defence co-operation with engineering systems, missiles, materials, naval
foreign countries and co-ordination of all systems, advanced computing, simulation and
activities. life sciences.
• The Department of Defence Production Defence Research & Development
(DDP) is headed by a Secretary and deals Organisation (DRDO) works under Department
with matters pertaining to defence of Defence Research and Development of
production, indigenisation of imported

Chronicle IAS Academy [35]

 Ministry of Defence. DRDO is dedicatedly • Goa Shipyard Limited (GSL)
working towards enhancing self-reliance in
• Hindustan Shipyard Limited (HSL)
Defence Systems and undertakes design &
development leading to production of world • Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers
class weapon systems and equipment in Limited (GRSE)
accordance with the expressed needs and the • Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL)
qualitative requirements laid down by the three • Ordinance Factory Board (OFB)
services. DRDO is working in various areas of
• Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited (MIDHANI)
military technology which include aeronautics,
armaments, combat vehicles, electronics, In addition, the following organisations are
instrumentation engineering systems, missiles, also associated with the Department of Defence

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materials, naval systems, advanced computing, Production for the technical support:-
simulation and life sciences.

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• Directorate General of Quality Assurance
Department of Defence Production (DGQA)

The Department of Defence Production was • Directorate of Standardisation (DOS)

EM
set up in 1962, in the aftermath of the Chinese • Directorate General of Aeronautical
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aggression to create a self-reliant and self-
sufficient indigenous defence production base.
In November, 1965, Department of Defence •
Quality Assurance (DGAQA)
Directorate of Planning & Coordination
Supplies was created to forge linkages between (Dte. of P&C)
the civil industries and defence production units. • Defence Exhibition Organisation (DEO)
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The two departments were merged in December,
1984 into the Department of Defence Production • ?National Institute for Research &
and Supplies. The Department of Defence Development in Defence Shipbuilding
Production and Supplies has been renamed as (NIRDESH)
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Department of Defence Production w.e.f.

A
These Defence Production Units have
January, 2004.
become self reliant, progressively. Additional
Since 1962, 39 Ordnance factories have been capacities have been built up and new items have
set up and two projects, coming up at Nalanda been productionised. These include the main
in Bihar and Korwa in U.P. Their capacities battle tank Arjun, the Advanced Light
have been augmented and modernised Helicopter (ALH) and a range of 155 mm
selectively keeping in mind the emerging ammunition.
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requirements of the Armed Forces. All the

Ordnance Factories and Defence Public Sector Defence Research and Development
Undertaking (DPSUs) are engaged in the task Organisation (DRDO)
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of manufacture of equipment and stores for Providing a solid base to the national security
Defence Services. The products manufactured system, Defence Research and Development
include arms and ammunition, tanks, armoured Organisation (DRDO) was formed in 1958 by
vehicles, heavy vehicles, fighter aircraft and amalgamating Defence Science Organisation
helicopters, warships, submarines, missiles, and some of the technical development
ammunition, electronic equipment, earth moving establishments. A separate department of
equipment, special alloys and special purpose
Defence Research and Development was formed
steels. In addition, capacities of civil sectors are
in 1980 which now administers DRDO and its
also utilised for the purpose. The following
48 laboratories and establishments. The
DPSUs are functioning under the administrative
Department of Defence Research and
control of the Department:-
Development formulates and executes
• Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) programmes of scientific research, design and
• Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) development in the fields of relevance to national
security, leading to the induction of new
• Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML) weapons, platforms and other equipments
• Mazagon Dock Ltd (MDL) required by the Armed Forces. It also functions

[36] Chronicle IAS Academy

 as the nodal agency for the execution of major 16. Safari [MK1]: Muting systems for
development programmes of relevance to deactivating remotely- controlled
defence through integration of research, explosive device.
development, testing and production facilities 17. Pinaka: Multibarrel rocket system.
with the national scientific institutions, public 18. INSAS: 5.56 mm. Indian small arms
sector undertakings and other agencies. It system.
functions under the control of scientific advisor
19. Tranquil: Radar warning receiver for
to Defence Minister who is also Secretary,
MIG 23 aircraft
Defence Research and Development.
20. Tempest: Radar warning receiver and
Contribution of DRDO: DRDO has made self protection jammer for MIG aircraft.
great strides since 1980 towards making our 21. Catch: Airborne signal intelligence
armed forces self reliant. On the one hand this

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systems.
has enabled our Armed Forces to face the arms
22. Sansar: Bulk secrecy equipment with

Y
export control regimes of advanced countries,
high grade digital secrecy.
whereas on the other hand, DRDO has
progressively enhanced their combat 23. Samvahak: Artillery combat command
and control system.

EM
effectiveness through development of state-of-
the-art indigenous defence systems. During last 24. Bhima: Aircraft weapon trolley
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few years, a number of defence systems and 25. Humsa: Hull mounted sonar system
equipments have been productionised. These 26. Kaveri Engine: Technologically complex
include: and vital system for the LCA as well as
1. Lakshya: Pilotless target aircraft (aerial its future variants.
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target practice system) 27. Rajendra: Passive phased array radar
2. Nishant: Remotely piloted vehicle (for
aerial surveillance) INDIA'S DEFENCE POLICY
3. Prithvi: Surface -to-surface tactical
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The main objectives of India • fs defence

A
battlefield missile. policy are to (a) promote and sustain durable
4. Agni-I, Agni-II, Agni-III, Agni-IV, peace in the subcontinent and (b) equip the
Agni-V & Agni-VI: Surface to surface defence forces adequately to safeguard the
missile. territorial integrity of the country against foreign
5. BrahMos: Supersonic cruise missile aggression. In the field of defence research, India
has achieved great success and owing to defence
6. Trishul: Short range surface-to-air scientists, India, today is in the short list of some
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missile developed nations of the world who have

7. Akash: Medium-range mobile surface- capabilities to produce modern defence arsenals.
to-air missile India is the third largest importer of arms and
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8. Arjun: Main Battle Tank equipment in the world.

9. Sangraha: Integrated Electronic warfare Integrated Guided Missile Programme
(EW) System for Navy
The Integrated Guided Missile Development
10. Samyukta: Integrated Electronic
Program (IGMDP) was formed in 1983 with the
warfare (EW) System for Army
aim of achieving self-sufficiency in missile
11. Mihir: Helicopter based dunking sonar development & production and today comprises
12. Nag: Third generation “Fire-and-forget” of five core missile programs •\the strategic
anti-tank missile Agni ballistic missile, the tactical Prithvi ballistic
13. AERV: Armoured Engineer missile, the Akash and Trishul surface-to-air
Reconnaissance Vehicle for crossing missiles and the Nag anti-tank guided missile.
The program has given India the capability to
water obstacles.
produce indigenous missiles in other key areas.
14. Ajeya: Combat improved T-72 tank. By enforcing the Missile Technology Control
15. Sarvatra: Assault Bridge mechanically Regime (MTCR) to stop supplies of all kinds of
launched. missile material, Western nations are trying to

Chronicle IAS Academy [37]

 prevent India from developing these strategic battlefield tactical missile.
and tactical missiles. Undaunted by this high-
level conspiracy, hats off to all the brilliant Range: 150 km with 1000 kg warhead and
Indian scientists who have toiled so hard, in their 250 km with 500 kg warhead (minimum 40 km)
dedicated efforts, that they managed to develop Payload: 500-1000 kg
these missiles.
Warhead: Both conventional and nuclear,
In India IGMDP comprises of following pre-fragmented and bomblets
missiles developed by DRDO:
Propulsion: Single stage, liquid propellant
(i) Surface to surface missile: Prithvi
(ii) Surface to air medium range missile: Description: The use of Prithvi is visualized

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Akash as phases of preparatory and subsequent phases
of the battle to destroy enemy concentration of

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(iii) Anti-tank missile: Nag tanks and troops, logistic installations, airfields
(iv) Surface-to-air short range missile: and communication facilities. It is difficult to spot
Trishul the Prithvi or trace its trajectory and target

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because of its supersonic speed and limited flight
(v) Intermediate range ballistic missile
C IC (IRBM): Agni

Difference between Cruise Missile and Inter-

time. The missile is extremely accurate (its
circular error probability- CEP- is lower than
most missile of its class) - with a circular accuracy
Ballistic Missile of 10m. The short-range version is for the Indian
Army and long-range for IAF.
Cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled
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guided vehicle that sustains flight through The Air Force version, designated as the SS-
aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and 250 had a range of 250 km and could carry up
whose primary mission is to place a payload on to a maximum of a 500 kg as its payload. By
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a target. They fly within the earth•fs atmosphere using boosted liquid propellant to generate more
A
and use jet engine technology. These vehicles thrust-to-weight ratio, DRDO has increased the
vary greatly in their speed and ability to payload of the SS-250 to 1000 kg. The Prithvi
penetrate defences. These can be classified as: reportedly has the highest warhead-weight to
overall-weight of any missile in its class.
a) Subsonic cruise missile
• Agni
b) Supersonic cruise missile
c) Hypersonic cruise missiles Type: Surface-to-surface, Intermediate
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Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM)

Ballistic missiles follow ballistic trajectory i.e.
first moves to outer space and then enters earth Range: 700 km - 5000 km
atmosphere and strike the target. Ballistic missiles
C

are categorized according to their range, the Payload: 500 kg - 1000 kg; Multipurpose.
maximum distance measured along the surface Propulsion: Two stage, first stage uses solid
of the earth•fs ellipsoid from the point of launch propellant while second stage uses twin liquid
of a ballistic missile to the point of impact of the propellant engines.
last element of its payload. These can be classified
as: Description: Agni is a re-entry technology
demonstrator. It is capable of carrying a
a) Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
multipurpose payload. One of its unique features
b) Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile is the heat shield of the re-entry vehicle.
c) Medium-Range Ballistic Missile
Tested: First successful test of Agni took
d) Short-Range Ballistic missile place on 22nd May, 1989. After this test, India
Brief introduction of important missiles became sixth nation-along with USA, Russia,
France, China and Israel who have tested IRBM.
• Prithvi
In April 1999 India tested its Agni-II missile at
Type: Short range, surface-to-surface Balasore (Odisha) successfully. Range of Agni-

[38] Chronicle IAS Academy

 II is more than 2500 km. A shorter variant of deep inside nuclear rival China’s territory. It is
Agni- Agni-1 was successfully test-fired in 17.5m-tall, solid-fuelled, has three stages and a
January 2002. Its range is about 700 km. launch weight of 50 tons.
Agni-III Missile: Agni VI Missile:
On September 21, 2012 India test-fired the DRDO announced the next version of Agni
3000 km range surface-to-surface nuclear missile, Agni VI. The new version will be capable
capable Agni-III missile from the Wheelers•f of carrying multiple warheads besides having a
Island off Odisha coast. Agni-3 is the country•fs longer range. Agni VI is likely to propel India
first solid fuel missile that is compact and small into the club of countries having inter-continental
enough for easy mobility and can be easily ballistic missiles (ICBMs). The missile, having a
packaged for deployment on a variety of surface strike range of 8,000-10,000 km, will also have

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and sub-surface platform. Agni-III is an the facility of a road launcher. While Agni-V can
intermediate-range ballistic missile with a range carry up to three nuclear warheads, the number

Y
of 3,500 km- 5,000 km. The missile•fs Circular could be double or more than that in case of Agni
Error Probable (CEP) is within 40 meters range, VI. It is likely to be a three-stage missile. The trial
which makes it the most sophisticated and may come in mid-2014.

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accurate ballistic missile of its range class in the
• Akash
C IC
world. In June 2011, Agni-III has been inducted
into the armed forces and is under-production. Type: Medium range, surface-to-air missile.
Though the first development trial of Agni- Range: 25 km
III carried out on July 9, 2006 could not achieve
the desired result, subsequent tests conducted on Warhead: Pre-fragmented warhead
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April 12, 2007, May 7, 2008 and February 7, 2010 activated by proximity fuse.
from the same base were all successful.
Tested: First time on 14th August, 1990 at
Agni-IV Missile: Chandipur (Odisha)
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A
India test-fired nuclear-capable strategic Description: It is totally indigenous missile.
missile Agni-IV with a strike range of about 4000 The nodal agency which designed the Akash is
km from a test range off Odisha coast. Agni-IV Defence Research and Development Laboratory,
missile is one of its kind and represents a Hyderabad. The weight of Akash is about 700
quantum leap in terms of missile technology. The kg and its length is 5.6 meters. This missile had
missile is lighter in weight and has two stages of better features than its U.S. counterpart ‘Patriot.
solid propulsion and a payload with re-entry It is totally mobile and it can be launched from a
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heat shield. The missile, is undergoing battle tank. The Patriot has thrust only for 12
developmental trials by country •fs premier seconds and then the coasting begins. But Akash
Defence Research and Development has thrust for 35 seconds.
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Organisation.
It is a multi-target missile - can target four to
Agni-V Missile: five enemy aircrafts and missiles at a time.
Integrated with the indigenously produced
India successfully test-fired Agni-V missile, phased array radar called Rajendra. It is capable
a nuclear-capable missile, with a range of more of tracking many targets simultaneously. The
than 5,000 km. Agni-V is an intercontinental Akash system is comparable to the Patriot system
ballistic missile developed by the DRDO. Agni- of the USA. India on May 24, 2012 successfully
V missile will be tested twice before end of year test fired its two indigenously-developed surface-
2013 to ensure it is ready for full-scale induction to-air •eAkash•f missiles of Air Force version
in the armed forces towards end-2015. with a strike range of 25 km from the Integrated
Test Range at Chandipur, Odisha.
With the launch of Agni-V, India has joined
a small group of countries - up to now only the • Nag
nuclear-armed superpowers - with inter-
continental range ballistic missiles. The Agni-V Type: Third generation, ‘fire and forget, anti-
is capable of delivering a single 1.5-ton warhead tank guided missile.

Chronicle IAS Academy [39]

 Range: 4 km Propulsion: Single, solid composite
propellant
Warhead: Tandem shaped charges
Tested: The short-range missile, Trishul, was
Propulsion: Solid propellant motor first tested on 5th June, 1989. The supersonic
Tested: First time on Nov. 24, 1990 surface-to-air missile could hit targets both in the
air and on land within a distance of 300 meters
Description: The missile is being developed to 9 km. The solid fuel propelled Trishul has a
to counter contemporary advances in tank capacity to carry 15 kg of warhead and has been
armour especially the very hard or the reactive developed to cater to the needs of all the three
types of armour. The missile is mounted on a defence services. The three meter long missile,
tracked vehicle equipped with Line of Sight having a diameter of 200 cm, is part of the

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(LOS) radar. The radar detects the target, passes country’s Integrated Guided Missile
the information (image coordinates) to the

Y
Development Programme.
missile. The missile then aligns its sight with that
of the LOS radar and blasts off. Description: It is being developed for all the
three services. The IAF will use it against low

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Aerial Version of Nag: DRDO, in flying aircraft while the Navy will use a modified
C IC
collaboration with HAL has developed an aerial
version of land based anti-tank Nag missile. Nag,
an all weather, fire-and-forget anti-tank missile
is one of the five developed by the DRDO under
version against sea-skimming missiles like the
American Harpoon. The moment the enemy
aircraft is within range, the missile will be
launched, maneuvered into the line of the
the Integrated Guided Missile Development
tracking beam and guided all the way to the
Programme (IGMDP). The others are Akash,
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target. The Air Force version will be simple
Trishul, Prithvi, and Agni, Nag which has been
except that the version designed for the Navy
successfully test-fired is the only of its kind
will contain an accurate altimeter in its sensor
having the range in line of sight-up to four km.
unit which will enable the missile to skim above
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It can cover the 4 km. distance in 20 seconds,

A
the waves and intercept enemy missiles. The
travelling at a speed of 900 km an hour.
Trishul has high manoeuvrability and is
• Avatar: powered by a two-stage solid propellant system,
with a highly powered HTBP-type propellant
Indian scientists have designed a reusable
similar to the ones used in the Patriot.
space plane called ‘Avatar. This space plane can
launch satellites at extremely low cost. Besides, • Astra missile
it can also take tourists on a ride to space. The
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man behind this low profile project is air Type: Air-to-air missile, beyond visual range
commander Raghavan Gopalswami; former (BVR) missile
Chairman of Hyderabad based Bharat Dynamics Length: 3570 m
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Limited and a pioneer in liquid propulsion

technology. The project team which designed Body Diameter: 178 mm
this plane included Defence Research
Development Organisation (DRDO) and Cim Launch Weight: 154 kg.
Technologies. The unique design of Avatar Warhead: 15 kg pre-fragmented directional
enables it to be launched again and again upto
100 times. Besides, it produces its own fuel Range: 80 km head on, 15 km tail chase
during the flight. Judging its popularity,
India on December 21, 2012 successfully test
applications have been filed in patent offices in
fired its indigenously developed Astra air-to-air
the United States, Germany, China and Russia.
interceptor missile from a defence base in
• Trishul Odisha. The beyond-visual-range missile was
tested from the Integrated Test Range (ITR) at
Type: Short range, surface-to-air missile
Chandipur, Odisha.
Range: 300 m to 9 km
The Astra missile uses a terminal active
Warhead: A pre-fragmented warhead with radar-seeker to find targets and a mid-course
a strike radius of 20m. internal guidance system with updates, to track

[40] Chronicle IAS Academy

 targets. The on-board ECCM capability allows Production programme.
it to jam radar signals from an enemy surface-
Planned Product Variants
to-air battery, ensuring that the missile is not
tracked or shot down. This indigenous missile is Tejas Trainer : Two-seat operational
intended to have performance characteristics conversion trainer for the Indian Air Force.
similar to the R-77RVV-AE (AA-12), which
currently forms part of the IAF • fs missile Tejas Navy : Twin- and single-seat carrier-
armoury. The missile is 3.8 metres long and is capable variants for the Indian Navy. The LCA’s
said to be configured like a longer version of the naval variant is to be ready for carrier trials by
Super 530D, narrower in front of the wings. 2013 and is slated for deployment on the INS
Astra uses a HTPB solid-fuel propellant and a Vikramaditya as well as the Vikrant class aircraft
15 kg HE (high-explosive) warhead, activated carrier.

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by a proximity fuse. The missile has a maximum Future Development
speed of Mach 4+ and a maximum altitude of

Y
20 km. Tejas Mark 2 - Featuring more powerful
General Electric F414-GE-INS6 engine with
OTHER MISSILE PROJECTS 98Kn thrust and refined aerodynamics. The

EM
Mark 2 is being developed to meet the Indian
C IC
Surya: Inter- Continental missile with range
of 5000 km is in process of development.
Air Staff requirements.

Other Achievements in Defence Production

Sagarika: Cruise missile to be launched from
• MBT-Arjun:
sea. Its range will be some 100 km.
• Light Combat Aircraft India's Main Battle Tank (MBT), Arjun,
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indigenously designed and developed by DRDO
The Government of India in 1984 decided to and Combat Vehicle Research Development
establish the Aeronautical Development Agency Establishment (CVRDE), Avadi was dedicated
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(ADA) to manage the Light Combat Aircraft to the nation in January 1996.
A
(LCA) programme. Hindustan Aeronautics
Limited (HAL) was the principal partner with Arjun weighs 58 tonnes and hence falls in
participation of various DRDO & CSIR the main battle tank category (above 50 tonnes).
Laboratories. Medium battle tanks are in the weight range of
35 to 40 tonnes. The Russian T-72 M-1 (42 tonnes)
On 22nd January 2009 Light Combat and Vijayanta (38 tonnes) come under this
Aircraft Tejas completed 1000 flights. On 29th category. The 58.5 tonnes Arjun with state-of-
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April, 2012, the Naval version of the Light

the art technology, superior fire power, mobility
Combat Aircraft Tejas, made its maiden flight
and high speed (72 kmph on roads and 40 kmph
from the HAL airport in Bangalore. This was a
on rocky terrain), and weapon system has been
significant milestone in the history of Indian
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designed to meet Indian Army•fs most stringent

Aviation in designing a naval variant of a fighter
specifications. It is rated among top MBTs in the
aircraft. On 22nd February, 2013, the LCA took
world. The satellite based Global Positioning
part in the Iron Fist Exercise in Pokhran,
System (GPS) can facilitate the Arjun to find its
Jaisalmer and on 31st March, 2013, the Tejas
geographical grid in barren areas and in the
Light Combat Aircraft, LSP-8 accomplished its
dark.
maiden flight from HAL airport.
• Bhishma:
LSP 8: After having received the Flight
Readiness Review Board’s (FRRB) clearance for The T-90S, named ‘Bhishma’ is highly
the flight, the most advanced edition of India’s versatile and state-of-the-art tank and assembled
Light Combat Aircraft’s (LCA)—Tejas—limited from important semi-knocked down units at the
series production-8 (LSP-8) completed its maiden Heavy Vehicles Factory, Avadi. The features of
flight on 31st March 2013. The LSP-8, along with this tank are the following:
LSP-7 are the configurations marked for the
1. Its mobility, lethal fire power, surprise hit-
Initial Operational Clearance-2 (IOC-2). LSP-8
at-first sight and self-protection.
is the last aircraft in the Limited Series

Chronicle IAS Academy [41]

 2. Its enhanced mobility, ballistic computers a variety of warheads. The system has a quick
for sight and accuracy and capability to reaction time, high accuracy and excellent mobile
fire all types of ammunition in addition to characteristics. It consists of a launcher rocket,
firing guided missiles. replenishment-cum loader vehicle and a
3. The tank has superior armour protection command post vehicle. Pinaka is said to be
with its explosive reactor armour panel and contemporary with other systems of its class that
also has protection against nuclear, have been developed or are being developed
biological and chemical weapons. anywhere in the world.

• Lakshya: • Dhanush:

‘Lakshya’ the Pilotless Target Aircraft (PTA), On October 5, 2012 India successfully test-

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is a sophisticated unmanned aircraft. It has been fired nuclear capable Dhanush, the naval version
designed and developed to simulate realistic air of Prithvi short-range ballistic missile, from a

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threats and to mimic the radars and infra-red warship off Odisha coast. The indigenously
signals. It will be used to impart training for developed Prithvi missile has a strike range of
surface-to-air, air-to-air missiles and gun firing. up to 350 km and can carry 500kg of

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This aircraft can be launched either from ground conventional or nuclear warhead. Developed by
C IC
or a ship using a rocket and is powered during
flight by a turbo jet engine.
the DRDO, the missile is about 8.53 metre in
length and 0.9 metre in diameter. This single stage
missile uses liquid propellant. The Dhanush
Lakshya, with a sub-sonic speed of 0.7 Mach missile can be used as an anti-ship weapon as
in clean configuration and 0.54 mach in ‘one well as for destroying land targets depending on
stow one tow’ configuration could climb upto 9
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the range. The naval variant was first tested on
km. in clean configuration and 6 km with two 11 April 2000 from one of the Indian Navy’s
bodies at a rate of 35 m/s at sea level. It has a Sukanya Class vessels. Inter-Continental missile
fuel capacity of 190 kg and can tolerate a weight was designed and formulated by Indian Scientist
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upto 630 kg. It can float above sea for 3 to 4 hours

A
under the guidance of Dr. Abdul Kalam.
on a parachute until it is retrieved by a helicopter
and minimum altitude possible is 300 m. Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH):

• Nishant: ALH is a twin engined cost effective, multi-

purpose and multi-role helicopter with rugged
India’s indigenous Remotely Piloted Vehicle design to meet the stringent requirements of the
(RPV) ‘Nishant’, is intended for battlefield armed forces. It has been designed and developed
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surveillance and reconnaissance roles and by the HAL, Bangalore. It incorporates state of
incorporates advanced designed feature the art technology to meet the diverse operational
comparable or superior to those developed requirements of the Air Force, Navy and the
elsewhere in the world. It can carry a 45 kg
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Army. It has a maximum continuous speed of

payload, travel at a speed of 150 kmph and fly 290 kmph and a cruise speed of 245 kmph. It
more than five hours. It can be controlled from has a range of 800 km and an endurance of four
the ground for distances upto 160 km and can hours with a 20 minute reserve.
also be programmed for an autonomous flight.
Its detection on radar is difficult as it is made • Hans-3:
entirely of fibre reinforced glass.
Training aircraft is developed by scientists of
• Pinaka: National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore on
11 May, 1998. This aircraft is made of light and
To build up ground support for Indian army, strong Fibre Glass with a total weight of 750 kg.
DRDO has developed lethal ground based
multibarrel rocket launcher weapon system, • Sukhoi-30:
‘Pinaka’. Pinaka is a mobile weapon system
It is a fighter aircraft produced by Russia.
characterized by capability to deliver saturation
Recently India and Russia signed a pact, in which
fire over targets not engageable by artillery guns.
Russia will give 30 Sukhoi-30 MKI aircraft and
It has a range of 39 km and has a capability of
its technology to India. Its minimum flying range
fire upto 12 rockets within seconds. It can launch

[42] Chronicle IAS Academy

 is 3000 km. It is one of the world’s most modern Propulsion: BrahMos is powered by a two-
fighter aircraft. stage propulsion system. Initial acceleration is
provided by a solid-propellant booster and
• Saina:
supersonic cruise speed is provided by a liquid-
This is a modern Torpedo developed by fuelled ramjet system. The air-breathing ramjet
Naval Science and Technology laboratory, propulsion is more fuel-efficient in comparison
Vishakhapatnam. This Torpedo has capability with conventional rocket propulsion. It provides
to be launched from both Helicopter and Ship. the BrahMos with a longer range over similar
With 35 kmph and 200 kg weight, can attack on missiles powered by rocket propulsion.
a 2.7 m long and on 6 km away target. Two advantages of missile:
• Pichora: 1. It is highly accurate and can be guided

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to the target with the help of on-board
Surface to air missile is in process of
computers.

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development. This missile technology is imported
from Russia. 2. It travels at supersonic speed in a sea-
skimming profile.
• Sarath:

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Supersonic BrahMos
Sarath is the Infantry Combat Vehicle (ICV)
C IC
which has been developed by the Indian
scientists to carry and launch Trishul, Akash and
India on May 21, 2013 successfully test-fired
the 290-km range BrahMos supersonic cruise
Nag missiles. missile from the Navy’s latest guided missile
frigate INS Tarkash off the Goa coast. The missile
Brahmos Missile performed the high-level ‘C’ manoeuvre in the
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It is a cruise missile, jointly developed by pre-determined flight path and successfully hit
India and Russia under an agreement signed in the target. The launch was carried out by the
1998. It has a range of 290 km and can deliver Navy as part of Acceptance Test Firing (ATF) of
the ship. The vertical launch configuration of the
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payload of 300 kg over 3 times the speed of

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sound. It can effectively engage targets from an supersonic missile enhances the stealth
altitude as low as 10 metres and has a top speed capabilities of the ship as the missiles are under
of Mach 2.8, which is about three times faster the deck and not exposed.
than the US-made subsonic Tomahawk cruise Brahmos-II
missile.
A hypersonic version of the missile namely
The name Brahmos has been derived from
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BrahMos-II is also presently under development

Brahmaputra and Moskva river of Russia. The with speed of Mach 5 to Mach 7 to boost aerial
company has established with an authorized fast strike capability. It is expected to be ready
capital of $250 million with 50.5 per cent from for testing by 2017. During the cruise stage of
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Indian side and 49.5 per cent from Russian side. flight the missile will be propelled by a scramjet
BrahMos Aerospace was formed as a joint airbreathing jet engine.
venture between DRDO and Military Industrial
Consortium NPO Mashinostroeyenia of Russia. Stealth Technology: It is a technology that
makes an aircraft invisible or less visible to the
The missile can be installed on ships, submarines,
radars. It involves superior design of aircraft and
aircraft and ground vehicles. BrahMos missiles
use of advanced materials that makes the surface
are inducted in to the armed forces of India and
of aircraft less reflective and absorbs the
Russia and can also be exported to friendly
electromagnetic waves produced by Radar.
nations.
Indigenous Air Defence System: An
Sea and ground-launched versions have
indigenous DRDO-developed air defence system
been successfully tested and put into service with
with a centralized command, control and
the Indian Army and Navy. The flight tests of
communication structure and linked to several
the airborne version will be completed by the end
mission (control) units throughout the country
of 2012. to detect all incoming missile and enemy aircraft.

Chronicle IAS Academy [43]

 ‘Silent’ Radar The system is in fact slightly better than
Patriot Advanced Capability - (PAC-3) of the US
India has developed low-probability in terms of interception, altitude and range
intercept radar that cannot be detected by an against incoming ballistic missiles. The aim and
incoming aircraft and can escape from an anti- objective of the exercise was to test the missile’s
radiation missile attack. The radar for naval ability to provide an air-shield (cover) to
applications has been developed by Bharat important Indian metros against hostile attacks.
Electronics Limited (BEL). Besides, the missile would be moved closer to the
This is different in the sense that a normal Indio-Pak and Sino-Indian borders during crisis
radar sends out a warning to incoming air craft or wartime.
that is being tracked. “The low probability Missile Technology Control Regime

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intercept radar developed by BEL does the
radiation in a special way at a very low level of The MTCR (Missile Technology Control

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power.” Dubbed as “Silent radar”, it can be Regime) grew out of arrangements entered into
saved from anti-radiation missile attack by the in the East-West conventional arms talks of the
aircraft since it cannot be detected by the aircraft. 1970s. It became a formal but non-treaty

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The main features of the new radar are: nil arrangement in 1987 and currently has about
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personal hazard, high resolution, fully solid state
and low power consumption.
34 members/adherents. Its purpose is to control
the technology and export of items that could
be used to produce a missile capable of carrying
SUPERSONIC INTERCEPTOR a nuclear warhead. MTCR guidelines apply to
MISSILE OF INDIA missiles with ranges longer than 300 km. and
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payloads greater than 500 kg. The guidelines
India rides new high with successfully incorporate a list of items to be controlled.
conducting a test of new supersonic interceptor However, national export decisions are not
missile off the Orissa coast, on 22nd November, subject to group review or sanctions. Export of
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2012. India successfully test-fired an

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munitions items are denied to non-members with
indigenously developed supersonic interceptor appropriate assurances from the government of
missile, capable of destroying a hostile ballistic the importing country. The MTCR originally
missile, from a test range off the Odisha coast. formulated by the G-7 nations for restricting
India is working towards development of a multi- transfer of critical technology classified as
layer Ballistic Missile Defence system. The 'hostile' category I (greatest sensitivity) and category II
ballistic missile, a modified surface- to-surface (least sensitivity). The cryogenic engine
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'Prithvi', mimicking an incoming enemy weapon, technology falls under category I of the MTCR
first lifted off from a mobile launcher from the list of controlled technologies and the transfer
launch complex-3 of integrated test range (ITR) therefore goes against what the guidelines seek
at Chandipur-on-Sea, about 15 km from
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to prevent and ‘curb’, in the language of MTCR

Balasore. guidelines, “the dangerous proliferation of
missile technology by non-members”. India is
Within about four minutes, the interceptor,
neither member nor adherent of the MTCR.
Advanced Air Defence (AAD) missile positioned
at Wheeler Island, about 70 km from Chandipur, SUBMARINES & SHIPS
after getting signals from tracking radars, roared
through its trajectory to destroy the incoming • INS Chakra:
missile mid-air, in an "endo-atmospheric"
altitude. The interceptor is a 7.5-metre-long With the induction of Nerpa, rechristened
single-stage solid rocket propelled guided missile INS Chakra, into the Indian Navy in April 2012,
equipped with a navigation system, a hi-tech India is back in the elite club of nations having
computer and an electro-mechanical activator. nuclear-powered submarines. INS Chakra is a
The interceptor missile had its own mobile Russia-made, nuclear-propelled, hunter-killer
launcher, secure data link for interception, submarine. The Akula Class submarine will
independent tracking and homing capabilities, carry conventional weapons. The vessel is armed
besides sophisticated radars. with four 533 mm torpedo tubes and four

[44] Chronicle IAS Academy

 650mm torpedo tubes. It will be used to hunt on Sagarika project for a 700-km missile,
and kill enemy ships. The INS Chakra displaces capable of carrying nuclear weapons.
about 10,000 tons. It can do over 30 knots - more
than twice the speed of conventional submarines. • INS Trikand:
It can go upto a depth of 600 metres. It is one of INS Trikand, the last of the three “Follow On
the quietest nuclear submarines around, with Talwar Class” frigates built in the Russian
noise levels next to zero. Federation, was commissioned into the Indian
INS Chakra has been taken on lease from Navy on 29 June 2013 at Kaliningrad, Russia.
Russia for 10 years and would provide the Navy The commissioning of INS Trikand marks the
culmination of a three ship contract for “Follow
the opportunity to train personnel and operate
On Talwar Class” ships built in Russia, and is
such nuclear-powered vessels. In 2004, India had
therefore a milestone in the Indo-Russian
signed a deal with Russia worth over $900 million

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military-technological cooperation. The other
for leasing the submarine. The only other nations
ships of the class viz, INS Teg and INS Tarkash

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possessing nuclear-powered submarines are -
were commissioned in 2012 and are now
US, Russia, UK, France and China. India is back
undertaking operations as part of the Western
in this elite club after over a decade. Fleet. The keel of INS Trikand was laid on 11

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• INS Arihant:
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2011. Extensive Acceptance trials were
India reached a milestone with the launch conducted in the Baltic Sea in April and May
of the country’s first nuclear submarine, INS 2013.
Arihant at Visakhapatnam. Code-named
Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV), the INS Trikand carries a state-of-the-art combat
submarine was launched for sea trials at the suite which includes the supersonic BRAHMOS
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Matsya naval dockyard in Vishakhapatnam. missile system, advanced Surface to Air missiles
With the launch, India joined the exclusive club Shtil, upgraded A190 medium range gun.
of US, Russia, China, France and the UK with • INS Vikrant (2013):
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similar capabilities. Symbolically the Arihant was

A
launched on 26th July 2009, the anniversary of It is the first vikrant-class aircraft carrier built
Vijay Diwas (Kargil War Victory Day). by Cochin Shipyard Limited for the Indian Navy
and the first Aircraft Carrier built in India.
As India has declared “no first use” of Construction is expected to be completed by 2016
nuclear weapons, the country’s weapons system and the ship is due to be commissioned in 2018.
must survive a first strike for retaliation.
Therefore, Arihant’s primary weapon is stealth • INS Viraat:
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as it can lurk in ocean depths of half a kilometre After retirement of Vikrant, Virat is
or more and fire its missiles from under the sea. performing as the main guard of Indian coastline.
The induction of ATV will help India to complete This ship has more capacity than Vikrant.
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the nuclear weapons triad, as envisaged under Produced by the name of Harmiz, Virat was
its nuclear doctrine to deliver nuke-tipped commissioned in Indian Navy on 12th May,
missiles from land, air and sea. 1987. After the upgrades, INS Viraat would be
Key facts available for use till 2018.
• The Rs. 30,000-crore secret nuclear • INS Delhi:
submarine project was started in the
1980s though it was conceived by then Indigenously made ballistic warship,
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in the 1970s. commissioned in Navy on 15 November 1997. It
has weight of 6700 tonnes. It is 163m long, 70 m
• It can acquire surface speeds of 22 to 28 wide and 6.4m high warship.
kmph and would carry a crew of 95 men
and will be armed with torpedoes and • INS Prahar:
missiles including 12 ballistic missiles. World’s fastest missile ship, commissioned in
• INS Arihant can also be armed with cruise Indian Navy on 1 March, 1997.
missiles. The DRDO is already working

Chronicle IAS Academy [45]

 • Warship Ghariyal:
DEFENCE RESEARCH IN INDIA
Water surface attacker warship.
• Food:
• INS Mysore:
The Defence Food Laboratory and the
Indian Navy’s most modernized indigenously Central Food Technological Research Institute
built warship. (CFTRI), Mysore of CSIR, have developed various
• INS Vikramaditya: products, processes preservatives and flexible
packaging materials. The products include
It is a modified Kiev class aircraft carrier set preserved chapattis, compressed ready to eat
to enter service with the Indian Navy and bars, preserved bread, canned Indian dishes,

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commissioned by November, 2013. It was quick cooking foods, survival ration, and frozen
purchased from Russia after retro-fitment for dried products. They had also modified existing

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$2.35 billion. test methods and developed new analytical
techniques to monitor the quality of food
• INS Sagardhwani:
products. Chapattis packaged in paper foil

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INS Sagardhwani (A 74) is a marine acoustic laminate pouches could be preserved for six
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research ship (MARS) based at Southern Naval
Command, Kochi. The ship was launched in
May 1991, and commissioned in 1994. The ship
months.

• Aeronautics
was built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders, In the area of aeronautics, the impetus has
Kolkata. come from the defence project of Light Combat
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Aircraft (LCA) being executed by the
• Sindhughosh-class submarine:
autonomous Aeronautics Development Agency
Sindhughosh class submarines are Kilo class in Bangalore. The first military strike aircraft
diesel-electric submarines in active service with developed in the country was HF 24 (Marut).
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the Indian Navy.
The Aeronautical Development
• Sagar Nidhi Establishment (ADE), and Gas Turbine Research
Establishment (GTRE) in the Ministry of Defence
India’s deep sea exploration received a major and National Aeronautical Laboratory (NAL) in
boost with the induction of “Sagar Nidhi”, a the CSIR were set up and their area of research
multi-purpose scientific vessel, acquired by the were defined. While the NAL was asked to
National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT),
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conduct R & D mainly related to the aircraft of

on 3rd March, 2008. The Rs 232-crore ship was the flight vehicle, GTRE was asked to concentrate
built by Italian company Fincantieri, was a on the development of prototypes of advanced
virtual floating laboratory and would be used technology gas turbines and ADE was directed
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for deep sea exploration and oceanographic to concentrate on the aircraft systems and such
studies. The Ice-class vessel was capable of other tasks as may be given to it from time such
undertaking deep sea explorations upto 45 days. as simulators, pilotless target aircraft, remotely
The vessel, which had taken part in a search piloted vehicles etc. The country is also involved
and rescue operation in Red Sea during its in developing an Airborne Warning and Control
maiden voyage from Italy to India, was also Systems (AWACS) aircraft and several missile
capable of cruising to Arctic and Antarctic programmes.
regions. The multi-purpose vessel would be used Major products manufactured at the HAL
by the scientists and engineers of NIOT, Indian are: Jaguar, Kiran, MIG, BIS, MIG 27 M and HBT
National Centre for Ocean Information Services 32 aircraft, Chetak and Cheetah helicopters, aero
(INCOIS) at Hyderabad and National Centre for engines for various aircraft avionics, accessories
Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR), Goa. and instruments, forgings and castings and parts
Sagar Nidhi would fill the void experienced by required for space programme of the Indian
Indian scientists till now for deep sea Space Research Organisation. HAL is a major
explorations. participant in the LCA development program.

[46] Chronicle IAS Academy

 • Electronics Warfare radiopharmaceutical, radioimmunoassay,
radiobiology, health physics bioengineering and
Electronic Warfare (EW) is the focal theme
experimental medicine. It renders medical advice
of the Defence Electronics Research Laboratory,
to the members of the armed forces as well as to
Hyderabad. The laboratory is engaged in several
others. The concept of radio iodine split dose
technique-oriented investigations in the EW area
therapy in the management of hyperthyroidism
while developing hardware systems to meet the
introduced by the institute’s prestigious Thyroid
requirements of the services.
Research Centre has been well accepted in India
The Defence Science Centre (DSC) and Solid and abroad.
state Physics Laboratory (SPL), both at Delhi, are
The Defence Research and Development
the two upstream laboratories engaged in an
Establishment (DRDE), Gwalior is concerned
anticipatory research as well as engineering
mainly with toxicology and environmental

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development in the field of solid state materials
pollution of importance to the defence services.
and devices. Several state of the art technologies

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It has devised procedures for identifying
such as gallium-arsenide devices, infra red
bacteriolysis principle, capable of producing
detector arrays, charge coupled devices, acousto-
1,250 litres of potable water per hour from
optic devices, YAG laser crystals and gas laser

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brackish water.
sources are being developed. SPL has developed
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silicon solar cells which are likely to be used by
the Indian Space Research Organisation. Several
The Defence Bio-Engineering and Electro
Medical laboratory at Bangalore studies
ferrite and garnet materials have been developed problems related to bio engineering aspects of
for microwave applications. aviation, and also develops medical electronic
instrumentation. Anti-G suits, oxygen masks and
• Ocean Science
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protective helmets have been developed by this
The Naval Physical and Oceanography unit. An automatic inflatable life jacket is being
Laboratory (NPOL), Kochi, has made significant designed. In the field of electro medical
contributions in understanding the ocean instrumentation, a variety of equipment for
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environment knowledge that is essential to the patient monitoring cardiac care, cardiac
development of underwater sensors and weapon pacemaker etc., have been developed. Presently,
systems. Oceanographic instruments developed a medical data processing and automatic
by the laboratory are being used extensively to diagnosis system is under development.
collect data in respect of speed and direction of
• Weapon System
ocean currents, attention of visible light in the
sea, sea wave and tidal records, and the sound The Defence Research and Development
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velocity profile. The expendable bathy Laboratory (DRDL) at Hyderabad has built up
thermograph, developed by the laboratory, is the technological base and facilities required for
being used by naval ships to determine the designing, developing and testing the diverse
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variation of temperature with depth, a factor subsystems of guided missiles.

critical to the underwater fire control problem.
The Combat Vehicle Research and
The Naval Chemical and Metallurgical Development Establishment (VRDE) at Avadi
Laboratory (NCML), Mumbai, provides the navy near Chennai has been entrusted with the task
with technology inputs that help protect the of developing the Main Battle Tanks (MBT) to
hulls of ships and submarines from corrosion and serve the Army in the late 1980s and 1990s.
the hostile sea water environment. The laboratory CVRDE is the system co-ordinator of this major
has successfully developed underwater project involving the cooperative efforts of
anticorrosive and antifouling paints in addition several defence laboratories. In addition CVRDE
to the cathodic protection technology. has direct development responsibility covering
vehicle design, its propulsion unit and auxiliary
• Life Sciences
systems. The establishment is also engaged in the
In the field of health, the Institute of Nuclear development of other armoured vehicle variants
Medicine and Allied Sciences (INMAS), Delhi, to fulfill different operational roles.
has developed expertise in the areas of

Chronicle IAS Academy [47]

 The Armament Research and Development pursue research into the defense or protection
Establishment (ARDE) at Pune has a long record against BW, which is not prohibited by the BWC.
of over twenty-five years of successful
In 1972, the United States signed the
development of armaments required by the three
Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention,
services. Some of the important armament
which banned the “development, production
designed by ARDE which have been inducted
and stockpiling of microbes or their poisonous
into service are the well known Ishapore Rifle
products except in amounts necessary for
with its ammunition, 75/24 pack Howitzer and
protective and peaceful research.”
its ammunition for use in the mountainous
regions, 105 mm Indian field Gun, unguided A chemical weapon is any weapon that uses
rockets for air to ground use. Currently ARDE a manufactured chemical to kill people. The first

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is actively engaged in the development of a Fin chemical weapon used effectively in battle was
Stabilized Armour piercing Discarding Sabot, a

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chlorine gas, which burns and destroys lung
family of small arms with matching ammunition, tissue.
a powerful gun for the Main Battle Tank, rapid
fire multi barrel rocket system and several more Modern chemical weapons tend to focus on

EM
weapons. A special explosive bore-hole charge agents with much greater killing power,
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developed by ARDE has been utilized by the Oil
and Natural Gas Commission in petroleum
exploration. Armament design is a
meaning that it takes a lot less of the chemical to
kill the same number of people. Many of them
use the sorts of chemicals found in insecticides.
multidisciplinary effort and for this purposes The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
ARDE maintains a continuous interaction with is an arms control agreement which outlaws the
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other defence establishments. production, stockpiling and use of chemical
weapons. Its full name is the Convention on the
BIOLOGICAL AND
Prohibition of the Development, Production,
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CHEMICAL WEAPONS Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and

A
on their Destruction. The main obligation under
Like a nuclear bomb, a chemical or biological
the convention is the prohibition of use and
weapon is a weapon of mass destruction. An
production of chemical weapons, as well as the
effective attack using a chemical or biological
destruction of all chemical weapons.
agent can easily kill thousands of people.

Biological warfare (BW) — also known as IAF’S VISION 2020

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germ warfare — is the deliberate use of disease-

The Indian Air Force (IAF) in its recently held
causing biological agents such as bacteria,
presentation entitled ‘Vision 2020’ made several
viruses, fungi, or biological toxins, to kill or
suggestions of strategic importance to the
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incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act

Government. Primarily it suggested the
of war. Biological weapons are living organisms
formation of a nuclear air command even as it
or replicating entities (viruses) that reproduce or
seeks two front capability and enhanced force
replicate within their host victims.
levels in the years to come. The presentation was
Offensive biological warfare, including mass path-breaking since it advocated that the
production, stockpiling and use of biological country’s strategic resources be placed under the
weapons, was outlawed by the 1972 Biological nuclear air command because only the IAF had
Weapons Convention (BWC). The rationale the required delivery platforms-meaning the
behind this treaty, which has been ratified or strategic reach aircraft. According to the IAF,
acceded to by 170 countries as of April 2013, is the Army did not need and in fact might not
to prevent a biological attack which could need a nuclear role because of the incongruity
conceivably result in large numbers of civilian of tactical nuclear weapons in India’s draft
fatalities and cause severe disruption to economic nuclear doctrine. The third leg of the triad;
and societal infrastructure. Many countries, nuclear submarine was still beyond the Indian
including signatories of the BWC, currently Navy’s reach. The vision document
recommended that as soon as the ‘Agni’

[48] Chronicle IAS Academy

 intermediate range ballistic missile became delivery platform. This future defence strategy
operational, it should be given the nuclear air is a step ahead from the present stance
command as the range of the ‘Prithvi’ missile of deterrence for Pakistan and dissuasion for
was too short to qualify as a nuclear weapon China.

Public Sector Undertakings Under the Ministry of Defence

• Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
• Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
• Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML)
• Mazagaon Dock Limited (MDL)
• Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers Limited (GRSE)

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• Goa Shipyard Limited (GSL)

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• Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL)
• Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited (MIDHANI)
Other Organizations in Department of Defence Production are:

EM
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• Directorate General of Quality Assurance (DGQA)
• Directorate General of Aeronautical Quality Assurance (DGAQA)
• Directorate of Standardisation (DOS)
• Directorate of Planning and Coordination (Dte. of P&C)
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• Defence Exhibition Organisation (DEO)
• National Institute for Research & Development in Defence Shipbuilding (NIRDESH)
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A
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C

Chronicle IAS Academy [49]

 ENERGY RESOURCES
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Energy is one of the most important building

block in human development, and, as such, acts
ENERGY SOURCES IN INDIA
as a key factor in determining the economic Energy resources are classified into

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development of all countries. In an effort to meet conventional and non conventional forms on the
the demands of a developing nation, the Indian basis of their use. Conventional or non-

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energy sector has witnessed a rapid growth. renewable sources are those especially coming
Areas like the resource exploration and from the fossils and which cannot be re-used once
exploitation, capacity additions, and energy exhausted like coal, petroleum, wood, etc.

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sector reforms have been revolutionized. However non-conventional or renewable
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However, resource augmentation and growth
in energy supply have failed to meet the ever
increasing demands exerted by the multiplying
population, rapid urbanization and progressing
sources, as the name suggests are inexhaustible
pool of energy, ready at every moment to be used
or re-used like tidal energy, wind energy,
biomass energy, etc.
economy. Hence, serious energy shortages
continue to plague India, forcing it to rely heavily Establishment of new generation capacity
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on imports. and reducing cost of power will require action
on many fronts:
India is the fourth largest consumer of
energy in the world after USA, China and Russia • Availability of fuel such as coal or natural
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gas for new power plants must be assured;

A
but it is not endowed with abundant energy
resources. It must, therefore, meet its • A national consensus on royalty rates for
development needs by using all available fuels and compensation for host states also
domestic resources of coal, uranium, oil, hydro needs to be worked;
and other renewable resources, and • Long term finance should be made
supplementing domestic production by imports. available to lower capital charge;
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High reliance on imported energy is costly • The presently provided guaranteed rate of
given the prevailing energy prices which are not post tax returns for CPSUs should be
likely to soften; it also impinges adversely on lowered to reduce cost of power and
energy security. Meeting the energy needs of augment resources of state power utilities;
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achieving 8 per cent 9 per cent economic growth • An efficient inter-state and intra-state
while also meeting energy requirements of the transmission system of adequate capacity
population at affordable prices therefore that is capable of transferring power from
presents a major challenge. one region to another;
• An efficient distribution system which alone
Social, economic and scientific developments
can ensure financially viable expansion;
are directly linked to the development of energy
resources. However, the present stock of energy • Rehabilitation of thermal stations through
resources of the world is limited and can last R&M to augment generating capacity and
only for a few decades. Moreover most improve PLF;
conventional energy sources are non-renewable. • Rehabilitation of hydro stations to yield
Hence, mankind is searching new source of additional peaking capacity;
energy and the development of renewable • Ensuring use of washed coal for power
sources of energy along with the rational use of generation; and
existing non-renewable energy and their
• Harnessing captive capacity to support the
conservation.
grid.

[50] Chronicle IAS Academy

 1. Coal & Lignite The estimated reserve of lignite was 41.96
billion tonnes against 40.91 billion tonnes in
Coal is the mainstay of India’s energy sector 2011. The increase in the estimated reserve of
accounting for over 50 per cent of primary lignite during the year 2011-12 was 1.22 per cent,
commercial energy supply in 2010–11. This Tamil Nadu accounting for the maximum
share will actually increase to 57 per cent over increase of 2.99 per cent.
the next 10 years. The gap between the demand
Domestic production of coal and lignite
and the domestic supply of coal has made it
account for two-third of total production of
imperative to augment domestic production both
commercial energy in 2000–01 and is projected
from the public sector and the private sector and
to be about the same in 2021–22. As a percentage
to expedite the reform process for realising
of total consumption of commercial energy, the
efficiency gains through increased competition
share of coal and lignite was projected to increase
in the sector during the 12th Plan.

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to 57 per cent, from a level of 50 per cent in
An important feature of the 11th Plan was 2000–01.

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the attempt to augment domestic coal
2. Oil and Gas
production from captive mines. However, the
programme slipped and expected production Petroleum is derived from dead animals that

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from captive blocks fell well short of the
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projected target of 104 million tonnes in the produced in the Earth’s crust by similar processes
terminal year of the Plan. and this is also a combustible fuel. The
The target for coal production at the end of exploitation of oil on a large scale really started
the 11th Plan was initially set at 680 million after 1860, the year when the first commercial
tonnes and revised downwards to 630 million well is reported to have come into existence. With
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tones at the time of the MTA. The actual the discovery of oil and its refined products such
achievement was only 540 million tonnes. Since as gasoline and diesel, new engines and
demand in the terminal year (2011–12) of the machines came into existence and productivity
11th Plan was around 640 million tonnes there increased. Indeed, this was a period of the
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industrial revolution. Oil and its derived

A
was a large demand–supply gap of 100 million
tonnes which was only partially met by imports. products are very convenient and versatile as
This adversely affected the coal supplies to end fuels and can be easily transported.
consumers, particularly the power sector. In India, efforts made by the Oil and Natural
It is estimated that out of capacity addition Gas Corporation (ONGC) and Oil India since the
of 41,894 MW, around 25,000 MW of coal-based late 1950s have led to the identification of a
capacity commissioned is being sub-optimally number of oil and gas deposits both offshore and
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utilized because of inadequate availability of onshore. The onshore fields were mainly
domestic coal. The widening gap between discovered in the Mumbai, Gujarat, Assam and
demand and supply has to be met by imports Arunachal Pradesh; and the offshore fields in
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because of which the share of imports in the total the sea were notably the Mumbai High fields
coal demand is likely to increase. such as North and South Basin and South Tapti.
Oil and gas has also been discovered in the
As on March 31, 2012 the estimated reserves Godavari Basin and on the East Coast.
of coal was around 293.5 billion tones, an
addition of 7.64 billion over the last year. There The new exploration strategy places
has been an increase of 2.67 per cent in the emphasis on intensive exploration survey and
estimated coal reserves during the year 2011-12 drilling in order to add to petroleum reserves and
with Madhya Pradesh accounting for the to augment production as early as possible. In
maximum increase of 5.41 per cent. order to meet burgeoning demand for petroleum
products in the country, the Ministry of
Coal deposits are mainly confined to eastern Petroleum & Natural Gas has taken several
and south central parts of the country. The states measures to enhance exploration and
of Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West exploitation of petroleum resources including
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and natural gas and Coal Bed Methane (CBM), apart
Madhya Pradesh account for more than 99% of from improved distribution, marketing and
the total coal reserves in the country. pricing of petroleum products.

Chronicle IAS Academy [51]

 During the financial year 2011-12, crude oil 163.60 MTs to 171.73 MTs. Although more than
production was about 38.09 million metric tonne 70% of its crude oil requirements and part of the
(MMT), with share of national oil companies at petroleum products is met from imports, India
72.4 per cent. The projected crude oil production has developed sufficient processing capacity over
in 2012-13 was about 41.12 MMT which is about the years to produce different petroleum
8 per cent higher than the previous year crude products so as to become a net exporter of
oil production. The increase in crude oil petroleum products. The import of petroleum
production is mainly due to higher crude oil products increased from only 1.08 MT in 1970-
production from Barmer Fields, Rajasthan. 71 to 15.00 MT during 2011-12. However, there
was a decline of 10.82% in import of petroleum
The average natural gas production in the
products over the previous year.
year 2011-12 was about 130 million metric

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standard cubic metre per day (MMSCMD) which Share of oil in total commercial energy

Y
was about 9 per cent lower than the previous consumption is expected to decline from 37.5 per
year mainly due to lower production from KG cent in 2000–01 to 23.3 per cent in 2021–22, the
D6 deepwater block. The projected natural gas share of natural gas and liquefied natural gas
(LNG) is projected to rise from 8.5 per cent to 13

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production in 2012-13 is about 118.3 MMSCMD,
which was about 9 per cent lower than the per cent in the same period. The combined share
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previous year.
The Indian refinery capacity as on August
of oil and natural gas in energy consumption
was 24.7 per cent in 2011–12 and is expected to
be about the same in 2021–22.
1, 2012 was 215.08 MMT which was expected
to reach to 218.40 MMT by the end of 2012-13. The estimated reserves of crude oil in India
as on March 31, 2012 stood at 759.59 million
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Refinery production (crude throughput) during
2011-12 was 211.42 MMT (including crude tonnes (MT). Geographical distribution of Crude
throughput by RIL SEZ Refinery). At present, oil indicates that the maximum reserves are in
there are 22 refineries (17 under Public Sector, 3 the Western Offshore (44.46%) followed by
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Assam (22.71%), whereas the maximum reserves

A
under private sector and 2 in joint venture) in
of Natural Gas are in the Eastern Offshore
India.
(34.73%) followed by Western offshore (31.62%).
Natural gas is emerging as an important There was an increase of 0.29 per cent in the
source in India’s commercial energy scene in estimated reserve of crude oil for the country as
view of large reserves of gas that have been a whole during 2011-12. There was an increase
established in the country, particularly, in South of estimated Crude Oil reserves by 7.09 per cent
in Andhra Pradesh followed by Tamil Nadu
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Basin off West Coast of India. Natural gas is also

making significant contribution to the household (4.48%).
sector by way of LPG extracted from associated The estimated reserves of natural gas in India
gas. About 30 per cent of the country’s output as on March 31, 2012 stood at 1330.26 billion
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of LPG comes from this source. cubic meters (BCM). In case of Natural Gas, the
The Dabhol-Bengaluru gas pipeline was increase in the estimated reserves over the last
commissioned by GAIL on February 18, 2013. year was 4.08 per cent. The maximum
contribution to this increase has been from Cold
The 1,000 kms pipeline, built at a cost of Rs. 4,500
Bed Methane (11.32%), followed by Tripura
crore, will carry gas from Dabhol LNG terminal
(8.95%).
into Bengaluru and feed industries in Belgaum,
Dharwad, Gadag, Bellary, Davangere, 3. Crude Oil and Natural Gas Production
Chitradurg, Tumkur, Ramanagram and
Bengaluru. During the year 2011-12, production for
crude oil was 38.09 MMT, which is about 1.08%
India is highly dependent on import of crude higher than the actual crude oil production of
oil. Both gross and net imports of crude oil have 37.684 MMT during 2010-11. Natural gas
increased from 11.68 MTs during 1970-71 to production during 2011-12 was 47.559 BCM
171.73 MTs during 2011-12. There has been an against production of 52.219 BCM during 2010-
annual increase of 4.97 per cent during 2011-12 11 which is lower by 8.92 per cent due to lower
over 2010-11, as the net import increased from production from KG D-6 basin.

[52] Chronicle IAS Academy

 The Government of India launched the ninth
bid round of New Exploration Licensing Policy preservation can both be largely met by recourse
(NELPIX) and fourth round of Coal Bed Methane to these renewable forms of energy.
Policy (CBM-IV) during October 2010 to enhance 1. Solar Energy
the Country’s energy security. In addition, in
order to supplement domestic reserves the oil and The Sun provides us enormous amounts of
gas PSUs have acquired assets abroad, the energy in the form of solar radiation-energy that
production of oil and natural gas of ONGC- travels in small wave packets called photons,
VIDESH Ltd during 2011-12 was 8.75 MMT of reaching the surface of the Earth from a distance
oil and equivalent gas (MMTOE) from its assets of 93 million miles. Radiation energy is released
abroad. due to thermo-nuclear fusion going on
continuously in the Sun. The solar energy
4. Hydrogen-CNG Fuel Centre

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reaching per square metre of the Earth’s
atmosphere is called the ‘Solar Constant’ and is

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The Renewable Energy Ministry on 7th
June,2007 unveiled a Rs 25,000 crore roadmap equal to 1.36 KW in 12 hours. The total energy
to promote use of hydrogen, with an estimated being received by the atmosphere is about
one million vehicles using it as fuel by 2020 and 1.5x1018 KWh per day. It is believed that with

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the gas being used to fire electricity generation just 0.1% of the 75000 trillion KWh of solar
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units for an aggregate 1,000 mw of electricity.
As part of the new initiative, a demonstration
energy that reaches the Earth, the energy
required by plants can be satisfied. Application
project for setting up a hydrogen dispensing set- of solar energy can broadly be sub-divided as
up at a petrol pump in Delhi has been follows:
sanctioned as a joint venture with Indian Oil 1. Conversion of solar energy into heat.
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Corporation. The project would enable 2. Conversion of solar energy directly into
dispensing of neat hydrogen and CNG blended electricity.
with hydrogen as fuel for vehicles. The station
will have a hydrogen generation capacity using 3. Conversion of solar energy to plants,
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an electrolyser system and facilities for storing vegetable or other biological forms and
and dispensing neat hydrogen as well as blended application of solar energy to convert these
with CNG in varying ratios. The H-CNG blends forms into usable forms of fuel. This may
broadly be termed as bio-energy.
will be used in the modified CNG vehicles and
are expected to further reduce emissions from 4. Indirect application of solar energy, such
such vehicles as compared to when burning only as, harnessing of winds, waves,
CNG. The project would also generate temperature gradients from the ocean, etc.
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operational experience in handling hydrogen as All of which are the consequences of

an automotive fuel. incident solar energy.

Applications
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NON-CONVENTIONAL
SOURCES OF ENERGY Solar Cooker: Depending upon the type of
cooker, the temperature in the range of 120° to
In the long run, new and renewable sources 300°C can be attained. This can save 30-50% of
of energy will be necessary since the reserves of commonly used cooking fuels like wood, coal,
conventional fuels, such as, oil and coal are LPG, Kerosene, etc. The drawback with such
limited in the world and the pressure on their cooker is that the cooker has to be directed
availability and prices will steadily mount as towards the Sun after every 10-15 minutes and
demands increase. Even in India, at the current if the automatic devices for such tracking are
level of production, coal is expected to last for
provided, the cost increases. In 1982, India
only 245 years, oil for 21 years and natural gas
became the first country in the world to start
for another 38 years. Such alternate sources of
regular large scale commercial production and
energy are renewable by nature and have also
marketing of solar cookers.
the advantage of generally producing energy in
a non-polluting form. Thus, the twin objectives Solar Pond: Solar pond is one of the most
of energy production and environmental promising technologies in solar energy utilization

Chronicle IAS Academy [53]

 for varied purposes. It’s a large-scale solar energy Solar Water Heaters: This system consists
collector with integral heat energy storage by of Flat-plate solar collector and storage tank. This
various ways, such as, process heating, water system has many applications in the domestic
desalination, refrigeration and drying. and industrial sectors. It can provide hot water
for different applications such as in textile
Fluids such as water and air become lighter
engineering, directly or as boiler feed and in the
and rise above when heated. Similarly, when
hotels and canteens, apart from domestic sector.
water is heated by the Sun’s rays, hot water from
Today, such water heaters are being
the bottom of the pond rises and it reaches the
manufactured by many industrial
surface, and loses whatever heat it has gained
manufacturers in India and abroad.
to the atmosphere. The result is that the pond
water remains at nearly atmospheric Solar Desalination: It works on the water

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temperature. To prevent this heat loss by heating principle. It can be used to provide water

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convection in a solar pond, salt is dissolved in for drinking in areas where only salty or brackish
the bottom layer of the pond. This makes the water is available. It can also be used to provide
water too heavy (i.e. dense) to rise even when distilled water needed for batteries and other
hot, to the surface, and cool. Thus, the solar

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applications. About 3 to 4 litres of pure water
energy remains entrapped in the pond.
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the system per day.
A solar pond consists of three zones — The
top zone or the surface zone is at atmospheric Solar Air Heaters: It can be used for various
temperature and has little salt content. The applications like drying of Foodgrains,
bottom zone is very hot (100°C) and very salty vegetables, fruits, wood, etc. Products dried in a
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with specific gravity of about 1.20. It is this zone solar dryer are as good, if not better, in quality
which collects and stores the solar energy in the and food value as compared to those dried in
form of heat and is, hence, known as storage conventional dryers. Temperature as high as
zone. Separating these two zones is the gradient 130°C can very easily be attained with this simple
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zone that acts as a transparent insulator,

A
system. This hot air can be utilised to dry any
permitting sunlight to reach the bottom zone and material, such as, wood or agricultural crops,
its thermal energy to remain entrapped there. increasing the speed and efficiency of such drying
The useful energy is then withdrawn from the several times more than the traditional method
solar pond in the form of hot brine from the of direct exposure to the Sun. The heated air can
storage zone. also be used to operate engines.
Solar ponds have three major advantages over
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Solar Space Conditioning: A number of

the other solar technologies: solar houses have been built in different
(i) they have a low cost per unit area. countries of the world with heating systems
comprising of flat-plate collectors and storage
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(ii) they can be constructed over large areas

units, proper heat distribution and control
enabling the diffused solar radiation to
system. Such systems are normally based on
be concentrated on large scale; and
absorption refrigeration cycle. However, the
(iii) they can supply energy even during the cooling of residential and office buildings can
monsoon season. also be done by following the solar cooling
process.
India is the first Asian country to have a solar
pond (6000 sq. metres) in Bhuj, Gujarat. The Solar Refrigeration: Utilization of solar
project was sanctioned under the National Solar energy for production of low temperature has
Pond Programme by the Ministry of Non- been found to be an attractive proposition
conventional Energy Sources in 1987 and because the cooling effect is most needed when
completed in 1993. The Bhuj solar pond has been the Sun is shining. Solar cooling is a most required
designed to supply about 220 lakh KWH of application for developing countries where
thermal energy per annum; about 1,25,000 KWH considerable quantity of food produce are
of electricity per annum; and about 80,000 litres spoiled due to inadequate and improper
of potable water per day. processing and lack of storage facilities.

[54] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Solar Stem Generators: This is done by Wind Electric Conversion Systems: Wind
concentrating the solar radiation using energy is a high-quality form of mechanical
concentrating collectors like parabolic line energy that can be converted into electrical
focusing systems, parabolic point focusing energy with minimal energy losses. Since the
systems or plane reflector central tower systems. rotor of a windmill moves periodically, the output
Temperature as high as 3000°C can be achieved. may be obtained in the form of alternating
The steam can be utilised in industry to operate current either by using a gearbox or fixing the
engines, or to generate power. rotational speed or by allowing speed variations
and transforming the generated electrical power
2. Wind Energy
to the desired frequency, electronically.
Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated Application ranges from small scale use in rural
with movement of large masses of air resulting and remote communities interconnected with

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from the differential heating of the atmosphere other power plants to large scale generation of
electricity, which is fed into electric utility

Y
by the Sun. Hence, wind energy is nothing but
the converted form of solar energy. It is estimated network. It can also be used for battery charging
that about 106 to 107 MW of usable power is by driving brushless DC generators, to supply
continuously available in the Earth’s winds. electric power to isolated communities, weather

EM
Though the total quantity of this resource is stations, navigation and communication aids,
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extremely large, it is concentrated in certain
regions, and can vary a great deal with time at
etc. A number of countries like Denmark,
Sweden and USA have launched major wind
given location. For the utilization of wind energy, energy testing programmes in an effort to
the speed of wind must be between 8 to 22 m integrate large scale wind-generated electric
per second. Wind energy is renewable and power into grid power supply. The combination
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possess no major environmental threats. of wind power system and hydroelectric system
is considered to have high potential. Stored
A total capacity of 18,420 MW has been water can be used in low wind periods.
established up to December 2012 in the country. Favourable wind regimes on islands, coastal
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India is now the fifth largest wind power

A
areas and mountain regions could be taken
producer in the world, after China, USA, advantage of in setting up large numbers of wind
Germany and Spain. As per Indian Wind Atlas, turbines.
the on-shore wind power potential has been
estimated as 49,130 MW at 50 m height. Tapping wind power

Wind Energy Conversion: The shaft power The Union Ministry of Non-conventional
from the wind turbine can be utilized for a wide Energy Sources (MNES) has recently assessed
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variety of purposes, including electricity (AC & that the potential of the wind power sector in
DC generation), direct pumping, direct India is 45,000 MW, which is more than twice
mechanical work, etc. The most common wind the earlier estimates (i.e., 20,000 MW). Thus,
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turbine system involves a tower mounted multi- India’s potential for using wind power is much
bladed rotor facing into the wind, rotating more than was previously thought. Presently,
around a horizontal axis and turning an electrical India occupies the fifth position in the world with
generator or a mechanical gearbox connected to a wind power installed capacity of 18.4 GW.
its axis. The maximum power that can be During the year 2012-13 1,067 MW wind power
extracted from a wind turbine is 59.3 per cent. projects were commissioned.

Water Pumping Windmills: Small windmills In order to generate greater wind power, the
with direct mechanical drive matched to a pump domestic wind power-generating sector has to
and tank storage are in extensive use in many be more professional. It must not be bogged
parts of the world. These hold significant down by constraints like weak grids, inadequate
potential for pumping water irrigation, drinking data on winds and incompatibility with
needs, etc. Improved types of soil water pumping imported infrastructure. 14 States, based on the
windmills have also been developed in several guidelines of MNES, have introduced policies,
countries, including India. which entail banking facility, third party sales
of power, etc. MNES is in the process of

Chronicle IAS Academy [55]

 preparing a ‘master plan’ for wind power in 10 promising site identified so far is on the
States, for 80 potential sites. There is no denying Lakshadweep Islands where the necessary
the fact that without imaginative use of wind geographical conditions for a shore-based OTEC
power, the energy crunch could not be tackled. plant exist. In these islands, the alternative cost
of producing electricity by transporting diesel
3. Ocean Energy
from the main land as is being done at present,
The sea, which is constantly receiving solar is very high. India has also tied up with a US-
radiations and acts as the world’s largest natural firm to set up an OTEC Plant in Tamil Nadu.
solar collector, has potential to provide a means Wave Energy
of utilizing renewable energy. It acts not only as
collector, but also has an enormous storage Movement of large quantities of water up

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capacity. Energy from the ocean is available in and down can, in principle, be harnessed to
convert it into usable form of energy, such as,

Y
several forms such as ocean thermal energy,
wave energy, tidal energy, salinity gradients, electricity or mechanical power. Several types
ocean currents, ocean winds and bio-mass. based on flats, flaps, ramps and oscillating air
water columns have been worked upon to

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Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion harness wave energy. It is more reliable than the
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There exists a temperature difference of the
order of 20°C between the warm surface water
of the sea and the cold deep water, and this
wind energy because here the fluctuation is less
than the wind. However at present, due to infant
stage of its technology, the cost per unit of energy
natural temperature difference can be used to converted is high because of the need for special
generate energy. In one OTEC plant, the warm structures at sea, corrosion problem associated
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water from the surface with the temperature of with the use of sea water and the problem of
24 to 30°C is brought into one pipe and the cold transmitting the power onshore.
water at the temperature of about 4 to 8°C is Tidal Energy
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brought in another pipe in the depth of about

A
1000 metres. These two pipes are used in Tides are created by the combined
conjunction with fluid such as ammonia, gravitational effect of the Earth, the Moon and
propane or neon. The warm water evaporates the Sun. Though the tide is the universal
liquid ammonia into vapour at high pressure and phenomenon of the Earth’s sea-water body,
is made to pass through a turbine which rotates some regions are more favourable for the
it and generates electricity. The ammonia vapour establishment of such power plant for the
coming out of the turbine is condensed back into commercial production of tidal energy. Primary
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liquid ammonia by cooling it with the cold sea requirements for the construction of an
water brought up from the deep part. The installation having a capacity over 200 MW are
liquified ammonia is then pumped back to the (i) an average tide of 5-12 metres; (ii) the
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evaporator, thus, completing the cycle, which possibility of linkage to a grid in order to
can then run continuously. accommodate the variable power output of the
tidal plant; (iii) favourable geographical location
Energy from OTEC can be converted into and favourable socio-economic and ecological
either electrical, chemical or protein form. These conditions. Bulb type turbines as used in
plants could be combined with energy intensive conventional hydro-electric stations have proved
industries like ammonia, hydrogen or aluminium to be reliable for generating power from the tides.
production. Furthermore, OTEC plants can be
combined with aquaculture or desalination for In India, three potential sites have so far been
obtaining fresh water. The cold water from the identified, namely, the Gulfs of Kutch and
deeper sea which is rich in nutrients can be Cambay on the west coast in Gujarat and the
placed in a lagoon or lake where these nutrients Sunderbans along the east coast in West Bengal.
can help to raise fish, oysters or other types of According to the estimates of the Indian
biological life. government, the country has a potential of 8,000
MW of tidal energy. This includes about 7,000
Being a tropical country, India has the OTEC MW in the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat, 1,200
potential of about 50,000 MW. The most MW in the Gulf of Kutch and 100 MW in the

[56] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Gangetic delta in the Sunderbans region of West The National Hydro-Electric Power
Bengal. ‘Central Electricity Authority’ in India Corporation (NHPC) was incorporated in 1975
has the overall responsibility for developing it. with the objectives to plan, promote and organise
A power plant of 600 MW capacity is proposed the integrated development of hydro-electric
to be set up in the Gulf of Kutch. power. NHPC Limited presently has an
installation base of 5295 MW from 14
The Gujarat government is all set to develop
hydropower stations on ownership basis,
India’s first tidal energy plant. In 2012, the state
including projects taken up in Joint Venture.
government had approved Rs. 25 crore for
Some important hydro-electric power projects
setting up the 50 MW plant at the Gulf of Kutch.
constructed by NHPC are at Salal and Dulhasti
4. HYDRO ENERGY (both in J&K), Tanakpur (Uttarakhand),
Chamera (HP), Baira Siul (HP), Chutak (J&K),

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India is blessed with immense amount of Teesta Low Dam – III (W.Bengal), Sewa - II
hydro-electric potential and ranks 5th in terms (J&K), Teesta - V (Sikkim), Omkareshwar (MP),

Y
of exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario. Dhauliganga - I (Uttarakhand), Indira Sagar
As per assessment made by CEA, India is (MP), Rangit (Sikkim), Uri - I (J&K), and Loktak
endowed with economically exploitable hydro- (Manipur).

EM
power potential to the tune of 1,48,700 MW of
NHPC Limited is presently engaged in the
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installed capacity. Today, about 23 per cent of
the total electric power in the world comes from construction of 10 projects aggregating to a total
hydropower. installed capacity of 4502 MW. Given the
renewed thrust on development of hydro power
India is endowed with economically in the country, NHPC Limited has drawn up a
exploitable and viable hydro potential assessed massive plan to add over 10,000 MW of
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to be about 84,000 MW at 60 per cent load factor hydropower capacity by the end of XIIth Plan
(1,48,701 MW installed capacity). In addition, (year 2017).
6780 MW in terms of installed capacity from
The National Projects Construction
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Small, Mini, and Micro Hydel schemes have been

A
assessed. Also, 56 sites for pumped storage Corporation (NPCC) was set up in 1957 as a
schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of joint venture of central and state governments
94,000 MW have been identified. However, only as a construction-contracting agency for the
19.9 per cent of the potential has been harnessed execution of multipurpose river valley projects,
so far. power projects and other heavy engineering
projects. As a part of diversification plan, the
The total hydro-electric potential in India has Corporation proposes to take up the work of
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been estimated at about 472x109 kilowatt hours transmission lines also.

or 472 terawatt hours normally. But, we have
exploited only a little more than 19 per cent of 5. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
the total potential. In addition, it is also estimated
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Geothermal energy is the exploitation of heat

that an annual energy generation of about 25
energy of Earth within 10 km of the Earth’s
terawatt could be obtained economically
upper crust. Geothermal energy can be
through mini and micro-hydels, coal drops and
processed for generation of power, where the
other possible low- head developments. A centre
geothermal fluid has a temperature of 130°C.
for the development and demonstration of
Geothermal manifestations are widespread in
alternate small hydro technologies has been set
India in the form of 340 Hot Springs localities.
up at Roorkee University by the Department of
Only a few direct utilization schemes have been
Non-Conventional Energy Sources for
launched by various agencies. They are in Puga,
development of newer and more economic
Chhumuthang, Manikaran and Bakreshwar. Of
designs of micro-hydel units, water mills and
these, India’s most promising geothermal field
hydrams. Several field projects in Haryana,
is in Puga valley in Ladakh. There are number
Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Jammu
of geothermal wells drilled in the valley.
and Kashmir are being initiated to utilise the
Tattapani in Madhya Pradesh is another
potential availability of canal drops, falls, run-
promising geothermal area in India.
off-river systems, etc.

Chronicle IAS Academy [57]

 Magneto Hydro-dynamics Power gas, oil (methanol) and charcoal.
(b) Biogasification: Anaerobic digestion of
MHD power generation is a method,
biomass to produce combustible gas
whereby thermal energy is directly converted
(biogas) comprising of methane,
into electrical energy instead of thermal energy
hydrogen, etc.
being converted to mechanical energy and then
to the electrical energy as is done in the power (c) Fermentation: Conversion of sugar and
plants. In this process, coal is burnt to produce starch into alcohol to produce ethanol
hot and high speed gas which is allowed to pass and solid residual fuel.
over a strong magnetic field and this result in The potential of biomass in India is estimated
the direct conversion of thermal energy into at 1250 MMTPA which is about one-eightieth
electrical energy. It is capable of achieving net

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of the global total. Energy available from such a
efficiency of around 60 per cent, while in the massive biomass is equivalent to about 300 MMT

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conventional power plants it is only 35 per cent. of oil.
Bio-Engery 6. ALTERNATIVE FUELS

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Bio-energy includes those processes where
Compressed Natural Gas or CNG is a
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biological forms of matter, such as, plants,
vegetables, enzymes, etc. provide the basis for
energy or its conversion from one form to another
form of energy. The widest use of bio-energy is
cleaner alternative to the liquid petroleum. CNG
is already in use in countries such as the USA,
Japan, Italy, Brazil and New Zealand. In Delhi,
the Supreme Court has directed the operation
in the traditional way, where wood plants and
of city buses exclusively on CNG fuel mode.The
agricultural matter are directly burnt to provide
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government on its part launched CNG pilot
heat. Vegetable biomass is a new name for plant
project in Delhi as early as 1993. Thanks to this
organic matter, wherein solar energy is trapped
project, CNG is now available in the NCR and
and stored through the process of photosynthesis
most cities of the country.
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in which carbon dioxide and water are

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transformed and form energy-rich organic CNG is cleaner fuel than the conventional
compounds. fuel (petrol and diesel) as far as PM is concerned.
Further, CO, HC and NOX emission for CNG
Biomass covers a wide range of materials,
based car are lower because of the catalytic
encompassing all kinds of animal, organic and
converter fitted with them.
synthetic wastes and a special variety of
vegetation-wild grass, shrubs and some plants Gasohol: It is a mixture of absolute alcohol
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and trees, especially cultivated to derive energy and petrol and is being tried as a fuel to run a
and useful by products and this biotechnology car. A programme of 5 per cent blending of
is one of the oldest manufacturing activities, ethanol with petrol is already underway with
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having started ever since man learnt to produce effect from November 2006 targeting 20 States
bread, wine, beer and cheese. However, only and 4 UTs. Subject to availability, the percentage
recently the process is well understood and of blend can be enhanced to 10 per cent as
mankind has started to move in the right specification for petrol with 10 per cent ethanol
direction to make better use of this revolutionary blend is already given by the BIS. At present,
technology. The major components of biomass the EBP Programme is successfully running in
are mainly carbohydrates - sugars, starches and 14 States and three UTs; OMCs have been able
cellulose - with variable nitrogen and to contract 55.87 crore litres of ethanol against
phosphorous contents. Animals, organic and the requirement of 105 crore litres of ethanol
synthetic wastes cover the balance components. for 5 per cent blending in the entire notified area.
There are three basic systems for conversion of
biomass into energy resources. The Mysore Sugar Company of Madya tried
out a 25:75 proportion mix of absolute alcohol
(a) Combustion Pyrolysis: Chemical
and patrol for maximum efficiency. A fuel
decomposition through high
economy of 3 to 5 per cent has been reported
temperature. (upto 5000°C) in partial
when gasohol is used as a fuel.
or total absence of air to produce fuel

[58] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Hydrogen: Hydrogen appears to be a was estimated to have renewable energy
favoured alternative due to its high specific potential of about 85 GW from commercially
energy per unit weight, its almost universal exploitable sources, viz. (i) Wind: 50 GW (at 50
availability as a component of water, good m mast height) (ii) Small Hydro: 15 GW (iii) Bio-
combustion characteristics and the fact that it is energy: 20 GW and (iv) solar radiation sufficient
environment-friendly. The primary combustion to generate 50 MW/sq. km using solar
product is water vapour and apart from low photovoltaic and solar thermal energy. These
nitric oxide fractions, there are virtually no estimates have since been revised to reflect
harmful exhaust gases, in particular no carbon technological advancements. Initial estimates
monoxide, hydrocarbons and particulates which from Centre for Wind Energy Technology
are the bane of petrofuel combustion. (C-WET) suggest that wind energy potential at
80 metres height (with 2 per cent land
From the safety angle, there is however one

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availability) would be over 100 GW. Some studies
major problem with hydrogen, its low density
have estimated even higher potential ranges up

Y
and high diffusion capacity, which leads to a
to 300 GW. The MNRE has initiated an exercise
high permeation capability through systems
for realistic reassessment of the wind power
which are normally considered to be gas-tight.
potential, whose results are expected by the end

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The low density of hydrogen means that it rises
of 2013.
quickly into the atmosphere if proper venting is
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done. Today, the technology to make hydrogen India’s renewable energy installed capacity
leak-proof components is available. Also any has grown from 3.9 GW in 2002-2003 to about
leakages can be monitored and displayed with 27.3 GW in January 2013. Wind energy has been
hydrogen sensitive sensors. the predominant contributor to this growth. It
also accounts for 68% of the installed capacity,
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Hydrogen is being aggressively explored as
followed by small hydro power (3.55 GW),
a fuel for passenger vehicles. It can be used in
biomass power (3.56 GW) and solar power (1.4
fuel cells to power electric motors or burned in
GW).
internal combustion engines (ICEs). It is an
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environmentally friendly fuel that has the The Indian renewable energy programme
potential to dramatically reduce our dependence has been in place for a little over two decades
on imported oil, but several significant challenges during which period the renewable energy
must be overcome before it can be widely used. industry has taken a number of initiatives that
have given a major thrust to the programme.
NON-CONVENTIONAL Way back in 1980, the Government created the
ENERGY PROGRAMME Commission on Additional Sources of Energy
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(CASE) under the department of Science and

The need to increase total domestic energy Technology. In September 1982, the Department
production in order to reduce import of Non-conventional Energy Sources (DNES)
dependence, combined with the need to move
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was set up, and then in July 1992, it grew into a

away from fossil fuels in the longer run in view full fledged Ministry of Non-conventional Energy
of climate change considerations, points to the Sources (MNES). In 2006, this ministry was
need for stronger efforts to increase the supply renamed as Ministry of New and Renewable
of energy from renewables. Union Minister of Energy (MNRE). Interestingly, India is the only
New and Renewable Energy, Dr. Farooq country in the world to have a dedicated ministry
Abdullah has said that India is committed to responsible for implementing a non-conventional
increasing the share of renewable power in the energy trajectory in India.
electricity mix to 15 per cent by the year 2020.
He said an action plan has already been The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
developed that aims at accelerating the is the nodal Ministry of the Government of India
deployment of renewable energy with a target for all matters relating to new and renewable
of around 30 GW of renewable power by 2017. energy. The broad aim of the Ministry is to
develop and deploy new and renewable energy
The potential for renewable power has been for supplementing the energy requirements of
revised upward over time. In the early 80s, India the country.

Chronicle IAS Academy [59]

 The Mission of the Ministry is to ensure: The government started off with
• Energy Security: Lesser dependence on oil programmes in research and development (R &
imports through development and D) in all renewable energy technologies with a
deployment of alternate fuels (hydrogen, view to standardising and ensuring that the
bio-fuels and synthetic fuels) and their technologies were in a position to deliver reliable
applications to contribute towards bridging and safe energy. In order to offset partially the
the gap between domestic oil supply and high first cost, the MNES offered incentives by
demand; way of upfront capital subsidy and also interest
subsidy in order to reduce the cost of financing
• Increase in the share of clean power:
for renewable technologies by individuals and
Renewable (bio, wind, hydro, solar,
geothermal & tidal) electricity to the private sector. In addition, 100 per cent

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supplement fossil fuel based electricity accelerated depreciation was allowed for firms
that invested in RETS.

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generation;
• Energy Availability and Access: Technical back-up units (TBUS) were set up
Supplement energy needs of cooking, in different parts of the country to provide

EM
heating, motive power and captive support to various institutions wanting
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generation in rural, urban, industrial and additional support on RETs. The TBUs also
commercial sectors; undertook promotional programmes and
training for the local agencies working on RETs.
• Energy Affordability: Cost-competitive, The Indian Renewable Development Agency
convenient, safe, and reliable new and (IREDA) was set up to finance exclusively
renewable energy supply options; and renewable energy programmes.
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• Energy Equity: Per-capita energy
The MNES has taken up special programmes
consumption at par with the global average
for renewable energy in the north-eastern region
level by 2050, through a sustainable and
including Sikkim and has earmarked 10 per cent
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diverse fuel- mix.

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of the Plan funds for this region towards
enhanced and special subsidies. A special
POLICY ON NON-CONVENTIONAL
programme to electrify the Kargil and Ladakh
ENERGY areas districts with 90% as grant from the centre
is also under implementation.
The MNES implements one of the world’s
largest programme on renewable energy. The
INITIATIVES TAKEN BY THE
programme objectives are:
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GOVERNMENT
(a) Increase the share of renewables in the
overall installed capacity of power 1. Urja Grams
generation.
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(b) Meet the energy needs of rural and The Department of Non-Conventional
remote areas for variety of applications. Energy Sources has taken up a programme on
Rural Renewable Energy System (RRES)
(c) Minimise the drudgery and health
hazards faced by rural women in designed to make villages self-sufficient in
following the age old practice of cooking energy. This system is called Urja Grams, and
with fuel wood collected from long are based on local renewable energy sources and
distances, and being environmentally benign, could ensure
availability of electric power as well as cooking
(d) Extract energy from urban and
energy at the village level and spearhead all
industrial wastes, besides ocean,
round rural development.
chemical and geothermal sources.
According to the Annual Report of the In an Urja Gram, the renewable energy
MNES, the underlying idea of the programme is devices can find their applications to meet the
not to substitute but supplement the just energy requirement. For example, a biogas
conventional energy generation in meeting the plant working on locally available animal and
basic energy needs of the community at large. agricultural waste would supply the cooking fuel

[60] Chronicle IAS Academy

 and also fuel for lighting or for irrigation from municipal solid waste is under
wherever required. Requirement of drying, installation in Lucknow City.
cooking, hot water, etc. can be met by Solar
• A project, first of its kind, for generation of
Thermal Systems.
2500 cubic meter biogas from 60 Tonnes
Measures to promote non-conventional per day of slaughter house solid waste
energy: installed at M/s. Al-Kabeer, Medak in
Andhra Pradesh.
• 10% share of new capacity addition or
10,000 MW, to come from renewables by • A Project for treatment of 5 Tonnes of
2012. tannery waste and generation of biogas and
62 kW power plant installed at
• 18,000 remote villages to be electrified by
Melvisharam in Tamil Nadu, which is also
2012.

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first of its kind in the country.
• Over 3,500 MW of power generating

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• Masons, fabricators, potters, women, etc.
capacity from renewables has been set up,
trained as self-employed workers for
which is contributing about 3.3 per cent of
construction of biogas plants and improved
the total installed generating capacity in the
chulhas.

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country.
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• 8.8 billion Units of electricity generated
outlets and 150 women self help groups
from wind power projects.
promoted.
• Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-
WET) and Wind Turbine Test Station are • Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute for
fully operational. Renewable Energy established in
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Kapurthala in Punjab.
• 750 KW and 1000 KW unit size wind
turbines introduced for the first time in the • Four IREP centres are operational at Bakoli
country. (Delhi); Chinhat (Lucknow) U.P., Jakkur
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(Bangalore) Karnataka; and Village Amrol,

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• A 40 KW solar power plant inaugurated at Kheda District, Gujarat.
Nyoma, Ladakh.
• Zero emission vehicles including two, three
• 30 MW capacity SPV products exported to & four wheelers and large capacity
various developed and developing passenger vehicles are being promoted
countries. through support for research and
development, demonstration and
• More than 40 different applications of solar
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operations.
photovoltaic systems for rural, remote areas
and other applications developed. 2. Tidal Energy in Sunderbans
• More than 4500 solar photovoltaic pumps
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are in use for agriculture and related uses. The Union Ministry of Non-conventional
Energy Sources (MNES) has sanctioned a 90 per
• 2 MW grid connected SPV power projects cent grant for the Rs.48-crore project in
are in operation in the country. Sunderbans. The West Bengal government will
• Over 4,000 potential sites for small hydro meet the remaining cost of this project. The
power projects have been identified with National Hydroelectric Power Corporation
10,000 MW capacity. (NHPC) has been chosen the contractor for the
project, which is being executed by the West
• A 5.25 MW small hydro project Bengal Green Energy Development Corporation,
commissioned at Kalpong in Andaman & the corporate entity which has been formed by
Nicobar Islands. the West Bengal government to commercialize
• 440 MW power projects including 156 MW its renewable energy forays.
biomass power and 284 MW bagasse-based
The Sunderbans project will be a
cogeneration projects under installation.
demonstrative project which may be replicated,
• A project for generation of 5 MW power although the Kutch and the Gulf of Cambay in

Chronicle IAS Academy [61]

 Gujarat are the only two regions in the country with oxygen from the air and electrons from the
where there is known potential of this form of cathode to produce water. It is this transfer of
green energy. For the people living in the villages electrons at the electrodes that sets up the
around the Durgaduani Creek, solar home voltage between them, enabling the cell to power
lighting systems is the only form of electricity an external circuit.
known, with the slightly better-off burning
gallons of diesel to run polluting generator sets NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION
to draw power. An eight MW capacity has been
created so far for 4.4 million people, who may The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
never have had any access to electric power since Mission, also known as National Solar Mission,
they stay in remote areas where conventional is one of the eight key National Mission’s which
comprise India’s National Action Plan on

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power may never reach. Efforts are now on to
bring an additional five million people under this Climate Change (NAPCC). NAPCC was

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coverage by 2012. launched on 30th June 2008 which identified
development of solar energy technologies in the
3. Electricity Generation from Human Waste country as a National Mission. Finally on

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January 11, 2010 Government of India approved
An electricity generation fuelled by sewage National Solar Mission.
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has been developed. The waste we flush down
the toilet could one day power the lights at home.
A generator does the job of a sewage-treatment
The Solar Mission recommends the
implementation in 3 stages leading up to an
plant at the same time as it breaks down the installed capacity of 20,000 MW by the end of
harmful organic matter as it generates the the 13th Five Year Plan in 2022. It serves twin
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electricity. Harnessing chemical techniques purpose:
similar to those the body uses to break down (i) Long term energy Security
food, Pennsylvania State’s microbial fuel cell
(MFC) diverts the electrons liberated in the (ii) Ecological Security
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A
reaction to produce electrical energy.
Objective:
The MFC comprises of a sealed 15 cm long
can with a central cathode rod surrounded by a Objective of National Solar Mission is to
proton exchange membrane (PEM) which is establish India as a global leader in solar
permeable only to protons. Sewage processing energy, by creating the policy conditions for
plants are needed in developing countries but its diffusion across the country as quickly as
possible. The Mission adopts a 3-phase
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they are expensive, as they use too much power.

Producing electricity at the same time will offset approach:
this cost. A slurry of bacteria and undigested Phase 1: spanning the first year of the 12th Plan
food consisting of organic matter such as
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carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are contained Phase 2: the remaining 4 years of the 12th Plan
in sewage. In a process that releases electrons, Phase 3: the 13th Plan
the bacteria found in sewage treatment works
use enzymes to oxidise organic matter. Normally The immediate aim of the Mission is to
the electrons power respiratory reaction in the focus on setting up an enabling environment
bacteria cells, and are combined with oxygen for solar technology penetration in the country
molecules. The organic waste is broken down both at a centralized and decentralized level.
by bacteria that cluster around the anodes as Also the Mission anticipates achieving grid parity
organic waste is pumped in releasing electrons by 2022 and parity with coal-based thermal
and protons with no oxygen to help mop up the power by 2030.
electrons, bacteria’s enzymes transfer them to the The mission targets are:
anodes, while the protons migrate through
• To create an enabling policy framework for
protons are encouraged to pass through to the
the deployment of 20,000 MW of solar
cathode by polarised molecules on the P&M
(Proton exchange membrane) which is power by 2022.
permeable only to protons. There they combine • To ramp up capacity of grid-connected

[62] Chronicle IAS Academy

 solar power generation to 1000 MW within • To have a free market and promote healthy
three years – by 2013; an additional 3000 competition among players and improve
MW by 2017 through the mandatory use the customer service.
of the renewable purchase obligation by • To insure oil security for the country
utilities backed with a preferential tariff. keeping in view strategic and defence
This capacity can be more than doubled – considerations.
reaching 10,000MW installed power by
2017 or more, based on the enhanced and NATIONAL HYDROGEN
enabled international finance and ENERGY ROAD MAP
technology transfer.
• The ambitious target for 2022 of 20,000 MW Hydrogen holds the promise to provide clean,
reliable and sustainable energy supply for

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or more, will be dependent on the ‘learning’
meeting the growing energy needs for
of the first two phases, which if successful,
transportation and power generation in the

Y
could lead to conditions of grid-competitive
coming years. Hydrogen can be used directly as
solar power.
a fuel for producing mechanical/electrical
• The transition could be appropriately energy through internal combustion engines. It

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upscaled, based on availability of can also be used in fuel cells to generate electricity
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international finance and technology. for stationary, portable and transport
applications. Hydrogen is environmentally
• To create favourable conditions for solar
manufacturing capability, particularly solar benign and has the potential to replace liquid
fossil fuels in the future and thereby provide
thermal power for indigenous production
energy security to India.
and market leadership.
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• To promote programmes for off grid Recognizing the importance of hydrogen as
applications, reaching 1000 MW by 2017 an energy carrier for the future, the Ministry of
and 2000 MW by 2022. New and Renewable Energy, as the nodal
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Ministry for this sector, has been implementing

A
• To achieve 15 million sq. meters solar
a broad based Research, Development and
thermal collector area by 2017 and 20
Demonstration Programme on Hydrogen Energy
million sq.mts. by 2022.
and Fuel Cell Technologies for more than two
• To deploy 20 million solar lighting systems decades. In recent years, significant progress has
for rural areas by 2022. been reported by several countries, including
India in the development of hydrogen as an
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HYDROCARBON VISION 2025 alternative fuel both for automotive and

stationary applications.
It is provided for the first time a
comprehensive long term framework for A National Hydrogen Energy Road Map
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development of the oil and gas sector in India (NHERM) was prepared by a Steering Group set
under globally competitive scenarios. This was up by the National Hydrogen Energy Board,
governed mainly by the following consideration: under the Chairmanship of Shri Ratan Tata. The
• To assure energy security by achieving self- National Hydrogen Energy Road Map was
reliance through increased indigenous approved by the National Hydrogen Energy
production and investment in equity oil Board in January, 2006.
abroad.
The NHERM has identified research,
• To enhance quality of life by progressively development and demonstration efforts to be
improving product standards to ensure a undertaken in the country for bridging the
cleaner and greener India. technological gaps in different areas of hydrogen
• To develop hydrocarbon sector as a globally energy, including its production, storage,
competitive industry which could be transportation and delivery, applications, safety,
benchmarked as the best in the world codes and standards and capacity building for
through technology upgradation and the period up to 2020. The Road Map has
capacity building. emphasised on development of the total

Chronicle IAS Academy [63]

 hydrogen energy system, which includes all the production, storage and use as a fuel for
above components of hydrogen energy sector. generation of mechanical/thermal/electrical
Keeping in view the present status of energy. The application of hydrogen in fuel cells
development of hydrogen energy, the NHERM for power generation has been demonstrated as
has recommended two major initiatives for a result of initiatives taken by this Ministry.
promoting the use of hydrogen as a fuel for Green Hydrogen fuelled small power generating sets,
Transportation (Green Initiative for Future two wheelers (motor cycles), three wheelers and
Transportation-GIFT) and Green Power catalytic combustion systems for residential and
Generation (Green Initiative for Power industrial sectors have also been developed and
Generation-GIP). demonstrated.
The National Hydrogen Energy Road Map A Demonstration Project for setting up of a

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has visualized that by 2020, one million Hydrogen Dispensing Station at a petrol pump

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hydrogen fuelled vehicles, mostly two and three in New Delhi has been sanctioned as a joint
wheelers and 1,000 MW aggregate hydrogen project of Ministry of New and Renewable
based power generation capacity would be Energy and Indian Oil Corporation Limited. The

EM
established in the country. A total investment project would enable dispensing of neat
requirement of Rs. 25,000 crores has been
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projected in the Road Map for creating the automotive vehicles. The project was
required hydrogen supply infrastructure to commissioned in March, 2010. The H-CNG
realize the goals of one million vehicles and 1,000 blends used in the modified CNG vehicles and
MW power generation capacities by 2020, are expected to reduce emissions from H-CNG
including Rs. 1,000 crores for research, vehicles, as compared to CNG vehicles. The
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development and demonstration activities. The project is also generating operational experience
Road Map is a public-private partnership driven in handling hydrogen as an automotive fuel. H-
process. CNG is a vehicle fuel which is a blend of
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compressed natural gas and hydrogen, typically

A
Hydrogen is high in energy content as it
8-50% hydrogen by volume.
contains 120.7 MJ/kg, which is the highest for
any known fuel. However, its energy content The research was initiated by the Ministry
compared to volume is rather low. This poses of Petroleum and Natural gas in 2003. A
challenges with regard to its storage for civilian Hydrogen Corpus Fund (HCF) of Rs 100 crore
applications, when compared to storage of liquid was created with contribution from all PSU oil
fossil fuels. When burnt, hydrogen produces and gas companies and Oil Industry
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water as a by-product and is, therefore, Development Board (OIDB). Out of the total
environmentally benign. Although no CO2, etc. allocated amount of Rs 100 crore to the oil
are produced if hydrogen is burnt in air, yet NOx industry, IOC R&D has utilised Rs 14 crore for
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will be formed at high temperatures. One of the various demonstration projects. This is in
advantages of hydrogen as a fuel is that it can addition to other projects funded by MNRE and
be used directly in the existing internal also IOC R&D's own budget. IOCL is all praise
combustion engines and turbines. It can also be for H-CNG's efficiency.
used as a fuel in fuel cells for electricity
Another project for the introduction of H-
generation. Hydrogen applications, besides
CNG blends on a trial basis in existing CNG
industrial application, cover power generation,
Vehicles has been undertaken by the Ministry of
transport applications and heat. However, when
New and Renewable Energy jointly with the
compared to other alternatives, use of hydrogen
Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers
in transport sector appears to be more beneficial
(SIAM). The project is the first public-private
as it is possible to store hydrogen on-board.
partnership project in this new technology area.
Initiatives Taken So Far The project aims for the introduction of H-CNG
blend as a fuel on trial basis in buses, cars and
The Ministry has supported research,
three wheelers. The Indian Oil Corporation is
development and demonstration projects on
also participating in this project and the existing
various aspects of hydrogen energy including its
hydrogen dispensing facility set up at its R&D

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 Centre at Faridabad used for fuelling the The national mission launched in two phases
vehicles. Under this project, the engines of the with one goal:
existing CNG vehicles and fuel injection systems • The objective of the mission is to attain the
would be modified. The project aims at goal of 20% blending of biofuels with diesel
optimizing the H-CNG blend ratio for optimal and gasoline nationwide.
vehicle performance and minimal emissions.
• Under a first demonstration phase Jatropha
Several new R&D Projects in the area of and Karanj plantations would be
Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cell technology have established on 400,000 hectares of
been sanctioned to Universities, IITs and R&D government-owned land.
organizations and further proposals are in the
• In the second phase of the
pipeline. A National Centre for Hydrogen
mission, Jatropha will be cultivated on not
Energy and Fuel Cell Technology is being set up

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less than 11.2 million hectares of
at the Solar Energy Centre Campus of the
government-owned as well as private land

Y
Ministry at Gurgaon, Haryana.
for increasing biodiesel production.
The National Hydrogen Energy Road Map
had recommended 8 Technology Missions to be There’s a requirement of 2.6 million tons

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taken up in this area. Work has been initiated biodiesel in India in order to achieve its goal of
5% blending with fossil fuels.
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in two of these areas i.e. on the Development of
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, for which the CGCRI and The Government of India approved the
BHEL have submitted a joint - R&D project National Policy on Biofuels in December 2009.
proposal to the Ministry. A proposal for The biofuel policy encouraged the use of
accelerated commercialization of PEM Fuel cells renewable energy resources as alternate fuels to
in mission mode is being developed.
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supplement transport fuels (petrol and diesel for
In June 2012, to make India a fuel efficient vehicles) and proposed a target of 20 percent
country by switching to a hydrogen-based fuel biofuel blending (both bio-diesel and bio-ethanol)
cell economy, the Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) by 2017. The government launched the National
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A
has developed hydrogen mixed CNG. It is 15-20 Bio-diesel Mission (NBM) identifying Jatropha as
per cent more efficient than normal CNG. The the most suitable tree-borne oilseed for bio-diesel
use of Hydrogen-CNG fuel is expected to reduce production. The Planning Commission of India
carbon monoxide emissions up to 25 per cent, had set an ambitious target covering 11.2 to 13.4
THC (total hydrocarbon) emissions by 5 per cent million hectares of land under Jatropha
and carbon dioxide emissions by 5 per cent as cultivation by the end of the 11th Five-Year Plan.
compared to CNG, revealed the IOC (R&D), The central government and several state
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Faridabad. governments are providing fiscal incentives for

supporting plantations of Jatropha and other
BIOFUEL MISSION non-edible oilseeds. Several public institutions,
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state biofuel boards, state agricultural universities

Karanj (Pongamia pinnata) and Jatropha and cooperative sectors are also supporting the
(Jatropha curcas) are the two plants India is biofuel mission in different capacities.
emphasizing on for promoting alternative energy
sources, as the country launches a nationwide Biofuels market in India is largely based on
biofuel mission. Ethanol - derived from the molasses of sugarcane
- and biodiesel that’s obtained through non edible
A committee of experts was set up by the oil seeds for example Pongamia and Jatropha.
Federal Planning Commission, which will study The primary objectives of the govt. for
and suggest measures for the promotion of encouraging biofuels industry include
biofuels development. In a report submitted by environmental factors, plus security and
the committee before the commission, the
diversity of energy supply. This is also working
committee has recommended the government to
as the key driver for the growth of biofuel
launch a countrywide biofuels mission focusing
industry in India.
on encouraging the cultivation of Karanj and
Jatropha. Karanj and Jatropha are two seed- Biogas: Biogas is a clean, unpolluted and
bearing, drought-tolerant perennial tree-crops. cheap source of energy in rural areas. It contains

Chronicle IAS Academy [65]

 55 to 70 per cent methane, which is inflammable. (land, air and water) and global pollution. Biogas
Biogas is produced from cattle dung in a ‘Biogas obtained by anaerobic digestion of cattle dung
Plant’ commonly known as ‘Gobargas Plant’, and other loose and leafy organic matters/
through a process called ‘digestion’. The wastes can be used as energy source for cooking,
manurial value of the dung is enhanced in the lighting and other applications like refrigeration,
process. A biogas plant helps in obtaining both electricity generation and transport applications.
cooking fuel and enriched manure from the
Bio-Alternative to Diesel: After introducing
same quantity of cattle dung. Village sanitation
is also improved. Environmental conditions are ethanol-blended petrol in selected states, the
upgraded as the forest cover is protected by centre has now drawn up a Rs. 1,430 crore plan
saving fuelwood. Biogas is also used for lighting to make use of oil from the seeds of the Jatropha
plant as a bio-alternative to diesel. The plan,

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purpose. It could also be used for running
engines of small horsepower. Large scale which is to be implemented with a mission mode

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promotion of biogas plants helps to generate approach, is expected to generate six lakh tonnes
employment for masons, village technicians and of diesel-quality oil valued at Rs. 1,020 crore per
unskilled workers in rural areas. annum at the end of a gestation period of four

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years.
The National Project for Biogas Development
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(NPBD) is being implemented by the Department For the purpose of the project, Jatropha
of Non-conventional Energy Sources in plantations would be raised in an area of four
co-operation with State Departments, State lakh hectares spread over eight states- Andhra
Nodal Agencies and Non-Governmental Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh,
Agencies. NPBD caters to the promotion of family Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
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type biogas plants. It was started in 1981-82. The Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
broad objectives of the project are: National Bio-Diesel Policy
(a) To provide energy in a clean and
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unpolluted form; As per the announcement of Ministry of

A
Petroleum & Natural Gas, beginning from
(b) To produce enriched manure to January 1, 2006, the public sector oil marketing
supplement the use of chemical companies (OMCs) will be purchasing bio-diesel
fertilizers; (B100) at Rs. 25 a litre for blending with diesel
(c) To bring improvement in the life of rural (HSD) to the extent of 20 per cent in phases. To
womenfolk and children by relieving start with, five per cent of bio-diesel, a non-edible
them from drudgery; and oil extracted from ‘Jatropha’ and ‘Pongamia,’
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(d) To improve sanitation and hygiene. would be mixed with diesel during trial runs.
At a later stage, in phases, the B100 blending
Setting up of community and institutional with diesel is to be increased to 20 per cent.
biogas plants was initiated in 1982-83 to provide
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Automobile engines would not require any

benefits of biogas technology to weaker sections modification for using diesel doped with 20 per
of society also, who otherwise cannot afford cent bio-diesel as fuel.
family type biogas plants. This programme
provides financial assistance upto 90% of the Only those bio-diesel manufacturers who get
capital cost of village-based community biogas their samples approved and certified by the oil
plants. Plants set up by Central and State companies and registered as authorised suppliers
will be eligible for assured purchase of product.
Government institutions, Co-operatives or Trusts
Accordingly, starting January 1, 2006, the OMCs
tied to such bodies are eligible to receive financial
- Indian Oil Corporation (IOC), Bharat Petroleum
assistance upto 70% of the capital cost.
Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Hindustan
Biogas production is a clean low carbon Petroleum Corporation Limited are purchasing,
technology for efficient management and through select purchase centres, bio-diesel that
conversion of organic wastes into clean meets the fuel quality standards prescribed by
renewable biogas and organic fertilizer source. the Bureau of Industrial Standards (BIS).
It has the potential for leveraging sustainable
Biodiesel: Jatropha plantation is a subject for
livelihood development as well as tackling local
state governments. Public-sector petroleum

[66] Chronicle IAS Academy

 companies and private sector firms have entered (b) Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is
into a MoU with state governments to establish collected from a vast reservoir of heat in
and promote Jatropha plantation on government the interior of the earth. About 340
wastelands or to contract with small and geothermal hot springs have been identified
medium farmers. However, only a few states throughout the country. Use of geothermal
have been able to promote actively Jatropha energy has been demonstrated for small
plantation despite the government’s incentives scale power generations and thermal
and encouraging policies. applications.
(c) Ocean Energy: The Ocean acts as a natural
There are about 20 large-capacity biodiesel
collector of solar energy. The temperature
plants (10,000 to 200,000 metric tons per year) gradients, waves and tides contained by
in India that produce biodiesel from alternative ocean can be used to generate electricity in
feed stocks such as edible oil waste (unusable oil

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an eco-friendly manner. Likewise, flowing
fractions), animal fat and inedible oils. tidal water contain large amounts of

Y
Presently, commercial production and potential energy.
marketing of Jatropha-based biodiesel in India
is small, with estimates varying from 140 to 300 INDIA’S ENERGY SECURITY

EM
million litres per year. The biodiesel produced is
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sold to the unorganized sector (irrigation pumps,
mobile towers, kilns, agricultural usage, owners
Energy security involves ensuring
uninterrupted supply of energy to support the
economic and commercial activities necessary for
of diesel generators, etc.) and to experimental
sustained economic growth. Energy security is
projects carried out by automobile manufacturers
obviously more difficult to ensure if there is large
and transport companies. However, as per
dependence on imported energy. This calls for
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industry sources, there has been no commercial
action in several areas.
sale of biodiesel to state owned transport
companies except for trials. 1) The domestic production of coal, oil and
gas and other energy sources has to be
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Additionally, there has been no commercial stepped up. Some of the recent issues in
A
sale of biodiesel across the biodiesel purchase this regard have been availability of land,
centres (set up by the GOI) as the government clearances for environment and forest and
biodiesel purchase price of Rs. 26.5 per litre is implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and
still below the estimated biodiesel finished Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
production cost (Rs 35 to Rs 40 per litre). (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.
Unavailability of feedstock supply (Jatropha Uncertainty about production sharing
seeds), rising wage rates and inefficient contracts has also posed problems.
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marketing channels are a few of the major factors Management strategies and procedures will
that have contributed to higher production costs. have to be devised for ensuring effective
implementation of fuel development
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NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND PROJECTS projects while meeting the requirements of

above policies and legislations.
Various programmes are being implemented
2) A stable and attractive policy regime has
under the MNES to promote new and emerging
to be provided to ensure substantial private
renewable energy technologies such as fuel cells,
investment, including foreign investment in
hydrogen energy, electric vehicles, geothermal
oil and natural gas blocks and new
energy and tidal energy. capacities for renewable energy. Producers
(a) Fuel Cells: Through this device the chemical must have clarity in the price they will
energy of a fuel can be converted into usable receive and an assurance of a stable tax
electricity and heat without combustion as regime. Since oil exploration is a global
an intermediate step. Hydrogen is the industry the terms India offers must be
primary fuel in this device, which can be comparable with those offered elsewhere.
produced from renewable sources of energy. In this context the entire structure of New
Because of modular nature, fuel cells are Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP)
ideally suited for distributed power contracts for oil and gas need to be
generation. reviewed.

Chronicle IAS Academy [67]

 3) Investments in renewable energies need to of the project cost was to be provided by the
be strongly emphasised. By present Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) as loan.
projections, the share of renewable energy Initially, Phase I of the RGGVY scheme was
in total energy consumption will only reach approved for implementation with a capital
2 per cent by 2021. subsidy of `5,000 crore during the remainder of
4) Investments in energy assets in foreign the 10th Plan period. Subsequently, the scheme
countries, especially for coal, oil and gas was approved to be continued in the 11th Plan
and uranium should be stepped up. with a capital subsidy of 28,000 crore. Overall,
by the end of 11th Plan, out of the total 5,93,732
5) To meet any possible disruption in oil villages in India (Census 2001), 5,56,633 villages
supplies, on which we are import- (93.8 per cent) ought to have been electrified as
dependent to the extent of more than 80

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per CEA report.
per cent, storage capacities need to be

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created. The Organisation for Economic The States of Delhi, Goa and Union Territories
Cooperation and Development (OECD) of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh,
countries have generally created these Dadar & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu and
capacities to the extent of 90 days of their Puducherry have not participated in RGGVY

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domestic demand. We have created the Programme as they had achieved 100 per cent
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capacity for 5 million tonnes. It has,
however, not been fully utilised so far.
There will be a need to increase this
electrification of villages. In remaining 27 states,
RGGVY Projects for 579 districts have been
sanctioned.
gradually and utilise it fully. Innovative
Salient Features
ways will have to be found to fill up these
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tankages. (A) The Scheme: (i) The Scheme had aimed
at electrification of about One lakh villages and
RAJIV GANDHI GRAMEEN providing access to electricity to 7.8 crore rural
households, including 2.34 crore BPL households
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VIDYUTIKARAN YOJNA
A
by 2009.
A scheme ‘Rajiv Gandhi Grameen
(ii) The Government estimated an outlay of
Vidyutikaran Yojana’ for a Rural Electricity
Rs. 16,000 crore under RGGVY for attainment
Infrastructure and Household Electrification was
of stipulated objectives of the programme, of
launched in April, 2005 for the attainment of
which, Rs. 5000 crore was approved as capital
the National Common Minimum Programme of
subsidy during 10th plan period for
providing access to electricity to all Rural
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implementation of Phase-I of the programme.

Household in five years. The scheme involved
electrification of all unelectrified villages plus a (B) Scope: Under the scheme, projects could
free connection for BPL households. be financed with capital subsidy for provision
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of -
The Ministry of Power has been entrusted
with the responsibility of providing electricity to 1. Rural Electricity Distribution Backbone
the uncovered villages through the programme (REDB)
instrument of Rajiv Gandhi Grameen (a) Provision of 33/11 KV substations of
Vidyutikaran Yojana. Rural Electrification adequate capacity and lines in blocks
Corporation (REC) would be the implementation where these do not exist.
agency of the scheme which covers the entire 2. Creation of Village Electrification
country. To achieve this objective, Rural Infrastructure
Electricity Distribution Backbone will be set up
as village electrification - infrastructure. The (a) Electrification of unelectrified villages.
scheme deployment of franchisee system has also (b) Electrification of unelectrified
been made mandatory so as to bring about habitations.
revenue sustainability in the rural distribution (c) Provision of distribution transformers
system. of appropriate capacity in electrified
villages/habitation.
The scheme provided a subsidy of 90 per cent
of the total project cost and balance 10 per cent (d) 25,000 remote villages covered for

[68] Chronicle IAS Academy

 financing under MNES not included. In the long-term, promotion of public
(e) Decentralised generation-cum-distri- transport in urban areas can significantly reduce
bution from conventional sources or energy consumption, particularly the need for
villages where grid connectivity is either imported oil and gas. Develop effective and
not feasible or not cost effective. attractive mass transport such as underground,
3. Rural Household Electrification of Below elevated trains, light rail, monorail or dedicated
Poverty Line Households bus lanes in existing metros.

(a) Electrification of unelectrified Below Substitute Domestic Alternatives

Poverty Line (BPL) households would Energy security can be increased by reducing
be financed with 100 per cent capital the need for imported energy by substituting it
subsidy as per norms of Kutir Jyoti with other forms of energy. Though this does
Programme in all rural habitations.

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not reduce the need for total energy, it reduces
(b) Households above poverty line would import dependence. Some important options

Y
be paying for their connections at include:
prescribed connection charges and no
1. Wood plantations with a potential of
subsidy would be available for this
yielding up to 20 tonnes of wood per

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purpose.
C IC hectare per year in a sustainable way could
THREAT TO ENERGY SECURITY significantly expand the domestic energy
resource base. Wood can be burned directly
The threat to energy security arises not just or gasified for power generation. This would
from the uncertainty of availability and price of reduce the need for future gas/coal imports.
imported energy, but also from the possible 2. Bio-diesel and Ethanol can substitute diesel
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disruption or shortfalls in domestic production. and petrol. Ethanol can be obtained from
The second concern is not disruption of supply molasses, which may have other
but the market risk of a sudden increase in oil economically more paying uses. Ethanol
price. While we may be able to pay for imports, can also be obtained from other starchy
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crops and from cellulosic plant matter.

A
a high oil price can cause inflation, slow down
the economy and impose hardship on the people. 3. If hydrogen can be produced as a
Any disruption in access to energy can be very byproduct of industry or with locally
expensive in welfare terms as energy is critical available energy sources, hydrogen based
not only for economic growth but also for human vehicles could provide an option to reduce
survival and well-being. dependence on oil imports.
4. Coal can be converted into oil as is done in
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Reduce Energy Requirements

South Africa. The technology is well-
Improvement in energy efficiency or developed and in use for years.
conservation is akin to creating a new domestic
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energy resource base. Such efficiency Develop Alternative Sources

improvements can be made in energy extraction,
Enhanced Recovery: Enhanced oil, gas and
conversion, transmission, distribution and end-
coal recovery from existing fields is an obvious
use of energy. All of these efficiency
option. India’s recovery of in-place reserves can
improvements can come using currently
improve easily by 5-10 percentage points. Better
available commercial technologies.
mine design and the use of technologically
Energy efficiency and demand side advanced mining techniques are valid options.
management also have a large scope to reduce Coal Bed Methane: Methane is absorbed in
energy requirement. These include the use of coal seams. This Coal Bed Methane (CBM)
energy efficient appliances and automobiles, usually escapes into the atmosphere when coal
hybrid cars, energy efficient buildings, efficient is mined. Tapping and utilizing the CBM as a
lighting, cogeneration, distributed generation source of commercial energy has been in vogue
with Combined Heat and Power (CHP) use, in the US and Australia for several years. The
energy efficient and well-maintained irrigation estimated potential of CBM in India is in the
pumps, smokeless improved woodstoves, etc. range of 1400-2600 billion cu. metres (BCM).

Chronicle IAS Academy [69]

 The potential of Coal Bed Methane/Coal exploit these economically in ecologically
Mine Methane was recognised in a new policy safe ways is yet to be developed.
of Government of India in 1997. The Ministry of
3) Wind: The potential for onshore wind
Coal and the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
power has been assessed to be 45,000 MW.
Gas are working together for the development
The Wind Energy Society of India claims it
of Coal Bed Methane and the Government has to be as high as 65,000 MW. However, given
offered 33 blocks in four rounds of bidding for that the average capacity factor realized
CBM covering 17,416 sq. km of area. One block by India’s wind farms is only about 17
in Raniganj coalfield has commenced percent, the total contribution to energy
commercial production in 2007 and two blocks from these plants would be relatively small.
are in advanced stage of commencing Thus while wind power may be pursued

D LE
production. for environmental and economic reasons,
The Director General of Hydrocarbons is the its contribution to energy security will

Y
regulator for CBM activities in the country. The remain very limited.
CBM/CMM clearance house has been 4) Solar: Solar energy, if it can be
established in CMPDIL, Ranchi, in collaboration economically exploited constitutes a major

EM
with United States Environment Protection energy resource for the country. Solar
C IC
Agency (USEPA) which will provide information
for development of CBM/CMM in India. The
current level of production, being only 0.2
electricity generated through either the
thermal route or using photovoltaic cells
provides comparable amounts of electricity
mmscmd, is confined mostly to the private sector. per unit of collector area. Both methods
There is no separate pricing regime for CBM and currently provide about 15 percent
A N
the gas prices are determined by the developer, conversion efficiency.
subject to Government approval. 5) Energy Plantations: Growing fuel wood for
Coal to Oil: Rising oil prices in the world running power plants either directly or after
S RO

market makes conversion of coal to oil gasification can save the coal or gas used
A
economically attractive. India should establish for generating power. Since the country’s
the viability of Sasol technology with domestic energy needs are growing, imports of coal
coal and establish the breakeven price at which and LNG are also likely to grow. Fuel wood
coal to liquids would make sense for Indian coal. plantations can help improve energy
security. The scope for such plantations is
New Domestic Sources: The domestic substantial.
resource base can also be expanded through
IA H

developing hitherto poorly developed or new CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

sources of energy. Some of these resources may
require R & D to make them economical. Among With the development of civilization and
C

these are: commercialization coupled with urbanisation

1) Nuclear Power: With meagre availability the needs of the people have grown significantly.
of Uranium in the country and vast Human beings have exploited the resources
resources of Thorium, any long-term endlessly. These activities based upon resource
nuclear strategy has to be based on consumption have led to the problems of
Thorium. The three stage strategy of degradation and depletion of energy resources.
development of nuclear power from A grim scenario of the energy resource has been
pressurized heavy water based reactors to created in the form of energy crisis. A detailed
fast breeder reactors to Thorium based study of the background of the situation compels
reactors require a sustained R & D effort. us to think about the major cause of such a
Success in these efforts could deliver some situation. One can pronounce on an unequivocal
2, 50,000 MW of nuclear power by 2050 term that it is the cost of industrial development
and much more thereafter. coupled with over dependence on conventional
sources. Past generations in coping the pace of
2) Gas Hydrates: Very large reserves exist in
development have harnessed the conventional
Indian waters and have the potential to
sources at an exorbitant rate with deaf ears to
provide vast amount of gas. Technology to
future problems. A want of rationale is enshrined

[70] Chronicle IAS Academy

 in the behavioural approach of society vis-a-vis Pradesh), Mundra (Gujarat), Krishnapatnam
energy consumption. (Andhra Pradesh) and Tilaiya (Jharkhand). Out
of these, one unit of 800 MW of Mundra by Tata
Rural Electrification Corporation
Power has been commissioned in March 2012.
Rural Electrification Corporation Limited 12 more supercritical UMPPs are being planned
(REC), a Navratna Central Public Sector covering Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu,
Enterprise under Ministry of Power, was Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra and
incorporated on July 25, 1969 under the Karnataka. An important element of this
Companies Act 1956. Its main objective is to programme is the induction of supercritical
finance and promote rural electrification projects technology, which is an important shift towards
all over the country. It provides financial energy efficiency. Unfortunately, some of these
assistance to State Electricity Boards, State projects are plagued with uncertainties

D LE
Government Departments and Rural Electric regarding fuel supply because they were based
Cooperatives for rural electrification projects as on imported coal and changes in government

Y
are sponsored by them. policies in the countries where the coal mines
were located have raised the cost of coal
REC provides loan assistance to SEBs/State whereas the power tariff is based on a
Power Utilities for investments in rural

EM
competitive bid which does not contain a
electrification schemes through its Corporate
C IC
Office located at New Delhi and 17 field units
(Project Offices), which are located in most of
provision for passing on such increases.

MAJOR NEW INITIATIVES

the States.
The following are some of the new initiatives
The Project Offices in the States coordinate in the area of renewable energy:
the programmes of REC’s financing with the
A N
1. National Institute of Solar Energy: The
concerned SEBs/State Power Utilities and
existing Solar Energy Centre would be
facilitate in formulation of schemes, loan
converted into an autonomous institution
sanction and disbursement and implementation
for undertaking applied research,
S RO

of schemes by the concerned SEBs/State Power

A
demonstration and development in solar
Utilities.
energy, including solar hybrid areas.
Ultra Mega Power Projects 2. National Bioenergy Corporation of India:
Ministry of Power launched a unique National Bio Energy Corporation of India
initiative in 2005-06 to facilitate the development (NBECI) will be set up to implement
of Ultra Mega Power Projects (UMPPs) each bioenergy mission, including cook stove
IA H

having a capacity of about 4000 MW each, at programme.

both the coal pitheads and coastal locations 3. Renewable Energy Development Fund: In
aimed at delivering power at competitive cost to order to address the financing constraints
consumers by achieving economies of the scale. for the grid connected as well as the off-
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The Central Government has accordingly taken grid applications of renewables, it is

the initiative for facilitating the development of proposed to create a Renewable Energy
UMPPs under tariff based competitive bidding Development fund. The fund will plug the
route using super critical technology on build, gap between the sector financing needs and
own and operate (BOO) basis. Central Electricity the amount that falls short of the banks’
Authority (CEA) is the Technical partner and obligations to their lending to this priority
Power Finance Corporation (PFC) is the Nodal sector.
Agency.
4. National Bioenergy Mission: Biomass
The Ultra Mega Power Projects (UMPPs) energy for electricity generation has turned
Programme, which brings in private investment out to be one of the most attractive sources
into power generation, was a major initiative of of power which is scalable, has the largest
the Eleventh Plan. So far power purchase potential for improving energy access and
agreements have been signed for four UMPPs of which can be linked to generating
4,000 MW each on the basis of competitive tariff- additional rural income. In view of the
based bidding. They are based in Sasan (Madhya success of such biomass-based off-grid

Chronicle IAS Academy [71]

 renewable models in rural areas of Bihar, it electrification has been achieved. However,
is proposed to launch the Biomass Mission a large number of small habitations still
with an objective to create a policy remain unconnected.
framework for attracting investment and • Various activities under different schemes
to facilitate rapid development of of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and
commercial biomass energy market based Ministry of Power (MoP) have resulted in
on utilisation of surplus agro-residues and saving in avoided power capacity of 11,000
development of energy plantations. MW.
5. Renewable Power Evacuation Infra- • Works relating to 18 units for life extension
structure: Special emphasis will be placed aggregating to 1,931 MW and 69 units for
on creating evacuation infrastructure and repair and maintenance (R&M) aggregating

D LE
transmission facilities for renewable power to 17,435 MW have been completed during
in a time-bound manner to support the the 11th Plan.

Y
large expansion in consumption and
production of renewable power. Judicious 12TH PLAN PROGRAMME
planning of transmission system, that is,

EM
creating pooling substation for cluster of The Working Group on Power has estimated
C IC
renewable power generators and
connecting them with receiving station of
STU/CTU at appropriate voltage level, will
a capacity addition requirement of 75,785 MW
corresponding to 9 per cent GDP growth during
the Twelfth Plan period. However, in order to
lead to optimal utilisation of transmission bridge the gap between peak demand and peak
system. deficit, and provide for faster retirement of the
A N
6. National Biomass Cook Stove Programme: old energy-inefficient plants, the target for the
The proposed initiative plans to universalise Twelfth Plan has been fixed at 88,537 MW. The
access of improved biomass cook stoves by share of the private sector in the additional
providing assistance in exploring a range capacity will be 53 per cent, compared to a target
S RO
A
of technology deployments, biomass of 19 per cent in the Eleventh Plan. Since the
processing and delivery models leveraging growth rate of GDP for the Twelfth Plan is likely
public-private partnerships. to be 8.2 per cent and not 9 per cent, the target
for capacity addition contain an element of slack
ACHIEVEMENTS IN POWER SECTOR of about 10 per cent.
DURING THE PERIOD OF 11TH PLAN
The share of power based on non-fossil fuel
IA H

• Capacity addition during the 11th Plan plants is very low at present and should be
period has been at 54,964 MW which is increased over time to promote low carbon
69.8 per cent of the original target and 88.1 growth strategy. The share of coal and lignite in
per cent of the reduced target of 62,374 the additional capacity being created during the
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MW set in the Mid-term Appraisal (MTA). Twelfth Plan is 79 per cent, up from 76 per cent
It is more than 2.5 times that of any of the in the target from the Eleventh Plan which
earlier Plans. actually ended up at 79 per cent. The projected
• Total installed capacity as on 31 March capacity addition in non-fossil fuel plants covers
2012, including renewable energy sources addition of hydro capacity of 1,0897 MW and
of the country was 1,99,877 MW. The share nuclear capacity of 5,300 MW. Besides this, 1,200
of renewable energy capacity being about MW import of hydro power from Bhutan has
12.2 per cent. also been considered. In addition, it is planned
to add a grid interactive renewable capacity
• Total number of villages electrified till
addition of about 30,000 MW comprising of
March 2012 was about 5.6 lakhs, indicating
that more than 93 per cent village 15,000 MW wind, 10,000 MW solar, 2,100 small
hydro, and the balance primarily from bio mass.

[72] Chronicle IAS Academy

Science & Technology
(Part-III)

Add : D-108, Sec-2, Noida (U.P.), Pin - 201 301

Email id : helpdesk@campus100.in
Call : 09582948810, 09953007628, 0120-2440265
 CONTENTS

Sl. No. TOPICS Pg. No.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

1. Ocean Development ................................................................................ 5-15

2. India In Space......................................................................................... 16-38

3. New Technology .................................................................................... 39-50

4. Great Indian Scientists .......................................................................... 51-73

5. New Develpments ................................................................................. 74-80

 OCEAN DEVELOPMENT
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

The oceans and their inter-connecting seas energy. The sea is an excellent source for a most
form a continuous territory that covers about critical element of the human diet - animal
three-fourths of the earth’s surface. Within these protein. Some 15 per cent of the world’s supply
liquid expanses, there are seemingly of animal protein comes from fisheries and it has
inexhaustible sources of food, minerals and been calculated that the potential yield, given
energy. The development of marine resources the proper technology is between 8 to 34 times
such as fish, petroleum, sand and gravel, the world’s requirements.
desalinated water aquaculture, phosphorus and
manganese nodules, placer minerals, extracted The Indian Ocean produces only 2.4 million
chemicals, fish protein concentrates, etc. is tonnes of fish, which amount to only four per
already possible with the available technology cent of the total world production. However, the
and major countries of the world, recognizing potential fish catch from this area is estimated
the potential economic importance of marine to be at least four to five times more. Water which
resources have already organized their efforts can sustain prawn and tuna have not been fully
in this area, and India, too, is making a exploited while only minimal attention has been
beginning. paid to coastal aquaculture i.e. the culture and
raising of oysters, clams and mussels.
A proper consideration of marine resources
should begin with an understanding of the The success of oceanic fishing depends on
features characteristics of the deep ocean. The how well we determine the location of the fish
physiographic features consist mainly of a shoals and on the level of sophistication of
continental shelf extending from the beach to a available marine technology in the country.
distance of up to 1300 km with outer depths of Locating, tracking and identifying fish shoals
50 to 500 metres, a continental slope slanting involve two major steps—
gently downwards from the shelf to the ocean 1. Searching for the general area in which
depths of 3 to 5 kilometres at a slope of about 5°.
commercial concentrations are expected.
The chemical features of the ocean consist of 2. Localising and detecting the precise
a complex solution of dissolved chemicals with position of the fish. Of even more
surprisingly uniform content of approximately significance in the exploitation of marine
40 chemicals. A vastly more dilute and less
resources is the possibility of finding oil
understood solution of trace elements and
and gas offshore in large quantities. It has
organic constituents supports and permits life
been established that approximately 20 per
to exist within the sea.
cent of the world’s reserves of oil lie
The biological features of the sea consist offshore. In India the major potential
mainly of over 10,000 known species of single- offshore areas for oil and gas are the Gulf
celled plants called Phytoplanktons that support of Cambay, Bombay High, the Indo-Sri
all marine life through photosynthesis, an almost Lanka trough, the Bay of Bengal, the
equally large variety of tiny animals called Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Krishna
Zooplanktons, an enormous variety of Godavari (KG) Basin.
invertebrates, fishes, mammals (e.g. whales,
seals, etc.) that depend on the atmosphere for In India among other physical resources,
oxygen and include some of the most intelligent heavy mineral rich beach sands containing
animals in the whole animal kingdom. Monazite and Ilmenite have been found on the
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra
The major focus of marine activity today,
Pradesh and Orissa coasts. The offshore
tends to lie in mankind’s search for food and

Chronicle IAS Academy [5]

 occurrence of calcareous deposits suitable for the Expedition during 1962-65. The task has since
chemical and cement industries have been been taken over by the Department of Science
reported from bottom samples off the Andaman and Technology, which visualizes the creation
and Nicobar Islands, Saurashtra, Kerala and of a separate Ocean Science and Technology
Lakshadweep. These deposits, which represent Commission to coordinate the Indian efforts.
the remains of calcareous organism such as coal
are also expected to occur in many more areas BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
all around the Indian peninsula. Phosphate
nodules and Barium concentrations have been Phytoplanktons are the principal plants in
recorded off the west coast of India and the ocean and are the base of the food chain.
Lakshadweep while chromite has been found in The distribution of zooplankton which feed on
the sea floor rifts of Indian Ocean. Efforts to the phytoplankton is world’s major fishing areas.
survey the extent of these resources have Oceans have become major source of food and
however been few and far between and in the are more likely to become so in future. Because
absence of technical capabilities there have been of its sheer size, oceans will have a larger food
no systematic efforts to exploit them. potential. Again due to increased population,
little option is left for agricultural extension on
A large number of organizations have been land and henceforth the human population will
working in the field of ocean science and be under compulsion to move towards the ocean
engineering for marine resource exploitation in to satisfy its demands. Ocean food resources are
India. The Geological Survey of India is nutritionally advantageous or better source of
responsible for all investigations pertaining to amino acids in correct proportion, better source
geological sciences excluding the exploration and of vitamin-B12, low in cholesterol and fat, high
exploitation of oil and natural gas, which is in polyunsaturated fats and essential fatty acids.
under the domain of the Oil and Natural Gas
Commission. The Atomic Energy Commission India is a littoral state with a vast coastline
conducts studies on the deposition and of about 6000 km and the Exclusive Economic
replenishment of minerals in the coastal regions Zone (EEZ) of about 2.02 million sq km. About
as well as on the presence and behaviour of 50 per cent of sustainable fishing zone of India’s
radioactive elements. The Tata Institute of EEZ lies in inshore zone of less than 50 metres
Fundamental Research, Mumbai, has carried out depth. India ranks 8th in the annual fish catch
research in chemical oceanography. While the in the world. In India, the marine fish accounts
Meteorological Department has done some work for about 56 per cent of the total national fish
in marine meteorological studies. The National catch. However, the annual potential in India is
Institute of Oceanography created in 1966, is about 10 million tonnes. Intensive prawn farming
responsible for research on the basic aspects of has been developed at Nellore in Andhra Pradesh
physical, chemical, geological and biological and improved shrimps farming in Andaman and
oceanography and also for handling Nicobar.
oceanographic data. The Naval Hydrographic
FRESH-WATER RESOURCES
office conducts hydrographic studies.
Some state governments have their own Oceans, ice-caps and glaciers constitute
geological departments to carry out geological about 97.2% and 2.15% of world’s water supply
surveys and some universities like those of respectively. Fresh water extracted from the sea
Andhra and Kerala are also involved in various is one of the most valuable resources, especially
coastal studies pertaining to marine geology and for the countries where land water availability
biology. is very difficult and costly. Icebergs, another
source of fresh water, would be found by some
All these organizations and their research mechanism to the areas where water is needed
efforts were coordinated by the Indian National like Saudi Arabia, California, Australia, etc.
Committee of Oceanic Research (INCOR)
established by the Government of India in 1960 Ocean water is neither fit for human
to draw up a programme for India’s consumption nor for agricultural purposes. But,
participation in the International Indian Ocean it can be converted into fresh water through

Chronicle IAS Academy [6]

 desalination. The important methods of dissolved salts are found in the seas.
desalination are: Magnesium and Bromine are other
(i) Solar Still: In this process, the sea water chemical elements.
is boiled by concentrating solar heat b) Metals/Minerals: They include gold,
and then condensing the steam as fresh silver, zinc, uranium, thorium, etc. It is
water. In India, in Avnea village of claimed that metals can be hauled from
Gujarat, such a plant has been the sea at 50-70% of the cost of
established with the capacity of 5000 launching as the sea ores are often
litres per day. highly concentrated. However, not all
of them are so available and with the
(ii) Electrodialysis: In this method, iron-
present status of technology they are
reflective membrane is used for the
costly to extract. On the basis of areas
desalination of brackish water.
of availability, the mineral resources can
(iii) Flash Distillation: Here, the heated be again divided in the following way:
saline water is passed through a series • On Continental Shelf and Slopes: This
of chambers. In each section, vapour is zone is rich in zircon, monazite, magnetite,
released and collected, and then gold, diamond, platinum, phosphorite,
condensed. sulphur, etc. Mud and sands found on the
(iv)Reverse Osmosis: In this process, continental shelf are rich in copper, zinc,
suitable osmotic membranes are used lead and calcium. Sand is a source of
which rejects salt and allow water to calcium carbonate. Phosphorite is found in
pass through it when the sea water is the form of nodules containing about 30%
put under high pressure. phosphate. On the western coast of India,
especially the Kerala coast, the sand of the
However, there are some problems regarding sea coast possess about 90% of world’s
the desalination processes. It is very costly and monazite reserve, which is the chief nuclear
needs huge amount of energy. The desalination energy resource for the future. Along with
plants release significant amount of heat and magnetite, zircon and rutile are also found
pollutants. There would be problem of the on the west coast of India and is viable for
disposal of vast amount of salt. extraction.
In India, Central Salt and Marine Chemical • Sub-surface Deposits: The most important
Research Institute (CSMCRI) at Bhavnagar sub-surface deposits are mineral oil and
(Gujarat) has done much in this sector. BHEL is gases and coal. At present, about 90% of
manufacturing desalination plants of different the mineral value is taken from the sea.
sizes. The mineral oil deposits are mostly found
in the continental shelves. There are many
MINERAL RESOURCES structures, which work as a trap for
petroleum and natural gas, such as, salt
Oceans are the storehouse of valuable
dome. Thick sediment deposit and relatively
minerals in the world. Mineral resources,
high concentration of organic matter suggest
available in ocean, are of different kinds like
to the occurrence of petroleum. Submerged
energy resources (oil, gas, and coal), metallic
coal deposits are found in Japan, U.K and
minerals (manganese, iron, tin, etc.), chemicals
South Africa.
(salt of sodium and chlorine and bromine, etc.),
manganese nodules and polymetallic nodules • Deep Sea Deposits: There are two main
and others (coral, limestone etc). types of mineral deposits found on the deep
sea bed which are economically viable. They
a) Chemicals: About 64 out of total 92
are manganese nodules and metalliferous
naturally occurring chemicals are
sediments of polymetallic sulphides.
dissolved in sea-water, although, only a
few of them are commercially viable for c) Manganese Nodules: These nodules are
extraction. Sodium and chlorine are most abundant in the deepest part of the
most abundant, about 85% of the total ocean, very often in trenches. They are

Chronicle IAS Academy [7]

 hydrogenous pelagic deposits and found in • Identification of locales of hydrothermal
large concentration in red clay. They mainly sulphide deposition, including
contain manganese, iron, nickel, copper, determination of the resource potential.
cobalt, lead and zinc. They are mainly
• Initiation of associated scientific research
spherical in shape from one to twenty cm
in the frontier areas of hydrothermal
in diameter. About 25% of the sea floor is
mineralization.
expected to be covered by these deposits. In
Indian Ocean, over 10 million sq. km. area, Geotraces in India
east of central Indian ridge has such
potential. They are less expensive source of A network of research projects being
these metals. Again, they will be less executed by a number of research and academic
polluting than mining on land. They are institutions. The objective is to map the
also good absorber of sulphur dioxide so distribution of trace elements and isotopes in the
will further reduce pollution. But, the main Indian Ocean and to identify the factors
obstacle in their exploration is that they influencing these distributions. The activities are
need proper mining technology and huge various stages of implementation and currently
energy. involved in acquisition and analysis of samples.
d) Polymetallic Sulphides: Polymetallic One Oceangraphic cruise onboard Sagar
nodules are potato shaped, porous and Sampada was conducted in the Arabian Sea.
black earthy deposits, with size ranging Samples from several water profiles were
from 2 to 10 cm in diameter. These nodules collected along 680 E transect for analysis of trace
occur at nearly 4 to 5 km depth in the elements and their isotopes in sediments and
deep oceans lying on the seabed. They corals of the northern Indian Ocean.
comprise, besides manganese and iron,
nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, Trace elements and isotopes (TEIs) play
cadmium, vanadium, titanium. important role in the ocean as nutrients and as
tracers of the contemporary and the past
They are less well known than manganese processes. Trace elements regulate ocean
nodules because their potential economic processes, such as marine ecosystem dynamics
importance has only recently been recognized. and carbon cycling. Several other trace elements
They are rich in sulphur, iron, copper and smaller also play vital roles in cell physiology and in
amount of zinc, tin, molybdenum, lead and biochemical reactions.
silver. India has located such nodules in central
Indian Ocean and initiated the exploration of ENERGY RESOURCES
polymetallic nodules in 1977 with the help of
Research ship-Gaveshani. India has tied up with Almost all concepts and laws of science are
USA, UK, Russia, Japan and Germany in this the subjects related to development to improve
field. India presently has 75000 sq km area in the quality of life of our people. Science has made
the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) for it possible for man to alter his living and working
conditions and by doing so it is the society, which
developmental activities targeted at harnessing
derives its benefit. Science provides new tools to
of metals, viz. Copper, Nickel, and Cobalt.
society to enlarge and intensify its scope for the
e) Hydrothermal Sulphides: Recently, a exploitation of resources and to use them to
major multi-disciplinary project aimed at improve the socio-economic conditions of the
exploration for potential sites of people.
hydrothermal multimetal sulphide
mineralization in the Indian Ocean Ridge Evidently there are several scientific
areas has been initiated. The major discoveries, which give us clues for their use in
objectives are as under: serving the needs of society. Since ancient times,
oceans have served mankind in countless ways.
• Exploration for potential sites of The seas around India constitute a natural
hydrothermal multimetal sulphide frontier of our country. Since times immemorial
mineralization in the Indian Ocean Ridge the inhabitants of India have used the seas for
areas. transport and communication for trade and

Chronicle IAS Academy [8]

 food. Recent developments in the field of between the high and the low tide is large and if
oceanography have convinced that some of the either a natural or an artificial water storage
biggest treasures of the world lie hidden in the facility (reservoir) is available, power can be
sea. Oceans are, therefore, known as “our last produced. The incoming tide is allowed to flow
frontier”. into the reservoir through a dam provided with
turbines to generate power. Similarly, the
Energy from Oceans: There are at least eight
outgoing tide is again made to flow through the
sources of energy to be obtained from the sea.
same dam to turn the turbine for generating
The various methods of extracting energy are
power. Such tidal power stations are built in
from:
areas where the tidal range is large. In France, a
1. Ocean waves tidal power plant has been operating in the La
2. Ocean tides Rance estuary for a long time. The plant was
3. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion commissioned in 1980 and produces 230 mw of
(OTEC) power. Another tidal power plant is in operation
at Kislaya Guba in the Barents Sea. Tidal power
4. Ocean currents
plants are being designed in the Bay of Fundy,
5. Ocean winds Canada, Severn estuary in U.K. and in the Bay
6. Salinity gradient of Cambay and Kutch in India where tides have
7. Ocean geothermal been found to be of the right range.
8. Bioconversion of seaweeds Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
Ocean Waves: Ocean water is kept under Plant: In tropical waters we find warm water at
constant motion by the waves, which are seen the surface and cold water in deeper layers. The
at the surface. This continual motion can be difference between the two within 100 m depth
harnessed to produce energy. The vertical rise could be about 20°C or more. If such a situation
and fall of successive waves is used to activate exists it is possible to conceive Ocean Thermal
either a water operated or air-operated turbine. Energy Conversion (OTEC) plant. The sun heats
In many designs the air-operated turbine is being the ocean and its energy gets stored in the
preferred. An Oscillating Water Column (OWC) topmost layers leaving the water of deeper layers
is built or fabricated in steel with an inlet at the cold. The principle of an OTEC plant is simple.
bottom for the entry and exit of the waves. With A “working fluid” like ammonia or propane
the incoming wave the water-column rises with a low boiling point is pumped into a closed
pushing the air at the top which is forced tube exposed to warm water. The heat of the
upwards to rotate a turbine and with the warm water vaporizes the working fluid; this
outgoing waves the water column goes down vapour is then taken to the cold water zone
allowing the air to be sucked in rotating the where it condenses to give back the fluid in liquid
turbine in the same direction to generate power. form. If this vapour is allowed to pass through a
The stronger wave action, and the wave height, turbine it can turn to generate power. The
the greater would be the power generated. vapour is allowed to pass through a condenser
in the cold water zone to get the liquid
Our country, using the above method (OWC) condensed. Thus we need heat exchangers
has designed a wave energy plant, which is being (evaporator and condenser) with a turbine and
built in Kerala. The ocean engineering centre of electrical generator in the middle. The working
the IIT, Chennai after several years of fluid is pumped up and made to circulate.
painstaking efforts has been able to develop an
indigenous design. After the wave energy plant The entire system can be built on the shore
is commissioned it would be the first of its kind with two tubes, one small to pump warm water
in the world. from the surface and the other long to pump cold
water from deeper parts to get the cycle
Ocean Tides: It is the most popular and established.
feasible method of producing power. The regular
flow and ebb tides (high and low water) are Ocean Currents: Sweeping all along the
produced by astronomical gravitational forces coastline are the ocean currents. There are a
of the sun and the moon. If the differences number of designs available to convert the

Chronicle IAS Academy [9]

 energy of the fast moving current into electrical sea bottom but high as we go deeper into the
power by allowing the water to pass through a earth crust and in latter case it is high at the
series of turbines installed under water. The main surface of the sea and low at deeper layers.
problem of harnessing the energy from the
currents is their low energy density with OCEAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
considerable risk in maintaining these structures
in position. India has more than 7500 km long coastline
including the islands and about 2 million sq.km
Ocean Winds: Coastal areas normally have of Exclusive Economic Zone. Since it has been
stronger winds and therefore, much more energy visualized that ocean has the vast potential of
is available from wind. Also in contrast to gusty endless economic resources, various steps have
nature of wind found on land the variation in been taken to develop and exploit its resources.
wind speed is far smoother along the coast. First of all, multidimensional ocean research ship
Suitable designs are available for windmills with ‘Gaveshani’ was employed in this field in 1975.
Battery bank systems for storing power. In After that in 1979 Ocean Science and Technology
several countries, such systems have been Authority was set up in order to probe India’s
installed along the coast and on offshore potential in the field of ocean research and
structures operating away from the coast. development. However, the landmark step was
Meteorological data show that the average speed taken in 1981 when the Department of Ocean
of wind in the world in the lower atmosphere is Development was set up. Two research vessels,
about 10 m/s. The density of air being 1.1 kgm3 Sagar Kanya from Germany and Sagar Sampada
the available wind power is of the order of from Denmark, were engaged in the field of
approximately 500 W/m3 of the collected flow. ocean research and development in the year
Steadiest winds are found in the trade wind zone. 1983 and 1984, respectively. A fleet of six
Icing and hurricanes are some of the problems scientific research vessels are under operation in
associated with the trade wind zone to be solved 2012-13 for undertaking oceanographic research
before power generation on a large scale, could activities. These are: ORV Sagar Kanya, FORV
begin. Sagar Sampada, TDV Sagar Nidhi, BTV Sagar
Manjusha, CRV Sagar Paschimi and CRV Sagar
Salinity Gradient: The principle for tapping
Purvi.
energy, from salinity differences is simple. If
there are two water bodies with different The main objectives of Ocean Development
salinities available these are kept under in India are:
controlled conditions and if a semi-permeable (i) Exploration and assessment of marine
membrane is placed between them the water living and non-living resources. Sagar
with a lower salinity begins to flow through the Kanya and Sagar Sampada have done
barrier until both attain equal concentrations. a lot in this area.
This is based on the principle of osmosis and the
movement of ions can cause the electrical (ii) Deep sea-bed exploration, especially of
current. Salinity power uses the concentration polymetallic nodules. The commercial
gradients of salts in the sea to generate power. exploitation of 6 elements-sodium,
In Sweden a pilot study is being conducted to calcium, chlorine, bromine, magnesium
generate power of 200 MW. and sulphur is possible from the sea-
bed. The prominent institutions engaged
Ocean Geothermal: This source has a very in the exploration of deep sea-bed are
limited value at present. There are many regions National Institute of Oceanography,
of the earth where the temperature is higher as Goa; Central Mechanical Engineering
we go deeper into the earth’s crust. Certain areas Institute, Durgapur; National
of the ocean contain hot spring with temperature
Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur;
as high as 50°C and from such a temperature
RRL, Bhuvaneshwar; and HZL,
difference it is possible to extract energy. The
Udaipur.
geothermal situation is the reverse of the ocean
thermal energy conversion (OTEC). In the former (iii) Antarctica Expedition is another aspect
case, the temperature is low at the surface of the of ocean development which was

Chronicle IAS Academy [10]

 started in 1981. Antarctic Study Centre, of the oceans and coastal areas as economical
Goa is the nodal agency to regulate the assets, to obtain commitments from governments
different expedition. Indian scientists to take actions, etc. As part of the International
have already established three Year of the Ocean, DOD proposed to display its
permanent stations-Maitri, Dakshin research ship “Sagar Kanya” for a study of the
Gangotri and Bharati in Antarctica. characteristics of the aerosol over the oceanic
regions and their optical effects. The Indian
(iv) Development of coastal zone and
satellite Oceansat and INSAT-3D are totally
islands. It is an integrated approach
dedicated to ocean related services.
which covers the overall development
of the coastal area. Five centres of Considering the need for capacity building
marine satellite information services and specialised skilled human resources as
have been set up to gather the emphasised in the Ocean Policy Statement,
information. For pollution control Department of Ocean Development has
Coastal Ocean Monitoring and established national institutes, viz. National
Prediction System has been established. Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) at
Some other steps taken for the Chennai, National Centre for Antarctic and
development of the coast are the Wave Ocean Research (NCAOR) at Goa, Indian
Energy Development Programme, Sea National Centre for Ocean and Information
Level Monitoring and Modeling, Services (INCOIS) at Hyderabad, Project
International Geosphere-Biosphere Directorate, Integrated Coastal and Marine Area
Programme. Management (PD-ICMAM) at Chennai and
Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology
(v) Oceanic-Meteorological survey is the (CMLRE) at Kochi.
prime goal of ocean development, which
is of significant use in weather ANTARCTIC RESEARCH
forecasting.
In March 2012, India successfully
(vi) Useful role in marine science and
commenced operations at Bharati, the third
technology in the international arena is
permanent station in the Antarctica. The
also an important objective as declared
summer complement of the 31st Indian Scientific
in the “Ocean Policy Statement-1982”.
Expedition to Antarctica returned from
The Ocean Policy Statement is primarily
Antarctica after completion of targeted activities.
aimed at utilisation of marine living and
nonliving resources for societal benefits During the 6th expedition to the Southern
in a sustainable manner. Ocean 2011-12, continuous observations were
carried out for ocean currents, atmospheric
In India, the Department of Ocean parameters and biogeochemistry by operating
Development carries out a periodic monitoring various instruments.
of the marine habitat. Started in 1991, the coastal
ocean monitoring and prediction system India entered in the field of Antarctic
(COMAPS) collects information on 25 research with its first expedition ‘Operation
parameters from 77 locations in the country, with Gangotri’ in December 1981. The third
the assistance of 11 Research and Development expedition constructed the permanent scientific
Organizations. research station ‘Dakshin Gangotri’ in 1983-84.
The second research station ‘Maitri’ was set up
The UNESCO had declared 1998 as the in 1988-89. The various scientific programmes
International Year of the Ocean and chalked out of Antarctic Research included studies in the
a host of ambitious plans and programmes. The field of meteorology, radio-wave-propagation,
International Oceanographic Commission (IOC), geology, Geophysics, Oceanography, Marine
an independent body in the UNESCO family, biology, Microbiology, upper atmosphere
was the nodal agency for the co-ordination of chemistry, Glaciology, etc. India was admitted
world-wide activities planned for the as a consultative member of Antarctic treaty in
International Year of the Ocean. The main aims 1959. In September 1983, India became a
of the International Year were to raise awareness member of the scientific committee on Antarctic

Chronicle IAS Academy [11]

 Research. India acceded to the convention on mapping and ecosystem changes,
the conservation of Antarctic Marine Living environmental parameter, health care,
Resources from July 17, 1985 and became full etc.
time member of the Commission from September
1986. The purpose of the Indian Antarctic research
is to identify and initiate studies and
Antarctica is the seventh continent of the
programmes, which are of significance in
world. It covers about 14 million sq. km area with
scientific and economic terms and to establish
about 5, 12,000 sq. km ice-free area. Up to
infrastructure facility and expertise which
seventh decade of 20th century, this was
would enable India to sustain and expand its
considered as an abandoned area for mankind,
but after the discovery of ozone hole in activities. Furthermore, it would add to our
Antarctica, this abandoned region was knowledge of the various features related to the
visualized with great importance and at the same Indian Ocean and also to the weather related to
time other useful areas were discovered. monsoon. Antarctica is also crucial to global
Antarctica is rich in biological resources. Seals, weather phenomena, such as, air circulation
more than 40 species of birds, fungi, algae, pattern, the cold phases and the sea currents.
grasses, penguins, etc., are found here. Krill of
India hosted and chaired the meeting Asian
Antarctica is one of the most famous and
Forum for Polar Sciences in New Delhi on 6-7
abundant resource of the world with the
estimated stock of 1000 million metric tonnes of August 2012. China, Japan, Korea, Malaysia
which at least 40-50 million metric tonnes could and host India participated in the meeting and
be harvested annually without endangering the exchanged information on the activities carried
stock. Antarctica ice cap contains 70% of world’s out in the Antarctic, Arctic and Southern Ocean.
fresh water store and more than 90% of ice. The India won the bid for hosting the Scientific
ice-free region of Antarctica has been visualized
Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) – XII
as having large scale mineral deposits. And this
International Symposium on Antarctic Earth
region is probably the world’s biggest coal-field.
Sciences, in 2015 at Goa.
The Indian Antarctic Research Programme
has been designed to take advantage of the 31st INDIAN SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION
unique site and environment of Antarctica
towards understanding the key global processes The 31st Indian Scientific Expedition to
that govern our future well being. The scientific Antarctica was launched in October 2011 and
programmes are essentially part of it and rooted culminated in March 2012 with the
in the following long-term programmes: commissioning of India’s Third Antarctic Station
“Bharati” on 18th March 2012.
(i) Ice-Ocean-atmosphere system in
Antarctica and global environment. Some of the major projects implemented by
the Indian Scientists at Maitri and Bharati during
(ii) Antarctic lithosphere and Gond-
the summer and winter months of 2011-12
wanaland reconstruction framework for
comprise: ionospheric studies by the National
delineating plate tectonic processes and
Physical laboratory, Temporal and Spatial
assessment of mineral resources and
Variations of meteorological parameters, by
hydrocarbons.
Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment
(iii) Antarctic ecosystem and environmental (SASE), Meteorological parameter observations
physiology. by ESSO IMD, Geophysical Studies by the
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism and National
(iv) Solar terrestrial processes.
Geophysical Research Institute, Hydrographic
(v) Innovative technologies for support Surveys by the National Hydrographic Office,
systems. Glaciological Studies by the Geological Survey
(vi) Environmental impact assessment. of India and Geochemical and petrological
studies of lamprophyres of Central Dronning
(vii) Generation and structuring of data Maud Land (CDML), by Nagpur University.
bases-geological, topographic, thematic

Chronicle IAS Academy [12]

 Arctic Expedition has been launched in three
32nd INDIAN SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION phases (June-July 2009, August 2009 and March-
April 2010).
The 32nd Indian Scientific Expedition to
Antarctica (2012-13), was launched in The summer phase I of the Indian Arctic
November 2012 from Cape Town. The major Programme was completed between June – July
activity includes construction of seawater intake 2012. The studies on (i) Long term monitoring
facility and an earth station to receive remote of the Kongsfjorden system of the Arctic region
sensing data at Bharati. In view of the mammoth for climate change studies and (ii) Quantifying
tasks ahead, a logistic team of 40 members variability in freshwater influx to the
comprising doctors, engineers, mechanics and Kongsfjorden system using oxygen isotopes of
technicians has been working at Bharati seawater and the implications to the ice melting
presently. have been undertaken.

ARCTIC MISSION OF INDIA GEO-STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF

INDIAN OCEAN
Taking advantage of the unique International
Svalbard Treaty signed in 1920, to which it was Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean of the
a signatory, India will be able to set up a world. It covers 20.7 per cent ocean area which
permanent research station at Ny Alesund, on is 7.5 crore sq. km. It is the only ocean named
the Svalbard archipelago which comes under after a country, indicating India’s association
Norwegian sovereignty, boosting its knowledge with this vast water-body since the dawn of
of climate change, other critical natural human civilization. India lies at the apex of the
phenomena and the disturbance of humans triangular water-body and has rightly been
cause to nature’s processes. India has already called ‘the crown of the ocean’. India covers
sent 26 missions to the Antarctic and has two about 1/8th coastline of the ocean. The ocean is
permanent bases there, the research base at 79 bordered by 46 littoral and island sovereign
degree north will be set up under a five-year States. India is not only the largest in area just
contract with the Norwegian government and after Australia, but alone has more than 50 per
Kings Bay, the Norwegian government-held cent population of the region. Circled on the
company that runs the logistics at the research north by India and Arab countries, in the west
station. by Africa, east by Malaysia, Indonesia, etc. and
The Svalbard Treaty allows every signatory south by Antarctica, it is an ‘embayed ocean’ or
country that includes Afghanistan, to set up any landlocked sea.
business and activity on the archipelago - which It was not until 1500 AD that the real
was earlier better known for its coal mining importance of this centrally-located ocean was
industry - as long as it falls within Norwegian recognized. The Portuguese were the first to
regulations. Formal negotiations between the understand the military importance of this ocean
two countries are close to completion for India and within 17 years of the arrival of Vasco-de-
to take position close to the North Pole. The move Gama, they were in the commanding position.
to set up a permanent station at Ny Alesund
They took command of Malabar region for re-
matured with India sending its first Arctic
export of East Indian spices, and Goa became
mission. Three of the five researchers sent as part
their capital. Besides Goa, Daman and Diu,
of the first of the two teams comprising the
Portuguese base were made at Madras, Hooghly,
mission have already made themselves at home
Chittagong and Ceylon. But, the fall of the Strait
at the international research station.
of Malacca to the Dutch in 1595 led to the
The second Arctic expedition of the country collapse of the Portuguese defence system. By
was launched in two batches viz. First Summer that time, British and French presence was also
batch (June-July 2008) and Second Summer felt.
batch (July-August 2008). During the second
The Britishers dominated Indian Ocean
Arctic expedition, India established a research
during their rule over India. But after World
station at Arctic named 'Himadri' at Ny-Alesund
War-II, British Government started gradually
in Svalbard region of Norway. The 3rd Indian

Chronicle IAS Academy [13]

 reducing its presence in the ocean zone due to and embankments, like the Thames Barrier.
declining interest. British Government decided Already rising sea level is causing serious
to withdraw all the bases by 1971. The most ecological problems in some parts of the Pacific
important decision was the selling of Diego Ocean. The Cartel Islands, one of the most
Garcia to U.K. by Mauritius and then to U.S.A. densely populated coral atolls in the Pacific, lie
on a contract by U.K. for communication to the north-east of Papua New Guinea and they
purpose. But, Diego-Garcia has now been are experiencing problems that prevent the
converted into a military base in the Indian inhabitants from supporting themselves from
Ocean. their own resources.

MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL II. Marine Pollution

DEGRADATION Pollution of environment especially marine
pollution is a worldwide phenomenon. Oil spills
I. Induced changes of Sea Level
and conspicuous acts of dumping hazardous
There is a likelihood of an accelerated rate of wastes e.g. radioactive material at sea have
sea level rise in the present century as a result of attracted greater attention in recent years to the
culturally induced global climatic change, dangers of oceanic pollution. Some of the major
specially the global warming. Many scientists marine pollutants are mercury, lead, pesticides,
expect a rise of up to 60 cm by the year 2050, up petroleum, radioactive elements, etc.
to 1m. by 2100 and up to several metres by 2200. Most of the marine pollutants originate on
Environmental change on such a scale would the continent and reach the oceans via the
be without precedent and the impacts would be atmosphere and rivers. Oceanic pollution cannot
serious. be controlled unless the releases of the materials
The projected sea level change in the near that pollute the oceans are controlled. Shipping
future caused by global warming will have an accounts for only 10 per cent while pollution
effect on shrinkage of the land area and the from land-based sources account for 70-75 per
wiping out of some islands because of drowning. cent of all marine pollution. As per the
There are many possible impacts of such rise. observations of United Nations Environment
These include: Programme (UNEP), some 70 per cent of the
waste discharged into the Pacific Ocean receives
1. Damage to many important coastal no treatment. About half of the countries in West
ecosystems, including deltas, coral atolls Asia have an oil-based economy which has given
and reefs; some countries the resources to develop an
2. Flooding of many densely populated extremely intensive agriculture which has led to
areas; the pollution of the food chain and of rivers and
marine seas.
3. Damage to port facilities and coastal
structures; A serious form of marine pollution is the
introduction of non-indigenous species through
4. Severe coastal erosion in many countries,
ballast water. This is sea water that is taken on
including loss of beaches and dunes;
board, for example at the outset of voyage, in
5. Salinization of many important ground order to stabilize a ship and its cargo. Once at
water resources through salt water destination, this water-and all the bacteria,
intrusion; viruses and organisms it contains-is released.
This is a big problem for Australia. Apparently,
6. Decline of loss of production in up to one-
organisms used to cold water cannot survive in
third of the world’s croplands.
the tropics and vice versa. Similarly every year
Scientists accept that some global increase in million tonnes of fish are thrown back, dead,
sea level is now inevitable, but they stress that because they are inedible, unwanted or too small
rate and extent of change depends on what to be marketed.
action is taken by society today. Important However, the problem of regular oil spill has
decisions will have to be protected with dykes been a subject of debate worldwide in

Chronicle IAS Academy [14]

 the recent past. The importance of III. Corals in Danger
controlling oil pollution at sea lies not
Global climate change, or the enhanced
only in its short-term effects but also
greenhouse effect, may cause increase in sea
the long-terms effects on marine life and
temperature and sea level, as well as changes in
environment. There are many short-
ocean current patterns, that could damage coral
term effects of the oil-spill. Shore
reefs. For example, corals are very sensitive to
properties and beaches can be
changes in temperature. Sea-water that becomes
extensively contaminated. Slow moving
too warm causes corals to turn white, or bleach,
crustaceans and inter-tidal marine life
a reaction that occurs if coral polyps are stressed.
can be physically damaged by heavy
Often they recover, but they are also known to
spills of oil. The oil-film forms a barrier
die. If the oceans warm up as a result of global
to the transfer of oxygen into the water
climate change, corals may have increasing
to support marine life. The long-term difficulty recovering from bleaching episodes.
effects of oil pollution are two-fold. Once Coral reefs are being over-exploited on a global
incorporated into a particular marine basis. It is increasingly difficult to make a living
organism, hydrocarbons are stable and from fishing, as first the big, commercially
pass through many members of the valuable species such as groupers disappear, and
marine food chain without alteration then the smaller ones. Often damaging
eventually reaching organisms that are harvesting methods such as poisons and
harvested for human consumption. dynamite are used. Overfishing tends to be
Another effect results from the low level followed by a change in the ecological balance
interference of oil pollution with marine of the reef. For example, it becomes overgrown
ecology. Oil pollution interferes with with algae if grazing species are removed. Corals
natural processes by plugging taste and shells are collected all over the world to sell
receptors and distorting natural stimuli as souvenirs or to make into jewellery and other
which may threaten some marine handicrafts.
species.

Chronicle IAS Academy [15]

 INDIA IN SPACE
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Man’s evolution and progress are closely manned spacecraft, ‘Vostok - I’, was injected in
linked with how efficiently he stores and space and a Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin
disseminates information. The Vedas were became the first person to travel in space. On
June 16, 1963 Valentina Tereshkova, a Russian

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handed down by word of mouth. The invention
of writing extended communication beyond the cosmonaut was registered as the first woman in

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reach of the spoken word. Thereafter, the the world to travel in the space and to stay in
invention of the printing press by Johann orbit for up to five days through the ‘Vostok-VI’
Gutenburg in 1455 brought about a major spacecraft.

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change in the life style of the human race. The
In 1960s, the space science widened its
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discovery of radio waves in 1888 by Hertz
resulted in radio broadcasting, which cut across
the limits of time and space. The next
breakthrough in information dissemination
nature and scope. Now the space scientists
concentrated their studies around the
exploration of other celestial bodies like the
Moon, Venus and Mars. The US ‘Mariner-II’ in
came in 1945 with the prediction by Arthur C
1962 flew past the planet Venus and calculated
Clarke, a British scientist and science fiction
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its temperature and its reverse direction of
writer about the feasibility of global
rotation. In 1965 ‘Mariner-IV’ sent back clear
communications (including TV) by using man
photographs indicating craters on Mars.
made artificial satellites.
American astronauts made more modest flights
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A
in their smaller Mercury spacecraft. In 1965,
BRIEF HISTORY
USA launched the Gemini-series programme for
Space research has always been a challenge the preparation of Apollo mission to the Moon.
for both man and science. The initial emphasis On December 21, 1968 a landmark in history
was on exploration of the unknown celestial was created when the first manned voyage to
bodies and development of space probes and the Moon took place by an American spacecraft
related systems. But, gradually space ‘Apollo-8’, which orbited the Moon 10 times and
IA H

applications became very important in a wide returned safely to the Earth. July 21, 1969 was a
range of areas. The region beyond the Earth’s memorable day in space history when four
tangible atmosphere-160 km from the surface- legged Lunar Module of ‘Apollo-11’ landed on
C

first became accessible to man when ‘Sputnik-I’ the surface of the Moon along with US astronauts
was put into orbit by the erstwhile USSR in Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin.
October 1957. In ‘Sputnik- II’, launched by
In 1970s, space scientists developed the
Russia, a dog Laika was sent in the space. The
capability to establish permanent space
physiological examination of Laika revealed that
exploration centre and established the Skylab &
human beings might also survive prolonged
Salyut space stations.
period in space. In January 1958, the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) In 1977, the first shuttle ‘Enterprises’, which
of USA launched ‘Explorer-I’ satellite in space. was a modified form of 747 jumbo jet along with
The major contribution of Explorer-I mission was a rocket launcher, was injected into space by
the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts NASA. The shuttle carried the orbiter into the
around the Earth where electrons and protons air and back on several flights and released it in
from the sun are trapped by the Earth’s magnetic mid-air. The shuttle’s first orbital mission began
field. Far side of the Moon’s glimpse in the history on April 12, 1981 when ‘Columbia’ was
of mankind was observed from the Russian launched. In June 18, 1983 the shuttle
satellite ‘Luna- III’ in October 1959. April 2, 1961 ‘Challenger’ was sent into space which took Sally
was a landmark in history when the first ever

[16] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Ride, the first US-women to space. In April, 1984 started in 1964-65 with the formation of
the major achievement in space technology was INTELSAT, a global consortium of over 125
created when the satellite Solar Max was countries each becoming a shareholder in the
successfully repaired and the astronauts walked space segment, consisting of satellites in the geo-
in space for as long as 6 hours and 44 minutes. synchronous orbit over the Indian, Atlantic and
In March 1989, the space shuttle ‘Atlantis’ Pacific oceans to cover the entire globe. The
launched a spacecraft on the voyage to Venus. “ground segment” consisting of ground stations
In October 1990, the US shuttle ‘Discovery’ again to operate with the INTELSAT satellites was the
launched the scientific spacecraft ‘Ulysses’ into responsibility of each member country. In India
space in order to probe the polar region of the and the Commonwealth nations, this agency is
Sun. a government department or a corporation. India
became a founder member of INTELSAT in 1965
In February 1986, a major landmark in space

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and got ready to set up its own ground station
history was achieved when the third generation at Arvi near Pune.

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space laboratory ‘Mir’ was launched into space.
The Soviet Union joined the era of space shuttles Theoretically 32 satellites can be
in November 1988, when its first reusable shuttle accommodated with a 50 degree separation in
the GEO. However all these 32 slots or parking

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‘Buran’ was launched on the world’s most
powerful booster rocket ‘Energia’. lots are not suitable since they lie over oceans or
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The Ulysses space mission, undertaken
uninhabited landmasses. Satellite communi-
cations are very much more energy efficient than
jointly by the European Space Agency and short wave radio and when first introduced it
NASA was launched in October 1990 to explore was expected to be a panacea for all the ills
regions of space above the poles of the Sun. affecting long distance communications.
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Observations made by the spacecraft have led
to several major discoveries concerning the Satellite based communication is now being
physical properties of the region and, thus, have used for long range mobile stations like ships,
contributed to a better understanding of the solar boats, aircrafts, railways and road transports
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atmosphere. Of particular importance are the where the cellular radios cannot meet the
A
discoveries on the structure of the space medium demand. In fact, in many instances, satellite
in the helioshpere and its properties; nature and technology is the only means to provide a chance
region of solar wind and the access of cosmic to get reliable and effective communication
rays into the solar system. Sudden changes in between fixed site and remote mobile vehicles.
the solar winds cause large disturbances in The International Maritime Satellite
Earth’s magnetic field. Ulysses was also expected Organisation (IMNARSAT) has been providing
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to resolve doubts over origin of solar activity real time communication services, including TV
cycle. The cycle initiates changes in solar winds, broadcasting and emergency and rescue services
solar atmosphere, etc. to ships at sea since 1982. Management of mobile
fleets whether at sea or in the air or on the
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Another monumental contribution by ground, by real time positioning from one central
Arthur Clark which has had far reaching location, is a very exciting prospect in the not
implication was the idea of a Geo-synchronous too distant future. GEOSTAR of USA is one such
Earth Orbit (GEO)‘ a belt’ approximately 36800 system.
km over the equator. A satellite placed exactly
in the ‘Clark orbit’ appears stationary to any Satellite communication involves three main
observer on the earth. systems the satellite, the rocket and the launch
facility to place it in orbit, and the ground
Theoretically three satellites placed 120 segment to transmit and receive data. Only a few
degrees apart are sufficient to provide global countries own all the three because their
coverage for all types of information, including development involves enormous resources and
T.V. Such a system which requires minimum the manpower of thousands of scientists and
infrastructure on the ground became a reality in engineers.
1963 with the launching of SYNOCOM III
(synchronous communication satellite). Satellites offer a solution to the overcrowding
Commercial exploitation of satellite broadcasting of the entirely earth based channels of

Chronicle IAS Academy [17]

 communication. A satellite at a distance of requirements for attaining self-sufficiency in the
hundreds or thousands of miles above the earth field of space technology may be summed up
has a considerable area of the earth’s surface in as:
its line of sight and therefore, they can relay (i) To develop expertise in planning,
signals from one earth based station to another. designing and fabricating the satellites
or spacecrafts for various purposes;
There are two methods by which this relaying
may be effected. Some satellites merely reflect (ii) To develop suitable launch vehicles (i.e.,
the signals and are therefore known as passive rockets) which could place satellites in
satellites. Others receive and retransmit them and Earth’s orbit;
are known as active satellites. Also (iii) To establish ‘Earth Stations’ for

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communication satellites may be classified launching, tracking, controlling and
according to their orbits as sun-synchronous and guiding the satellites; and

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geo-synchronous.
(iv) To develop ground facilities for using
The area of the earth within the line of sight space technology for mass
of satellites that orbit close to earth obviously is communication.

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not as wide as that of satellites at greater heights.
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So satellites are placed at a lower height. Spacing
of satellites, signals would still need to be
transformed frequently between satellites.
The Indian space programme has three thrust
areas:
(a) Development of communication through
satellite;
SPACE PROGRAMMES IN INDIA (b) Development of remote sensing for
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resource survey and management,
The foundation of space research in India environmental monitoring and
was laid in 1961 when the Government of India meteorological services; and
entrusted the task of developing a programme (c) Development of indigenous satellites, as
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A
on space research to its Department of Atomic also their launching.
Energy. The Department of Atomic Energy set
up a National Committee which identified two SPACE VISION INDIA 2025
major objectives for India’s space research
programme. These objectives were: A Space Vision 2025 was unveiled at the
Indian Science Congress-2003, in Bangalore. The
(i) To utilise space technology for the rapid emphasis was on achieving self-reliance in
development of Mass communication
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launching capabilities and end dependence on

and education, especially in the far-flung
foreign agencies for the same. Self-sufficiency
rural areas, and
has been achieved in the fabrication of satellites.
(ii) To utilise space technology for the Mission to moon also forms part of the Vision.
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timely survey and management of the • Satellite based communication and

country’s natural resources. navigation systems for rural connectivity,
security needs and mobile services.
After laying the foundation of space
research in India, it was realised that the vast • Enhanced imaging capability for natural
potential of space technology can be used for resource management, weather and
the socio-economic development of the country climate change studies.
only by developing indigenous techniques for • Space science missions for better
placing a satellite in the Earth’s orbit. In order understanding of solar system and
to boost the technological efforts to make India universe Planetary exploration.
self-reliant in the field of space technology, a • Development of Heavy lift launcher.
Space Commission was set up in 1972 and a • Reusable Launch Vehicles - Technology
separate Department of Space (DoS) was demonstrator missions leading to Two
established thereafter. The DoS executes its Stage To Orbit (TSTO).
space programmes through the Indian Space
• Human Space Flight.
Research Organisation (ISRO). The basic

[18] Chronicle IAS Academy

 scientific observations. Initially, foreign rockets
INFRASTRUCTURE were used and later on the Rohini Sounding
Rockets (RSR) were developed indigenously.
The Space Commission’s tasks include
Currently being used is RH-200 which can lift a
framing of policy, approval of space
payload of upto 50 kg for altitudes of 140-150
programme budget and implementation of
km, and RH-560 with payloads of 100 kg for
national policy in all matters concerning outer
altitudes upto 350 km.
space.
In the field of launch vehicle technology,
Many organisations and research centres
India has evolved a four-stage development
have been established to carry out research and
programme, i.e., SLV, ASLV, PSLV and GSLV.
developmental activities related to the various
segments of the space research programmes. Launch Vehicles are used to transport and

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The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) put satellites or spacecrafts into space. In India,
is one such organisation. The various tasks the launch vehicles development programme

Y
which have been assigned to ISRO are: began in the early 1970s. The first experimental
(i) to develop the know-how to fabricate Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-3) was developed
the rockets, its propellants, its control in 1980. An Augmented version of this, ASLV,

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and guidance systems; and was launched successfully in 1992. India has
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(ii) to design and fabricate the satellites.
made tremendous strides in launch vehicle
technology to achieve self-reliance in satellite
Thus, ISRO is responsible for planning, launch vehicle programme with the
programming and management of research and operationalisation of Polar Satellite Launch
development activities in the country in space Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite
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science, technology and applications. The ISRO Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
council and ISRO headquarters provide overall PSLV represents ISRO's first attempt to
direction to the scientific, technological and design and develop an operational vehicle that
management tasks of the ISRO centres and units.
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can be used to orbit application satellites. With

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Research in space sciences is also supported in PSLV, a new world-class vehicle has arrived.
several institutions by the multi-agency Indian PSLV has repeatedly proved its reliability and
Middle Atmosphere Programme (IMAP) and the versatility by launching 63 satellites / spacecrafts
Advisory Committee for Space Sciences (28 Indian and 35 Foreign Satellites) into a
(ADCOS). variety of orbits so far.
ISRO also disseminates know-how to ISRO also makes the Rohini series of
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industries to market the ‘spin offs’ of the national sounding rockets used by the Indian and
space efforts. It also provides consultancy international scientific community to launch
services to the industrial and technology sectors payloads to various altitudes for atmospheric
of the country, utilises the manpower and research and other scientific investigations. These
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infrastructure available with these sectors for its rockets are also used to qualify some of the
space programmes. The know-how transferred critical systems used for advanced launch
to industry includes chemicals, polymers, special vehicles.
materials, instruments, telecommunications, TV
Satellite Launch Vehicle-3: India’s first
equipment, electronic sub-systems, electro-optic
satellite launch vehicle was the SLV-3. The first
hardware, computer software and special
successful launch placed a 35 kg RS-1 satellite
purpose machines.
into a low Earth orbit in July 1980. This was the
LAUNCH VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY culmination of about seven years of
developmental effort. The next two launches of
The rocket programme in India began with SLV-3 took place in 1981 and 1983. The 22.7
the establishment of the Thumba Equatorial metre long SLV-3 was a four stage solid
Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in 1963 for propellant vehicle with a launch weight of 17
launching sounding rockets equipped with tonnes.
instruments to conduct meteorological or In the first stage, the development of SLV-3

Chronicle IAS Academy [19]

 was a major achievement in India’s space motors derived from SLV-3 strapped around it
capability by placing the 40 kg Rohini satellite in the first stage. The second stage based on
into near Earth orbit of 300 Km. With the three liquid engine technology uses liquid propellant,
successful launching of SLV-3, India became the while the third and fourth stages have solid and
sixth country in the world to have the capability liquid propellants, respectively.
to orbit its own satellite.
The first stage of PSLV uses Hydroxyl
ASLV: In the second stage of the launch Terminated Poly Butadine (H.T.P.B.) as fuel and
vehicle development programme, ASLV was Ammonium Perchlorate as oxidiser. The stage
developed, which was basically a derived form uses world’s third largest booster motor made
of SLV-3. It also used solid propellant in its all of meraging steel. The second stage of PSLV uses
four stages. VIKAS engine, powered by liquid fuel

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Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine (UDMH)
The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle

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and Nitrogen Tetroxide (N2O3) as oxidiser. The
(ASLV) was designed to place a 150 kg satellite
third stage of PSLV uses HTPB-based solid
(SROSS) into a 100-km orbit. This constitutes an
propellant. The motor of this stage is made of
addition of two first stage rocket motors as strap-

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Kevlar (i.e., polyaramide fibre). The fourth stage,
ons to the sides of the SLV-3 first stage. The heat
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shield, which protects the satellite from the heat
orbit, has twin-engine configuration. This stage
generated as the vehicle speeds through the
uses Monomethyl Hydrazine (MMH) as fuel and
dense atmosphere, has been made to
the oxides of nitrogen as oxidiser.
accommodate the large spacecraft. In addition,
a closed loop guidance system incorporating a The reliability rate of PSLV has been superb
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Stabilised Platform Inertial Navigation System — There had been 23 continuously successful
(SPINS) and a micro-processor based navigation flights of PSLV, till July 2013. With its variant
and guidance computer has replaced the open configurations, PSLV has proved its multi-
loop guidance system used in the SLV-3 in order payload, multi-mission capability in a single
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A
to achieve a more accurate control of the launch and its geosynchronous launch
trajectory. Some of the other changes include a capability. In the Chandrayaan-mission, another
change over to S-band frequencies from VHF to variant of PSLV with an extended version of
comply with international regulations for radio strap-on motors, PSOM-XL, the payload haul
transmissions, use of KEVLAR fibre for the fourth was enhanced to 1750 kg in 620 km SSPO. PSLV
stage body in order to increase the payload has rightfully earned the status of workhorse
capability, etc. The lift-off weight of ASLV is 39 launch vehicle of ISRO.
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tonnes and its height being 23.5 metres.

PSLV-C22 Launched: On July 01, 2013 Polar
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle: The four- Satellite Launch Vehicle, in its twenty fourth
stage, 275 tonnes, 15 storey tall (44 m) PSLV has flight (PSLV-C22) launched India’s first
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heralded a 4 new era in the country’s space dedicated navigational satellite IRNSS-1A. The
programme as the first rocket to use liquid launch took place from the First Launch Pad
propellants in its two stages. Liquid propellants, (FLP) of Satish Dhawan Space Centre, (SDSC)
developed here itself, are the latest in space SHAR, Sriharikota. PSLV-C22 used ‘XL’ version
technology. of PSLV. This is the fourth time such a
In the third stage of launch vehicle configuration has flown, earlier three being
development programme, the concept of the use PSLV-C11/ Chandrayaan-1, PSLV-C17/ GSAT-
of liquid propellant was taken in the form of 12 and PSLV-C 19/ RISAT-1 missions.
PSLV programme, which was approved in 1993. GSLV: The fourth stage of the Indian Vehicle
PSLV series of launch vehicles have the capability Development Programme is the use of geo-
to inject the pay-load of 1000 kg polar satellites stationary launch vehicles (GSLV). The use of
in the orbit of 900 km. This was the first launch cryogenic engines is in the last stage of
vehicle in India, which used liquid propellant experiment. Cryogenic engines use liquid
along with solid propellants. PSLV is a four-stage hydrogen as fuel at-2530C and liquid oxygen at-
rocket, with a solid propellant motor and six 830C as oxidiser.

[20] Chronicle IAS Academy

 The finally chosen GSLV design is a three- However, it needs to graduate to the 4 tonne class
stage vehicle, the core being a 125 tonne solid to play a more lucrative role.
booster as in PSLV with four liquid strap-ons of
GSLV gives India the Inter Continental
Vikas engine, each with a propellant loading of
Ballistic Missile (ICBM) status which can direct
40 tonnes. The second stage of GSLV is the Vikas
an explosive to a distance of 5000 km. The flight
liquid propulsion system as in PSLV and the last
has certified India’s expertise in putting together
upper stage, a 12 tonne restartable cryogenic
powerful solid fuel propelled rocket motors.
engine which uses liquid oxygen and liquid
Besides, the immaculate guidance system of
hydrogen. The most interesting aspect of GSLV
GSLV is an added advantage. India can move
is its modularity, which without strap-ons has
ahead confidently in this direction.
the same capability as PSLV, with two strap-ons
can launch over 1600 kg into a polar orbit and GSLV-III

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with all the four strap-ons can launch 2.5 tonnes
into Geo-synchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO). The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

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Excepting for the addition of a new cryo-stage, Mark III (GSLV-III) is a launch vehicle currently
the first two stages fully exploit PSLV pedigree. under development by the ISRO. GSLV Mk III is
With just three stages, GSLV should prove to be conceived and designed to make ISRO fully self

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reliant in launching heavier communication
a world class launch vehicle in terms of reliability,
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cost competitiveness and payload fraction.
satellites of INSAT-4 class, which weigh 4500 to
5000 kg.
GSLV Launch: GSLV was test fired
GSLV-Mk III is designed to be a three stage
successfully from SHAR on April 18, 2001. This
vehicle, 42.4 m tall with a lift off weight of 630
49 metre long and 401 tonne heavy launch
tonnes. First stage comprises two identical S200
vehicle along with the 1540 kg payload GSAT-1
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Large Solid Booster (LSB) with 200 tonne solid
obeyed instructions to inject the satellite into the
propellant, that are strapped on to the second
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) east of
stage, the L110 re-startable liquid stage. The third
Indonesia. The GTO has a perigee of 185 km and
stage is the C25 LOX/LH2 cryo stage.
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an apogee of about 36,000 km. The launch speed

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of the rocket was 36,720 km per hour which is 8 It would also enhance the capability of the
times the speed of any fighter plane in India. country to be a competitive player in the
multimillion dollar commercial launch market.
It was followed by six more launches , GSLV-
The vehicle envisages multi-mission launch
D2 on May 8, 2003 (GSAT-2 1825 kg), GSLV-
capability for GTO, LEO, Polar and intermediate
F01 on September 20, 2004 (EDUSAT 1950 kg),
circular orbits. Realisation of GSLV Mk-III will
GSLV-F02 on July 10, 2006, GSLV-F04 on
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help ISRO to put heavier satellites into orbit.

September 2, 2007 (INSAT-4CR 2130 kg),
GSLV-D3 on April 15, 2010 and GSLV-F06 on Cryogenic Engine
December 25, 2010.
Cryogenics is the science pertaining to very
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The launch has put India in the selected low temperatures and includes super-low
league of nations with the capability to place temperatures of - 150 degree Celsius to - 273
multipurpose satellites in orbit and send space degree Celsius, the latter being called the
mission. The major gains from the launch are as ‘absolute zero’ temperature. These are
follows: temperatures where gases such as Oxygen,
Nitrogen and Helium are liquified. Such liquified
India pays $70 million to Ariane space for
gases, at their super-cool temperatures find
launch of INSAT satellites. This amount can be
application in areas like super-conductivity, in
saved. Besides, India can enter the multi billion-
cryo-medicine and cryo-surgery (surgery carried
dollar market for launching communications
out at very low temperatures) and rocket
satellite. At present U.S., Russia, France, Japan,
propulsions (where they are used as super-cooled
China and European Space Consortium
propellants).
dominate this market. India can benefit through
its lower launch price of Rs. 125 crore and target The difference between an ordinary liquid
the lighter satellites of developing countries. rocket and cryogenic rocket is in the fact that

Chronicle IAS Academy [21]

 the oxidiser and fuel used in the cryogenic engine technology when it conducted a successful test-
is only liquid at below freezing temperatures, firing of an indigenous cryogenic engine.
whereas in the ordinary liquid rocket the fuel
On March 28, 2013, successful ignition of an
and oxidiser are liquid at ambient temperatures.
indigenous cryogenic engine at Mahendragiri in
Cryogenic engines, thus, are rocket engines Tamil Nadu, in conditions simulating the high
which use super-cooled liquids as propellants. altitude atmosphere, has boosted the confidence
These engines use liquid Oxygen and liquid of the ISRO to go ahead with the launch of a
Hydrogen as fuels and the use of such engines Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
provides greater thrust and higher degree of (GSLV-D5) in 2013. The hot-test took place in
control. the newly-built high altitude test facility (HAT)
at ISRO’s Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre

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Experiments have been tried out with
(LPSC) at Mahendragiri. GSLV-D5, with the
kerosene and liquid oxygen. This was a quasi-

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indigenous cryogenic engine, will put into orbit
cryogenic engine experiment. It would not be
a communication satellite called GSAT-14.
difficult to convert this into a cryogenic engine.
INDIAN SATELLITES

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Liquid Oxygen (LOX) was the earliest,
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cheapest, safest and, eventually, the most
preferred oxidiser for large launch vehicles. In
later years, among the semi-cryogenics, LOX-
Kerosene combination was found to be the best
• Aryabhatta:
It was launched on April 19, 1975 from
Baikonur Cosmodrome in the then USSR. It was
and is currently preferred worldwide for its price, put in a near earth orbit at 594 km. altitude. It
safety, least toxicity and specific impulse. orbited the earth once every 96.41 minutes.
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Many commands were successfully sent to the
All the leading rocket visionaries identified
satellite. The original intention to develop satellite
liquid hydrogen (LH2) as the theoretically ideal
technology was achieved even though some
rocket fuel. Its combination with LOX gives the
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scientific experiments could not be carried out.

A
highest specific impulse with the least toxicity-
the LOX-LH2 rocket exhausts essentially steam. • Bhaskara I:
Cryogenic propellants, semi-cryogenic
propellants and storable liquid propellants, in the The First Experimental Remote Sensing
decreasing order- are of higher specific impulse Satellite built in India. Bhaskara I was launched
than solid propellants. Mostly, LOX-Kerosene on June 7, 1979 again by the Soviets which was
and LOX-LH2 are being adopted in the named after Bhaskaracharya, a sixth century
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construction of new launch vehicles for large astronomer and another twelfth century
satellites (i.e., 2000kg and above). mathematician. Its purpose was to use satellites
for development. It took about four years to
In February 1998, ISRO successfully tested develop and carried remote sensors to detect and
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an indigenously designed cryogenic engine for assess natural resources from space. It also had
about a minute at its Mahendragiri centre (Tamil two TV cameras and three microwave
Nadu). The thrust chamber of the engine, in radiometers for remote sensing. SAMIR sent rich
which liquid Hydrogen (LH2) and liquid Oxygen scientific data which were used for
(LOX) burns, is cooled by passing liquid oceanographic studies.
hydrogen through channels milled into the wall
of the thrust chamber. The technique for making • Bhaskara II:
this channel was developed at the Central It was launched on November 20,1981 by the
Electrochemical Research Institute at Karaikudi Soviet Union. It was deployed in a near earth
(Tamil Nadu). The test shows that the ISRO has orbit of 525 km and was tracked by ground
mastered the process for firing a cryogenic stations at Sriharikota and Ahmedabad.
engine. Before a cryogenic engine is fired, an Indigenously developed thermal coatings, solar
elaborate process has to be followed to fill the cells and panels were its special features.
propellant tanks and to condition the fuel lines
Rohini:
as well as the injectors. Further in Feb. 2002,
India moved a step closer to the cryogenic A progressive space programme could not

[22] Chronicle IAS Academy

 rely on launches from foreign soil. We had to scanning Radiometer (VHRR), for three-band
develop our own launch facility. For this, the images and a Data Relay Transponder (DRT)
Satellite Launch Vehicles (SLVs) were developed payload. The radiometer scans the earth’s
and to test their effectiveness, the Rohini satellites surface line by line; each line consists of a series
were developed. After a couple of failures in 1979 of individual image elements or pixels. For each
and 1980, Rohini satellite (RS-I) became the first pixel the radiometer measures the radioactive
Indian satellite to lie launched from Indian soil energy of the different spectral bands. This
by an Indian rocket. It was put in orbit by SLV- measurement is digitally coded and transmitted
3 weighing 35 kgs, it had an elliptical orbit 325 to the ground station for pre-processing before
km by 950 km with a period of 97 minutes. It being disseminated to the user community.
sent good signals to the ground stations in
• IRNSS-1A:
Trivandrum, Sriharikota, Car Nicobar and Fiji.

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It is the first satellite in the Indian Regional
• SROSS:
Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) launched

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Another series of satellites called the on July 1, 2013. It is one of the seven satellites
Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (SROSS) was constituting the IRNSS space segment.
developed for the use of scientific payloads. This

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Payloads - IRNSS-1A carries two types of
was meant to be launched by the Augmented
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Satellite. SROSS was launched on March 24,
1987. The satellite was launched onboard the
payloads navigation payload and ranging
payload. The navigation payload of IRNSS-1A
will transmit navigation service signals to the
first developmental a flight of ASLV. It did not
users. This payload will be operating in L5 band
reach the orbit.
(1176.45 MHz) and S band (2492.028 MHz). A
The launch of SROSS-I and SROSS-II both highly accurate Rubidium atomic clock is part
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for technical purposes on 24th March, 1987 and of the navigation payload of the satellite. The
13th July 1988 proved unsuccessful. However ranging payload of IRNSS-1A consists of a C-
SROSS-III was successfully put in orbit on 19th band transponder which facilitates accurate
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May 1992 by an ASLV. This satellite, launched determination of the range of the satellite. IRNSS-
A
for scientific purposes to detect gamma ray bursts 1A also carries Corner Cube Retro Reflectors for
coming from space and studying the ionosphere, laser ranging.
also gave a boost to the ASLV effort.
Applications of IRNSS
• Apple: • Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation
On 19th June, 1981 India’s first experimental • Disaster Management
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communication satellite APPLE (Ariane • Vehicle tracking and fleet management

Passenger Pay Load Experiment) was launched
• Integration with mobile phones
by Ariane Space Agency. It was used to conduct
experiments on domestic communication, radio • Precise Timing
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networking, data relay, and remote area • Mapping and Geodetic data capture
communication, etc. • Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and
travellers
• Kalpana-1:
• Visual and voice navigation for drivers
Kalpana-1 is the first dedicated
meteorological satellite launched by Indian Space INSAT Satellite applications
Research Organization using Polar Satellite
Satellite Communication (Satcom)
Launch Vehicle. This was the first satellite
technology offers the unique capability of
launched by the PSLV into the Geostationary
simultaneously reaching out to very large
orbit. The satellite was originally known as
numbers spread over large distances even in the
MetSat-1 but renamed as Kalpana-1 in memory
most remote corners of the country. The
of Kalpana Chawla - a NASA astronaut who
hallmark of Indian Space Programme has been
perished in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.
the application oriented efforts and the benefits
The satellite features a Very High Resolution that have accrued to the country. In the past

Chronicle IAS Academy [23]

 two and a half decades Indian National Satellite in three phases, pilot, semi-operational and
(INSAT) system have revolutionized the operational phases. While pilot phase has
country’s telecommunications, TV broadcasting, continued, semi-operational and operational
DTH services, business communications, rural phase have been put into implementation also.
area connectivity, Tele-education, Tele-medicine,
EDUSAT is already providing a wide range
Village Resource Centres, Search and Rescue
of educational delivery modes like one-way TV
operations and Emergency Communications.
broadcast, interactive TV, video conferencing,
“INSAT system is a joint venture of the computer conferencing, web-based instructions,
Department of Space, Department of etc.
Telecommunications, India Meteorological
Sixty four networks have been setup so far,
Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan.

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out of which 10 networks use national Ku-band
Established in 1983, INSAT system is one of the
beam and 36 networks are operational on

Y
largest domestic communication satellite systems
regional Ku-band and Extended-C band national
in the Asia Pacific Region with eleven satellites
beams. There are more than 3386 interactive
in operation. These satellites carry more than 200
classrooms and 31313 receive only classrooms

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transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-
totaling close to 34699 classrooms. Networks
bands, besides meteorological instruments.
C IC have already been setup in 24 states covering
INSAT is used for a variety of societal almost entire country including all islands
applications in the area of Tele-education, Tele- (Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshdweep), North-
medicine and support to the Disaster Eastern states and Jammu & Kashmir.
Management System (DMS). Village Resource Implementation in remaining states is under
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Centre (VRC), a single window agency progress.
providing the services offered by INSAT and IRS
Special Networks
satellites to provide information on natural
resources, land and water resources One of the innovative networks on EDUSAT
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management, Tele-medicine, Tele-education, is the network for "Blind schools". Blind People's
adult education, vocational training, health-care Association, Ahmedabad is a leading
and family welfare programmes, has been organisation promoting education, training,
established. Meteorological data from INSAT is employment and rehabilitation for blind persons.
used for weather forecasting and specially Considering the specific needs of the blind
designed disaster warning receivers have been people, an altogether different kind of broadcast
installed in vulnerable coastal areas for direct network configuration delivering live audio and
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transmission of warnings against impending data which is read by blind person through its
disaster like cyclones. printed impression (Braille) was set up.
a) EDUSAT Programme Another special network in Ext C-band
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connecting 50 engineering institutes across the

EDUSAT, launched by Geosynchronous
country has been established to impart teaching
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-F01) in
by distinguished Professors/Faculty from top 21
September 2004, is India's first thematic satellite
Universities in USA who would visit India to
dedicated exclusively for educational services.
The satellite is specially configured to relay conduct eight-week courses in various subjects
through audio-visual medium, employing multi- in engineering. This network is now shared by
media multi-centric system, to create interactive IIT-Bombay network with additional 30 end
classrooms. EDUSAT has multiple regional users.
beams covering different parts of India - five Ku- Apart from this, network for IIM, Bangalore
band transponders with spot beams covering connecting with its other centre in Chennai; an
northern, north-eastern, eastern, southern and extended C-band network connecting all the five
western regions of the country, a Ku-band centres of National Council of Science Museums
transponder with its footprint covering the for promoting scientific temperament among
Indian mainland region and six C-band students and general public; network for
transponders with their footprints covering the Mahabharata Sansthan for online transmission
entire country. EDUSAT is being implemented

[24] Chronicle IAS Academy

 of digitised manuscripts from remote areas benefits of Satellite communication technology
through mobile terminal to centralised centre for and information technology with Biomedical
archival so as to preserve them; two networks Engineering and Medical Sciences to deliver the
in Kerala for imparting education and awareness healthcare services to the remote, distant and
to parents and teachers of mentally challenged underserved regions of the country.
children schools; network in Tamilnadu and
Providing healthcare to India's over one
Puducherry connecting centres of Aravind
billion population of which about 75 per cent
Virtual Academy for providing eye-care; etc. are
live in villages, is a formidable task. About 75
a few special networks, which have been set up/
per cent of the doctors practice in urban areas
under implementation under EDUSAT
and 23 percent in semi-urban areas. This leaves
Utilisation Programme.
just 2 per cent of the qualified doctors, who are
attached to about 23,000 primary health and

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Educational TV Services
3000 community health centres, to attend to 70
INSAT is being used to provide Educational

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per cent of the population living in villages.
TV (ETV) service for primary school children in
Tamil, Marathi, Oriya, Telugu and Hindi. A ISRO’s telemedicine pilot project was started
general enrichment programme on higher in the year 2001 with the aim of introducing the

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education (college sector) is telecast on the telemedicine facility to the grass root level
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national network. These programmes, provided
by the University Grants Commission (UGC),
population as a part of proof of concept
technology demonstration. The telemedicine
are a part of its countrywide classroom facility connects the remote District Hospitals/
programme. The Indira Gandhi National Open Health Centres with Super Speciality Hospitals
University (IGNOU) broadcasts half an hour in cities, through the INSAT Satellites for
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curriculum based lectures daily via the national providing expert consultation to the needy and
network for the students. underserved population.
Training and Developmental Communications Telemedicine initiatives at ISRO have been
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Channel (TDCC) broadly divided into the following areas:

A
A total of 8 Ext. C-band channels - 6 on • Providing Telemedicine Technology &
INSAT-3B and 2 on Edusat - are being used for connectivity between remote/rural
Training, Development and Communication hospital and Super Speciality Hospital for
Channel (TDCC), a service that has been Teleconsultation, Treatment & Training of
operational since 1995. It provides 1-way video doctors & paramedics.
& 2-way audio system of interactive education. • Providing the Technology & connectivity
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The teaching-end includes a studio and an uplink for Continuing Medical Education (CME)
facility for transmitting live or pre-recorded between Medical Colleges & Post
lectures. The participants at the classrooms Graduate Medical Institutions/Hospitals.
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located nationwide receive lectures through • Providing Technology & connectivity for
simple dish antennas (DRS) and have facility to Mobile Telemedicine units for rural health
interact with lecturers using telephone lines. camps especially in the areas of
Several state governments and universities ophthalmology and community health.
are using the TDCC system extensively for • Providing technology and connectivity for
Distance Education, Rural Development, Women Disaster Management Support and Relief.
& Child Development, Panchayati Raj, Health,
Agriculture, Forestry, etc. The teaching-ends are Presently, ISRO’s Telemedicine Network has
now available at Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, enabled 382 Hospitals with the Telemedicine
Orissa, Karnataka and Goa. The DRS network facility. 306 Remote/Rural/District Hospital/
consists of more than 5000 classrooms spread Health Centres and 16 Mobile Telemedicine units
over the country. are connected to 60 Super Speciality Hospitals
located in the major cities. The mobile vans are
b) Telemedicine Programme extensively used for tele-ophthalmology, diabetic
screening, mammography, childcare and
It is an innovative process of synergising

Chronicle IAS Academy [25]

 community health. The Mobile Transmitters (LPT), 257 Very Low Power
Teleopthalmology facilities provide services to Transmitters (VLPT) and 18 Transposers) are
the rural population in ophthalmology care, working in the DD-1 network and 167 TV
including village level eye camps, vision Transmitters (73 HPTs, 78 LPTs and 16 VLPTs)
screening for Cataract /Glaucoma / Diabetic are working in the DD-News network. 108
Retinopathy. Regional service transmitters (6 HPTs, 8 LPTS
and 94 VLPTs), 4 HPTs with digital transmissions
The telemedicine facilities are established at
are also operational in the Doordarshan
many remote rural district hospitals in many
Network. Out of these 4 transmitters, one is
states and union territories of the country,
located at Delhi and is carrying 16 mobile TV
including Jammu & Kashmir, Andaman &
services for experimental purpose. 45 DD and
Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, North

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Private TV channels are operational through
Eastern States etc. State level telemedicine
DTH service ("DD Direct+"). 10 channel DTH

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networks are established in Karnataka, Kerala,
planned in C-Band for Andaman & Nicobar
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Orissa and
islands is under installation.
Chhattisgarh. Many interior districts in Orissa,

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Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, INSAT provides bandwidth for DTH
West Bengal and Gujarat have the telemedicine
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facility. About 1.5 Lakh patients are getting the present DTH service is operational through
benefits of Telemedicine every year. INSAT- 4 series. INSAT-4 series has high power
transponders with 52 dBW EIRP (EOC) to
c) Television
support DTH service with 60/90 cm dish of
INSAT has been a major catalyst for the TVRO at receiving side, all over India.
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expansion of television coverage in India.
TATA-SKY operates DTH service through
Satellite television now covers 100% area as well
INSAT-4A at 83 deg. East with total number of
as population. The terrestrial coverage is over
150 video channels. Doordarshan (DD-DIRECT)
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65 percent of the Indian land mass and over 90

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operates DTH service through INSAT-4B at 93.5
percent of the population. At present 40
deg East with total number of 48 channels which
Doordarshan TV channels including news
are free to air. Other private DTH service
uplinks are operating through C-band
providers like Sun Direct and Bharati Airtel have
transponders of INSAT-3A, INSAT-4B, INSAT-
also started DTH service through INSAT-4B and
3C and INSAT-2E (Additionally IS-10 & IS-906
INSAT-4CR which is at 74 deg. East location.
INTELSAT leased). All of the Satellite TV
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channels are digitalized. In all, around 16.2 millions of TVROs are

distributed and operational all over India by
The following satellite television services are
various service providers, including DD DIRECT
being operated by Doordarshan:
TVRO's number in excess of 10 millions.
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• National networking service (DD-1), DD

News (DD-2), DD-Sports, DD-Urdu, DD- d) Satellite Aided Search and Rescue
India DD-Bharati. India is a member of the international
• Regional services in Sates of Kerala, COSPAS-SARSAT programme for providing
Karnataka, Jammu & Kashmir, Tamil distress alert and position location service
Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, through LEOSAR (Low Earth Orbit Search And
Gujarat, UP, Assam, Maharashtra, Rescue) satellite system. Under this programme,
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, India has established two Local User Terminals
Tripura, Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, (LUTs), one at Lucknow and the other at
Uttarakhand (Uttaranchal), Haryana, Bangalore. The Indian Mission Control Centre
Mizoram, Jharkhand and Chhatisgarh. (INMCC), of ISRO is located at ISTRAC,
Bangalore.
As on Dec. 2008, 1412 transmitters of
Doordarshan are working in INSAT system out INSAT-3A located at 93.5 deg. East is
of which 1133 transmitters (130 High Power equipped with 406 MHz Search and Rescue
Transmitters (HPT), 728 Low Power payload that picks up and relays alert signals

[26] Chronicle IAS Academy

 originating from the distress beacons of data base for facilitating hazard zonation,
maritime, aviation and land users. INSAT and damage assessment, etc., monitoring of major
GOES systems have become an integral part of natural disasters using satellite and aerial data;
the COSPAS-SARSAT system and they development of appropriate techniques and tools
complement the LEOSAR system. for decision support, establishing satellite based
reliable communication network, deployment of
Indian LUTs provide coverage to a large part
emergency communication equipments and
of Indian Ocean region rendering distress alert
R&D towards early warning of disasters.
services to Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal,
Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Tanzania. The “To support the total cycle of disaster/
operations of INMCC/LUT are funded by the emergency management for the country, in near
participating agencies, namely, Coast Guard, real time, the database creation is addressed
Airports Authority of India (AAI) and Director through National Database for Emergency

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General of Shipping and Services. Management (NDEM), a GIS based repository

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of data. NDEM is envisaged to have core data,
INSAT GEOSAR Local User Terminal (GEO
hazard-specific data, and dynamic data in spatial
LUT) is established at ISTRAC, Bangalore and
as well as aspatial form.
integrated with INMCC. The distress alert

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messages concerning the Indian service area, Airborne ALTM-DC data acquisition is being
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detected at INMCC are passed on to Indian
Coast Guard and Rescue Coordination Centres
carried out for the flood prone basins in the
country. The development of flight model of C
at Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai. The band DMSAR is nearing completion. SAR data
search and rescue activities are carried out by was acquired over selected basins using
Coast Guard, Navy and Air Force. INMCC is Development model of DMSAR. Towards
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linked to the RCCs and other International providing emergency communication for
MCCs through Aeronautical Fixed disaster management activities, and at the behest
Telecommunication Network (AFTN). The of Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), ISRO has
Indian LUTs and MCC provide service round set up a satellite based Virtual Private Network
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the clock and maintain the database of all 406 (VPN) linking the National Control Room at
MHz registered beacons equipped on Indian MHA with DMS-DSC at NRSC, important
ships and aircraft. national agencies, key Government Offices in
Delhi and the Control Rooms of 22 multi-hazard-
Development of indigenous search and prone States. Further ISRO has developed and
rescue beacons has been completed, and is now deployed INSAT Type-D terminals (portable
in qualification phase. Shortly it will be released satellite phones), INSAT based Distress Alert
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to the Indian fishermen community. Transmitter (DAT) for fishermen, Cyclone

Warning Dissemination System (CWCS) and
Till date, there are about 400 registered user
DTH based Digital Disaster Warning System
agencies (Maritime & Aviation) in India with
(DDWS) in disaster prone areas.
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more than 5200 radio beacons in use.

As part of R&D support to DMS for remote
Migration from LEOSAR & GEOSAR to
sensing applications, work on Tropical Cyclone
MEOSAR system has been under taken. Design
Track intensity and landfall prediction,
of upcoming MEOSAR system is ready and will
Earthquake Precursor studies, Coastal
be implemented in 2 years.
Vulnerability mapping and Early Warning of
e) Disaster Management Landslides are being carried out.

The Disaster Management Support (DMS) The DMS programme is also supporting the
Programme of ISRO, provides timely support many international initiatives by sharing data
and services from aero-space systems, both and information. Through International Charter
imaging and communications, towards efficient “Space and Major Disasters” and Sentinel Asia
management of disasters in the country. The (SA) initiative for supporting disaster
DMS programme addresses disasters such as management activities in the Asia-Pacific region,
flood, cyclone, drought, forest fire, landslide and ISRO is providing IRS datasets and other
Earthquake. These include creation of digital information for use during major calamities.

Chronicle IAS Academy [27]

 • GSAT-12
RECENT SATELLITES
GSAT-12, the latest communication satellite
• INSAT-3D: built by ISRO, weighs about 1410 kg at lift-off.
GSAT-12 is configured to carry 12 Extended
It was launched on July 26, 2013, is an
C-band transponders to meet the country's
advanced weather satellite of India configured
growing demand for transponders in a short
with improved Imaging System and
turn-around-time. It was launched on July 15,
Atmospheric Sounder. INSAT-3D is designed for
2011. The 12 Extended C-band transponders
enhanced meteorological observations, of GSAT-12 will augment the capacity in the
monitoring of land and ocean surfaces, INSAT system for various communication
generating vertical profile of the atmosphere in services like Tele-education, Telemedicine and

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terms of temperature and humidity for weather for Village Resource Centres (VRC).
forecasting and disaster warning.

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• GSAT-8
It carries four payloads —
• 6 channel multi-spectral Imager It is a high power communication satellite
inducted in the INSAT system. Weighing about

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• 19 channel Sounder 3100 Kg at lift-off, GSAT-8 is configured to
•
•
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Data Relay Transponder (DRT)
Search and Rescue Transponder
carry 24 high power transponders in Ku-band
and a two-channel GPS Aided Geo Augmented
Navigation (GAGAN) payload operating in L1
The payloads of INSAT-3D will provide and L5 bands. It was launched on May 21,
continuity and further augment the capability 2011. The 24 Ku band transponders will
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to provide various meteorological as well as augment the capacity in the INSAT system. The
search and rescue services. GAGAN payload provides the Satellite Based
Augmentation System (SBAS), through which
• GSAT-10:
the accuracy of the positioning information
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India’s advanced communication satellite, obtained from the GPS Satellite is improved by
GSAT-10, is a high power satellite being inducted a network of ground based receivers and made
into the INSAT system. It was launched on available to the users in the country through
September 29, 2012. Weighing 3400 kg at lift- the geostationary satellites.
off, GSAT-10 is configured to carry 30
• GSAT-5P
communication transponders in normal C-band,
lower extended C-band and Ku-band as well as GSAT-5P was the fifth satellite launched in
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a GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation the GSAT series and launched on December
(GAGAN) payload operating in L1 and L5 25, 2010. It is an exclusive communication
bands. GSAT-10 is the second satellite to carry satellite to further augment the communication
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GAGAN payload after GSAT-8, which is already services currently provided by the Indian
providing navigation services from orbit. GSAT- National Satellite (INSAT) System. Weighing
10 also carries a Ku-band beacon to help in 2310 kg at lift-off, GSAT-5P carried 24 Normal
accurately pointing ground antennas towards C-band and 12 Extended C-band transponders.
the satellite.
• GSAT-4
The 30 communication transponders
GSAT-4 was the nineteenth geo-stationary
onboard GSAT-10 will further augment the
satellite of India built by ISRO and fourth in
capacity in the INSAT system. The GAGAN
the GSAT series, launched on April 15, 2010.
payload provides the Satellite Based
GSAT-4 was basically an experimental satellite.
Augmentation System (SBAS), through which
However, GSAT-4 was not placed in orbit as
the accuracy of the positioning information
GSLV-D3 could not complete the mission.
obtained from the GPS satellites is improved by
a network of ground based receivers and made • INSAT–4CR
available to the users in the country through geo-
This spacecraft is configured with exclusive
stationary satellites.
Ku band employing the I-2K Bus with a mass of

[28] Chronicle IAS Academy

 2130 Kg. It was injected on September 2, 2007 INSAT-3D during 2013, the Indian Earth
into the orbit by GSLV-F04 rocket with enhanced Observation System has setup its own niche to
Russian Cryogenic engine and co-located at 74° provide high quality data products and services
East longitude along with INSAT–3C / Kalpana– for national development.
1 / GSAT–3 (EDUSAT). INSAT-4CR carries 12
high-power Ku-band transponders designed to
Remote sensing applications
provide Direct-to-home (DTH) television Remote sensing has enabled mapping,
services, Video Picture Transmission (VPT) and studying, monitoring and management of
Digital Satellite News Gathering (DSNG). various resources like agriculture, forestry,
• INSAT–4B geology, water, ocean, etc. It has further enabled
monitoring of environment and thereby helping
This spacecraft is the second in the INSAT 4 in conservation. In the last four decades it has

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series of spacecrafts and is configured with grown as a major tool for collecting information
exclusive communication payloads to provide

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on almost every aspect on the earth. With the
services in Ku and C frequency bands. This is availability of very high spatial resolution
co-located with INSAT–3A at 93.5°E longitude satellites in the recent years, the applications have
and was launched on March 12, 2007. multiplied. In India remote sensing has been used

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for various applications during the last four
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INDIAN REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM decades and has contributed significantly
towards development.
Over a span of three decades, the space borne
remote sensing capabilities have grown to such India has its own satellites like Indian Remote
an extent that space-based observation has Sensing Satellite (IRS) series - Resourcesat,
become the prime source of information on
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Cartosat, Oceansat, etc. which provide required
earth’s resources and its environment. The data for carrying out various projects. Some of
Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites are the the important projects carried out in the country
mainstay of National Natural Resources include Groundwater Prospects Mapping under
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Management System (NMRMS), for which Drinking Water Mission, Forecasting

A
department of space is the nodal agency, Agricultural output using Space,
providing operational remote sensing data Agrometeorology and Land based observations
services. It essentially involves measuring the (FASAL), Forest Cover/Type Mapping,
electromagnetic radiation of the sun that is Grassland Mapping, Biodiversity
reflected, scattered or re-emitted by the objects Characterisation, Snow & Glacier Studies, Land
on the surface of the earth. Use/Cover mapping, Coastal Studies, Coral and
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Mangroves Studies, Wasteland Mapping etc. The

Starting with IRS-1A in 1988, ISRO has
information generated by large number of
launched many operational remote sensing
projects have been used by various departments,
satellites into orbit. Today, India has one of the
industries and others for different purposes like
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largest constellations of remote sensing satellites

development planning, monitoring,
in operation. Currently, ten operational satellites
conservation, etc.
are in orbit – RESOURCESAT-1 and 2,
CARTOSAT-1, 2, 2A, 2B, RISAT-1 and 2, a) Groundwater Prospects and Recharge
OCEANSAT-2 and Megha-Tropiques. While Zone Mapping
RESOURCESAT-1, CARTOSAT-1 and 2 have The occurrence and movement of
successfully completed their designed mission groundwater is mainly controlled by many
life in orbit, they continue to provide limited factors such as rock types, landforms, geological
services to the users. Varieties of instruments structures, soil, land use, rainfall, etc. Remote
have been flown onboard these satellites to sensing based groundwater prospect zone map
provide necessary data in a diversified spatial, serves as a base for further exploration using
spectral and temporal resolutions to cater to hydro geological and geophysical methods to
different user requirements in the country and locate well sites. Studies have shown that if
for global usage. With such satellites in orbit and remote sensing data are used at first level to
considering the plans of the near future, such as delineate prospective zones and further followed

Chronicle IAS Academy [29]

 up by hydro geological and geophysical surveys, among others, the preparation of spatial plans
higher success could be achieved besides savings for economic development and social justice for
in terms of cost, time and work. Further remote all urban areas. Considering the same, National
sensing data helps in identifying suitable areas Urban Information System (NUIS) is approved
for recharging ground water. Under Rajiv as National Mission Programme of Ministry of
Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission, Urban Development (MUD, GOI). NUIS
funded by the Department of Drinking Water comprises of broadly two major components -
Supply of the Ministry of Rural Development, (a) Urban Spatial Information System (USIS) to
ground water prospects and recharge zone meet the Spatial (maps / images) data /
maps on 1:50,000 scale was taken up by ISRO information requirements of urban planning and
in phases using IRS data. So far, 14 states management functions, (b) National Urban Data

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(Andhra Pradesh (Part), Madhya Pradesh, Bank & Indicators (NUDB&I) to develop town-
Rajasthan, Karnataka, Kerala, Chattisgarh, level urban database to support development of

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Gujarat, Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, indices through a network of Local Urban
Assam, Punjab, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh Observatories (LUOs) under the National Urban
(Part) have been completed and the maps have Observatory (NUO) Programme.

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been provided to State Ground Water
C IC Under USIS of NUIS a comprehensive 3-tier
Departments and other concerned departments.
GIS database for each town/city to support the
The maps have been used for locating well sites
urban planning and management is envisaged:
and recharge structures. The feedback shows
that about 275,800 wells have been drilled with • Generate 1:10,000 scale GIS-compatible
more than 90% success rate and about 9000 spatial information from IRS images and
integrate attribute information to enhance
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recharge structures have been constructed. The
work is under progress for the states of Jammu Master Plan / Development Plan of urban
& Kashmir, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh-Part, settlements
West Bengal-Part, Haryana and Arunachal • Generate 1:2,000 scale GIS-compatible
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Pradesh. spatial information from aerial

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photographs and integrate attribute
b) Wetlands information to enhance Municipal Plan /
Zonal Plan and detailed Town Planning
The primary objective of this project is to map
schemes.
the wetlands of India (natural, manmade, coastal
and inland) at 1:50,000 scale and create a • Establish a 1:1000 scale utilities GIS using
database with a query shell. This project has been Ground Penetrating Radar data on a pilot
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basis to include water-supply, sewerage,

taken up at the specific request of Ministry of
power and communication for Utilities
Environment and Forests (MoEF). Digital
Planning and Management.
analysis of two date (pre and post monsoon)
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satellite data is used for the purpose. This is the DOS is participating in the endeavor of NUIS
first time that country will have country specific taken up under NNRMS Standing Committee
classification system, updated database and map on Urban development. Apart from providing
of wetlands at 1:50,000 scale which will help in IRS satellite data and aerial photography, DOS
conservation/preservation plan, water resources shares the responsibility of the preparation of
plan, methane emission study etc. Atlas of 7 thematic maps at 1:10,000 scale. In Phase-I, 158
states (Goa, Meghalaya, Manipur, Delhi, towns covering geographical area of around
Arunachal Pradesh, A&N islands, Lakshadweep 55,755 sq km has been taken up. As a pilot
islands) had been completed and released by project, thematic mapping for the Korba town
Hon’ble Minster for Environment and Forests on located in Chattisgarh State covering 276 sq km.
Feb 2, 2010. has been completed. About 75 towns had been
c) National Urban Information System completed during 2009 and planned to complete
(NUIS) the remaining towns soon thereafter.

The 74th Constitution Amendment Act - d) National Natural Resource Management

1992 and more specifically under the 12th System
Schedule of Municipal Functions envisages The Indian remote sensing programme is

[30] Chronicle IAS Academy

 intended to be a key element of India’s ambitious Nagpur, Kharagpur, and Jodhpur are
National Natural Resource Management System underway. Another centre for the north-eastern
(NNRMS). NNRMS was established in 1983 and region is planned. DOS will manage these
is supported by Planning Commission, regional centres initially. The backbone of the
Government of India. Department of Space RRSSCs as well as the associate centres is a
(DOS) is the nodal agency for implementing digital image analysis system primarily for
NNRMS in the. handling satellite acquired terrain multispectral
data.
The NNRMS with its headquarters in
Bengaluru is functioning with the main objective INTRODUCTION OF SOME
of liaising with different users of the State/
LATEST SATELLITES
Central Government departments/organisations
in different tasks related to the use of remote (a) BHUVAN

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sensing data, such as, the establishment of
Bhuvan is an initiative to showcase this

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infrastructure for remote sensing centre/unit/
distinctiveness of India's imaging capabilities,
cell, supply of equipment for data processing and including the thematic information derived from
analysis, organising the information system for such imagery which could be of vital importance

EM
the remote sensing data in management of to a common man with a focus on Indian region.
natural resources in the country. In doing so,
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NNRMS adopts various advanced technologies
Bhuvan, an ambitious project of ISRO to take
Indian images and thematic information in
of satellite and aerial remote sensing; multiple spatial resolutions to people through a
Geographical Information Systems (GIS); precise web portal through easy access to information
Positioning Systems; database and networking on basic natural resources in the geospatial
infrastructure and advanced ground-based domain. Bhuvan showcases Indian images by the
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survey techniques. superimposition of these IRS satellite imageries
The three major components of NNRMS on 3D globe. It displays satellite images of
are: varying resolution of India’s surface, allowing
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users to visually see things like cities and

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(a) application projects, important places of interest looking
(b) infrastructure and manpower perpendicularly down or at an oblique angle,
development, and with different perspectives and can navigate
(c) establishing a National Natural through 3D viewing environment. The degree
Resources Information System (NNRIS). of resolution showcased is based on the points
The applications project will be in major of interest and popularity, but most of the Indian
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resource sectors such as agriculture, land use, terrain is covered upto at least 5.8 metres of
water resources, forestry, geology, marine resolution with the least spatial resolution being
resources and environment. 55 metres from AWiFs Sensor. With such rich
content, Bhuvan opens the door to graphic
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DOS/ISRO is the lead agency for a significant visualisation of digital geospatial India allowing
number of application projects. These projects individuals to experience the fully interactive
are being executed in collaboration with a large terrain viewing capabilities.
number of State and Central Government
agencies. Major contributions in the disciplines Multi-resolution images from multi-sensor
of soil, vegetation mapping and mineral IRS satellites of India is seamlessly depicted
targeting will be made from the National Bureau through the Bhuvan web portal by enabling a
of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning/ICAR, common man to zoom into specific area of
Forest Survey of India (Ministry of Environment interest at high resolution. Bhuvan brings a
and Forests) and Geological Survey of India whole lot of uniqueness in understanding our
(GSI), respectively. own natural resources whilst presenting
beautiful images and thematic vectors generated
Five Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres from varieties of geospatial information. Bhuvan
(RRSSCs) are being set up for processing remote will also attempt to bring out the importance of
sensed data. The Dehradun and Bengaluru multi-temporal data and to highlight the changes
centres are already operational. The centres at taking place to our natural resources, which will

Chronicle IAS Academy [31]

 serve as a general awareness on our changing • Drawing 2D objects
planet. There are lot more special value added • Drawing 3D Objects
services which will be enabled onto the web
• Snapshot creation (copies the 3D view to
portal in due course of time and each one of those
a floating window and allows to save to
services are going to be unique in preserving and
an external file)
conserving our precious natural resources
through public participation. We are sure the • Measurement tools (Horizontal distance,
common man will get rich benefits from these aerial distance, vertical distance, measure
Indian geospatial data services in days to come. area)
• Shadow Analysis (it sets the sun position
Bhuvan Geoportal entered its fourth year of
based on the given time creating shadows
operations in August 2012. During this period,

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and effects the lighting on the terrain)
Bhuvan has evolved both in terms of the content
• Urban Design Tools (to build roads,

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and features besides speed and access. The portal
had an average of 19,000 visitors per month junctions and traffic lights in an urban
during the last one year. In addition to setting)
visualisation, Bhuvan has been providing satellite • Contour map ( Displays a colourized

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data and products with 23 m and coarser spatial terrain map and contour lines)
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resolution and older than 2 years. Besides, several
information products like CartoDEM, OCM
based Normalised Difference Vegetation Index
• Draw tools (Creates simple markers, free
hand lines, urban designs)
(b) YOUTHSAT
(NDVI) and Vegetation, Fraction products,
Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential, etc., are being It is a joint Indo-Russian stellar and
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provided as free downloads through NRSC Open atmospheric satellite mission with the
Earth Observation Data Archive (NOEDA) since participation of students from Universities at
September 2011. graduate, post graduate and research scholar
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level. With a lift-off mass of 92 kg, Youthsat is a

Basic Features of Bhuvan
A
mini satellite and the second in the Indian Mini
• Access, explore and visualise 2D and 3D
Satellite (IMS) series. Youthsat mission intends
image data along with rich thematic
to investigate the relationship between solar
information on Soil, wasteland, water
variability and thermosphere-Ionosphere
resources, etc.
changes. The satellite carries three payloads, of
• Visualise multi-resolution, multi-sensor, which two are Indian and one Russian. Together,
multi-temporal image data.
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they form a unique and comprehensive package

• Superpose administrative boundaries of of experiments for the investigation of the
choice on images as required composition, energetics and dynamics of earth's
• Visualisation of AWS (Automatic Weather upper atmosphere. “
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Stations) data/information in a graphic

view and use tabular weather data of user The Indian payloads are:
choice. 1. RaBIT (Radio Beacon for Ionospheric
• Fly to locations (Fly from the current Tomography) - For mapping Total
location directly to the selected location) Electron Content (TEC) of the Ionosphere.

• Heads-Up Display (HUD) navigation 2. LiVHySI (Limb Viewing Hyper Spectral

controls (Tilt slider, north indicator, Imager) - To perform airglow
opacity, compass ring, zoom slider) measurements of the Earth's upper
atmosphere (80- 600 km) in 450-950 nm.
• Navigation using the 3D view Pop-up
menu (Fly-in, Fly out, jump in, jump The Russian payload is:
around, view point)
SOLRAD - To study temporal and spectral
• 3D Fly through (3D view to fly to parameters of solar flare X and gamma ray
locations, objects in the terrain, and fluxes as well as charge particles in the earth
navigate freely using the mouse or polar cap regions.
keyboard)

[32] Chronicle IAS Academy

 (c) RESOURCESAT-2 (f) Megha-Tropiques
It is a follow on mission to RESOURCESAT- Megha-Tropiques is an Indo-French Joint
1 and the eighteenth Remote Sensing satellite Satellite Mission for studying the water cycle and
built by ISRO. RESOURCESAT-2 is intended to energy exchanges in the tropics. The main
continue the remote sensing data services to objective of this mission is to understand the life
global users provided by RESOURCESAT-1, and cycle of convective systems that influence the
to provide data with enhanced multispectral and tropical weather and climate and their role in
spatial coverage as well. ““Important changes associated energy and moisture budget of the
in RESOURCESAT-2 compared to atmosphere in tropical regions.
RESOURCESAT-1 are: Enhancement of LISS-4
multispectral swath from 23 km to 70 km and Megha-Tropiques will provide scientific data
improved Radiometric accuracy from 7 bits to on the contribution of the water cycle to the

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10 bits for LISS-3 and LISS-4 and 10 bits to 12 tropical atmosphere, with information on
bits for AWIFS. Besides, suitable changes, condensed water in clouds, water vapour in the

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including miniaturisation in payload electronics, atmosphere, precipitation, and evaporation.
have been made in RESOURCESAT-2. With its circular orbit inclined 20 deg to the
equator, the Megha-Tropiques is a unique satellite

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RESOURCESAT-2 also carries an additional
C IC for climate research that should also aid scientists
payload known as AIS (Automatic Identification seeking to refine prediction models.
System) from COMDEV, Canada as an
experimental payload for ship surveillance in “Megha-Tropiques carries the following four
VHF band to derive position, speed and other payloads:
information about ships. • Microwave Analysis and Detection of
Rain and Atmospheric Structures
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RESOURCESAT-2 carries two Solid State
(MADRAS), an Imaging Radiometer
Recorders with a capacity of 200 Giga Bytes each
developed jointly by CNES and ISRO
to store the images taken by its cameras which
can be read out later to ground stations. • Sounder for Probing Vertical Profiles of
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Humidity (SAPHIR), from CNES

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(d) JUGNU
• Scanner for Radiation Budget (ScaRaB),
The nanosatellite Jugnu weighing 3 kg is from CNES
designed and developed by Indian Institute of
• Radio Occultation Sensor for Vertical
Technology, Kanpur under the guidance of Profiling of Temperature and Humidity
ISRO. The satellite is intended: (ROSA), procured from Italy.
• To prove the indigenously developed
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(g) Chandrayaan – I
camera system for imaging the Earth in
the near infrared region and test image Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was launched
processing algorithms. from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, SHAR,
Sriharikota by PSLV-XL (PSLV-C11) on 22
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• Evaluate GPS receiver for its use in satellite

October 2008 in an highly elliptical initial orbit
navigation.
(IO) with perigee (nearest point to the Earth) of
• Test indigenously developed MEMS based 255 km and an apogee (farthest point from the
Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) in space. Earth) of 22,860 km, inclined at an angle of 17.9
(e) SRMSat deg to the equator. Chandrayaan-I mission was
abandoned in August 2009 when the spacecraft
The nanosatellite SRMSat weighing 10.9 kg lost radio contact.
is developed by the students and faculty of SRM
University attempts to address the problem of Chandrayaan-1 is India’s first and the
Global warming and pollution levels in the world’s 68th mission to the moon. The world’s
atmosphere by monitoring Carbon dioxide (CO2) first moon mission was by the then Union of
and water vapour (H2O). The satellite uses a Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) on Jan 2, 1959,
grating Spectrometer, which will observe followed two months later by the US on March
absorption spectrum over a range of 900nm - 3. Between them, the two countries have sent
1700nm infrared range. 62 missions to probe the moon with the US

Chronicle IAS Academy [33]

 stealing a march over the then cold war rival • The third SSR with 10 GB SSR is for storing
USSR by landing a man on the moon on July 20, M3 (Moon Mineralogy Mapper) payload
1969. data.

Japan broke the monopoly of the two • On the ground, Chandrayaan-1 was
superpowers on Jan 24, 1990 by sending its tracked by the Deep Space Station (DSN),
spacecraft Hiten to orbit the moon. The European Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC) and
Indian Space Science Data Centre
Space Agency launched its probe in September
(ISSDC).
2003. China sent its spacecraft Chang'e II in
2012. India had hosted six foreign instruments in
its maiden moon odyssey Chandrayaan-I —
The first hard landing on the moon was on
three from ESA, two from NASA and one from

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Sep 12, 1959 by Soviet Union’s Luna 2. The first
Bulgaria. Chandrayaan-I carried India’s five
photos from the moon were taken by Oct 4, 1959

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instruments.
from the Soviet spacecraft Luna 3.
Scientific Objectives
On Jan 26, 1962, the US Ranger 3 missed the

EM
Moon by 36,793 km. The Soviet Union’s Luna 6 The Chandrayaan-1 mission was aimed at
did worse on June 8, 1965 missing the moon by
C IC high-resolution remote sensing of the moon in
160,000 km. Luna 9 made up for it on Jan 31, visible, near infrared (NIR), low energy X-rays
1966 by becoming the first spacecraft to soft land and high-energy X-ray regions. Specifically the
on the moon. objectives are:
The Indian mission to the moon was • To prepare a three-dimensional atlas
(with high spatial and altitude resolution
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proposed at a meeting of the Indian Academy
of 5-10 m) of both near and far side of
of Sciences in 1999.
the moon.
Space Craft • To conduct chemical and mineralogical
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• The Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was mapping of the entire lunar surface for
A
cuboid in shape, weighed 1,304 kg at distribution of mineral and chemical
launch and 590 kg at lunar orbit. It carried elements such as Magnesium, Aluminum,
11 payloads, including six from abroad. Silicon, Calcium, Iron and Titanium as
well as high atomic number elements such
• A canted single-sided solar array generates
as Radon, Uranium & Thorium with high
required power for the spacecraft during
spatial resolution.
its two-year mission. The solar array
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generates 700 watts of peak power. • The Simultaneous photo geological,

During eclipse the spacecraft powered by mineralogical and chemical mapping
Lithium ion (Li-Ion) batteries. through Chandrayaan-1 mission will
enable identification of different geological
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• The spacecraft employs an X-band, 0.7-

units to infer the early evolutionary history
metre diameter parabolic antenna for
of the Moon. The chemical mapping will
payload data transmission.
enable to determine the stratigraphy and
• The Telemetry, Tracking & Command nature of the Moon’s crust and thereby
(TTC) communication is in S-band test certain aspects of magma ocean
frequency and scientific payload data hypothesis. This may allow to determine
transmission in X-band frequency. the composition of impactors that
• The spacecraft has three Solid State bombarded the Moon during its early
Recorders (SSRs) to record data from evolution which is also relevant to the
various payloads. formation of the Earth.
• SSR-1 helps store science payload data (h) RISAT-1
and has capacity of storing 32 GB data.
RISAT 1 (Radar Imaging Satellite 1) is the
• The 8 GB SSR-2 will store science payload first satellite imaging mission of ISRO using an
data along with spacecraft altitude
active C-band SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar)
information, satellite housekeeping and
imager. The objective of the RISAT mission is to
other auxiliary data.

[34] Chronicle IAS Academy

 use the all-weather as well as the day-and-night and the technology of an orbiting platform for
SAR observation capability in applications such performing experiments in microgravity
as agriculture, forestry, soil moisture, geology, conditions. It was also intended to test reusable
sea ice, coastal monitoring, object identification, Thermal Protection System, navigation, guidance
and flood monitoring. and control, hypersonic aero-thermodynamics,
management of communication blackout,
RISAT 1 is developed, manufactured and
deceleration and floatation system and recovery
integrated by ISRO. The Polar Satellite Launch
operations.
Vehicle (PSLV-C19) successfully launched
RISAT-1 on the desired orbit, thus reducing ISRO is also working on technology to
India’s dependence on countries like Israel that manufacture carbon-carbon composite heat
uses microwave signals to capture images of the shields, which, along with the silica tiles tested
earth. with the SRE, could find use in future reusable

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spacecraft such as ISRO’s planned Reusable
RISAT-1 is a variant of microwave remote

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Launch Vehicle. During its stay in orbit, the
sensing satellite (MRSS) and is equipped with
following two experiments on board SRE 1 were
synthetic aperture radar payload in the C-band
successfully conducted under microgravity
(5.35 GH) frequency. It is better than the

EM
conditions.
previously used optical remote sensing satellites
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which could capture images during the day only
as Optical satellites are relying on sunlight to
One of the experiments was related to the
study of metal melting and crystallization under
illuminate the ground below, working much like microgravity conditions. The second experiment
an ordinary camera does. Radar satellites, on the was intended to study the synthesis of nano-
other hand, send out pulses of radio waves and crystals under microgravity conditions. This was
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then pick up signals that bounce back. an experiment in designing biomaterials that
better replicate natural biological products.
During its mission life of five years, the
RISAT-1 will use its active microwave remote b) SRE-2 Project was formed with the main
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sensing capability for cloud penetration and day- objective of realising a fully recoverable capsule
A
night imaging of the earth surface and provide and to provide a platform to conduct micro-
critical data inputs for a range of agricultural gravity experiments. SRE capsule has four
and soil moisture studies and forestry major hardware, namely, Aero Thermo-
applications. Among the many tasks the RISAT- structure (ATS), Spacecraft platform,
1 can perform are paddy monitoring in kharif deceleration and floatation system and
season, crop estimation and mapping of forestry payloads.
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biomass, besides providing the big picture on

The main objective of SRE II is to realize a
natural disasters such as flood and cyclone.
fully recoverable capsule and provide a platform
RECENT MISSIONS to conduct microgravity experiments on Micro-
C

biology, Agriculture, Powder Metallurgy, etc.

a) Space Capsule Recovery Experiment SRE-2 is proposed to be launched onboard PSLV.
The Space Capsule Recovery Experiment c) Mars Orbiter Mission
(SCRE/SRE/SRE-1) was an Indian experimental
spacecraft, launched on January 10, 2007 from Mars Orbiter Mission is ISRO’s first
Sriharikota using the PSLV C7 rocket, along with interplanetary mission to planet Mars with a
three other satellites. It remained in orbit for 12 spacecraft designed to orbit Mars in an elliptical
days before re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere orbit of 372 km by 80,000 km. Mars Orbiter
and splashing down into the Bay of Bengal on mission is India’s next challenging technological
January 22. During its reentry, the 555 kg mission out of the Earth’s gravitational field. The
capsule was protected from the intense heat by major demands will be critical mission operations
carbon phenolic ablative material and silica tiles and stringent requirements on propulsion,
on its outer surface. communications and other bus systems of the
spacecraft. The primary driving technological
The SRE 1 was designed to demonstrate the
objective of the mission is to design and realize a
capability to recover an orbiting space capsule,

Chronicle IAS Academy [35]

 spacecraft with a capability to reach Mars United States government and is freely accessible
(Martian transfer Trajectory), then to orbit by anyone with a GPS receiver. GPS was created
around Mars (Mars Orbit Insertion) which will and realized by the U.S. Department of Defense
take about nine months time. (USDOD) and was originally run with 24
satellites. It was established in 1973 to overcome
Yet another technological challenge is to
the limitations of previous navigation systems.
realize related deep space mission planning and
communication management at a distance of GPS works in six logical steps:
nearly 400 million km. The polar Satellite Launch a) The basis of GPS is “triangulation” from
Vehicle PSLV will be used to inject the spacecraft satellites.
from SDSC, SHAR in the 250 X 23000 km orbit
with an inclination of 17.864 degree. As the b) To “triangulate,” a GPS receiver measures

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minimum energy transfer opportunity from distance using the travel time of radio
signals.

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Earth to Mars occurs once in 26 months, the
opportunity in 2013 demands a cumulative c) To measure travel time, GPS needs very
incremental velocity of 2.592 km/sec. accurate timing which it achieves with

EM
some tricks.
Mission to Mars (during November 2013
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launch opportunity):
Mars with its many similarities to earth is an
important planet to understand the origin and
d) Along with distance, you need to know
exactly where the satellites are in space.
High orbits and careful monitoring are the
secret.
evolution of the solar system. India certainly
e) You must correct for any delays the signal
cannot afford to be behind in its independent
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experiences as it travels through the
exploration of the red planet. India’s first Mission
atmosphere.
to Mars during 2013 would be important more
from the technological perspective, namely, f) Finally (for us), you can now obtain the
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entire mission design, planning, management precise time from the GPS satellites.
A
and operations, and communication from a Improbable as it may seem, the whole idea
distance of nearly 400 million km. This mission behind GPS is to use satellites in space as
will demonstrate ISRO’s capability to undertake reference points for locations here on earth.
deep-space planetary mission where the travel That’s right, by very, very accurately measuring
time from earth to Mars is nearly 300 days. The our distance from three satellites we can
Indian Mission to Mars would also provide an “triangulate” our position anywhere on earth.
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opportunity to the scientific community, to

further understand the Martian Science. Triangulation-What is it?

The present plan is to launch a Mars-orbiter a) Position is calculated from distance

measurements (ranges) to satellites.
C

using PSLV-XL during the November 2013

launch opportunity. Mars-orbiter will be placed b) Mathematically we need four satellite
in an orbit of 500×80,000 km around Mars and ranges to determine exact position.
will have a provision for carrying nearly 25 kg c) Three ranges are enough if we reject
of scientific payloads on board. An indicative ridiculous answers or use other tricks.
plan outlay of `39,750 crore at current prices for d) Another range is required for technical
the Twelfth Five Year has been made for the DOS. reasons.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM Now, we come to the other varieties of

Satellite based navigation platforms, though all
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a of them work on the same basic principle but
space-based global navigation satellite system have their own set of satellites being controlled
(GNSS) that provides reliable location and time by different ‘master-key’ i.e. nation/union that
information in all weather and at all times and owns them. Henceforth, all the powerful nations
anywhere on or near the Earth when and where having strategic geopolitical angle to their
there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or existential identity are some way into building
more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the their own SATNAV system.

[36] Chronicle IAS Academy

 I. GLONASS a proposed three-satellite regional time transfer
system and enhancement for the Global
Global Navigation Satellite System is a radio-
Positioning System that would be receivable
based satellite navigation system operated for the
within Japan. The first satellite ‘Michibiki’ was
Russian government by the Russian Space
launched on 11 September 2010. Full operational
Forces. Development on the GLONASS began
status is expected by 2013, though with the
in the Soviet Union in 1976, with a goal of global
pacifist approach in for a severe change with
coverage by 1991. Beginning on 12 October 1982,
the new Japanese government belonging to the
numerous rockets launches added satellites to
Centre-left approach, and also the economy
the system until the constellation was completed
growing may be this date can pre-pone.
in 1995. Following completion, the system fell
into disrepair with the collapse of the Russian In March 2013, Japan announced the
economy. Beginning in 2003, Russia committed

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expansion of the Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
to restoring the system and by 2010 it had from three satellites to four. The $526 million

Y
achieved 100% coverage of Russia’s territory. As contract with Mitsubishi Electric for the
on July 30, 2013, total satellites in the GLONASS construction of three satellites is slated for
constellation were 29, in which 24 satellites being launch before the end of 2017.

EM
operational, while one satellite is in maintenance,
one in Flight Tests phase and 3 more are spare BEIDOU Navigation System
ones.
C IC The BeiDou Navigation System or BeiDou
II. GALILEO (COMPASS) Navigation Satellite System is a
project by China to develop an independent
Galileo is a global navigation satellite system satellite navigation system. It may refer to either
(GNSS) currently being built by the European one or both generations of the Chinese navigation
A N
Union (EU) and European Space Agency (ESA). system. The first BEIDOU system, officially
The •5 billion project is named after the famous called BEIDOU Satellite Navigation
Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. One of the Experimental System, or known as BeiDou-1,
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political aims with Galileo is to provide a high- consists of 3 satellites and has limited coverage
A
accuracy positioning system upon which and applications. It has been offering navigation
European nations can rely independent from the services mainly for customers in China and from
Russian GLONASS and US GPS systems which neighboring regions since 2000. The second
can be disabled for commercial users in times of generation of the system known as Compass or
war or conflict. BEIDOU-2 will be a global satellite navigation
system consisting of 35 satellites, is still under
When in operation, it will use the two ground
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construction.
operations centers, one near Munich, Germany,
and another in Fucino, Italy and will consist of It became operational in China in December
30 satellites (27 operational + 3 active spares). 2011, with 10 satellites in use, and began offering
C

The first experimental satellite, GIOVE-A, was services to customers in the Asia-Pacific region
launched in 2005 and was followed by a second in December 2012 and the global system will be
test satellite, GIOVE-B, launched in 2008. On started by 2020. The chief designer of BeiDou
October 21, 2011, the first two of four navigation system is Sun JIADONG.
operational satellites were launched to validate
the system. The next two followed on October India's satellite-based navigation system-
12, 2012, making it possible to test Galileo end- GAGAN
to-end. Once this In-Orbit Validation (IOV) A satellite-based navigation system to aid air
phase has been completed, additional satellites traffic from Southeast Asia to Africa, including
will be launched to reach Initial Operational over the high seas in the vast region, has been
Capability (IOC) around mid-decade and this launched successfully, placing India into a select
will become fully operational by the year 2019. group of nations which possess such a
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) sophisticated technology. GAGAN or the GPS
Aided Geo Augmented Navigation will also help
The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) is in marine navigation, search and rescue

Chronicle IAS Academy [37]

 operations, rail and road transport, survey and Navigation System for the aviation sector. Final
mapping as well as precision farming. The System Acceptance Test (FSAT) of GAGAN was
system, developed jointly by the Indian Space successfully completed during July 2012. The
Research Organisation and Airports Authority FSAT results have successfully demonstrated
of India, would operationalise a satellite-based that GAGAN Signals meet the Civil aviation
Indian Flight Information Region in conjunction requirements.
with all nations from Southeast Asia, Gulf and
Conclusively, we can say that not only
West Asia and the eastern coast of Africa. It
geopolitical angles of the post cold war that has
would be based on a satellite constellation
engulfed the technical prowess of a nation but
consisting of 24 satellites positioned in six earth-
in today’s world keeping information network
centered orbital planes. When commissioned,
secure and secretive has also become important.

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GAGAN is expected to provide civil aeronautical
Reason behind this growing importance of own
navigation signals consistent with International

Y
navigation pattern can be fear of cyber war as
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards
we have seen with the stuxnet on the verge of
based on the Global Navigation Satellite System attacking Iranian electric supply lines and its
(GNSS) Panel, as part of the Future Air nuclear installations.

EM
C IC



A N
S RO
A
IA H
C

[38] Chronicle IAS Academy

 NEW TECHNOLOGY
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

replacement for liquid helium cut down the costs

SUPER-CONDUCTIVITY
considerably. It was also found that super-
The flow of electrons is called current and conductive materials like lead, mercury and tin
the materials in which the electrons flow is called lost their capability as soon as enough current

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a conductor. Copper, mercury, aluminium, etc. flowed through them to generate magnetic fields.
are good conductors whereas glass, rubber and Further research with ceramics, the alloys of

Y
wood are bad conductors or insulators. Materials oxides of niobium and titanium, proved that
that don’t conduct electricity better than copper these kept their conductivity despite strong
are called semi-conductors. magnetic fields. It was in 1973, that Karl Alex

EM
C IC Muller of Zurich Laboratory decided to work on
In a world plagued by energy crisis, the metallic oxides called ceramics. Paul C.W. Chu
concept of super-conductivity has come about of Houston University found that super-
as a boon to mankind. We know that conductors conducting materials got damaged when their
are mediums that allow electricity to flow temperature was raised to 52K. Hence, he
through them. However, due to the resistance replaced Barium with Strontium which has a
offered by the medium, the current-carrying smaller atomic structure and he could raise the
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capacity of the medium is almost reduced to half temperature to 54K. Later, with the use of rare
its capability. It has been known that temperature earth element, temperature was raised to 98K.
is a factor that contributes to this resistance,
Today, Thallium, Barium, Calcium, Copper
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hence, if the temperature of the carrier could be

A
lowered to absolute zero (0K or “–273°C), these oxide, Bismuth, Strontium, Yttrium are
carriers could be made super-conductive, considered the most attractive materials for
because at this temperature they lose all super-conductivity.
resistance. Uses and Applications: Super-conductors
It was in the year 1911 that a Dutch physicist have many advantages over normal conductors.
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, discovered ‘Super- These are:
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conductivity’. While studying the variation of (i) In normal conductors, the energy lost
electrical resistance of mercury with because of resistance is given off as heat
temperature, he found that at near the absolute which makes the packing of electrical
C

zero temperature, the resistance dropped down circuits risky. Thus, a super-conductor
to a very small value. It was, however, found with no resistance and consequently no
that this transition to super-conductivity heat building is found suitable to pack
involved more than simply very high or infinite the circuits tightly.
electrical conductivity. The next step towards
(ii) They save electricity as energy loss due
unfolding the mystery of super-conductivity took
to resistance offered by conductors is
place in 1933, when W. Meissner and R.
reduced.
Ochsenfeld found that a super-conductor placed
in a magnetic field expelled the field from the (iii) They have ability to generate very
interior of the conductor. Later, it was found that powerful fields from relatively small
superconductivity needed a temperature of 4.2K, superconducting electromagnets.
which was the point at which helium gas
(iv) They can create Josephson junction
liquifies. Thus, the super-conductive devices had
which is capable of detecting minute
to be submerged in liquid helium. The main
magnetic fields and also have the
bottleneck was the high cost involved in such a
advantage of switching 100 times faster.
process. The discovery of liquid nitrogen as a

Chronicle IAS Academy [39]

 These magnetic field detectors are called built and tested the country’s first
super-conducting quantum interference superconducting generator. The generator is
devices or SQUIDS. cooled by liquid helium and has a capacity of
generating 200KV amperes. It has succeeded in
Due to these inherent advantages, super- cutting down on energy loss, but the use of liquid
conductors have been put to a variety of uses: helium is proving very costly and efforts are on
(i) Super-conductor electromagnets are to substitute it with a relatively cheaper liquid
used to generate extremely powerful Nitrogen.
magnetic fields which are used in atomic
colliders. LASER

(ii) Mass drivers are used to accelerate the The name ‘LASER’ is an acronym for Light

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object to very high velocities. Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Y
(iii) Super-conductors are also used in Radiation. A ‘Laser’ is an electric apparatus for
magneto cardiograms, nuclear magnetic producing unified light waves that can be exactly
resonance (NMR), magnetic resonance controlled, precisely focused, and when desired,

EM
made extremely powerful. It can be aimed
imaging (MRI), etc. These procedures
C IC precisely enough to destroy a dangerous skin
help the medical experts to take detailed
tumour without affecting other healthy skin
images of organs without having to cut
tissues.
open the skin.
(iv) Magnetic levitated trains (M.L.T.) float ‘Laser’ light has certain remarkable
4 inches above their tracks and hence properties, which make it chromatic, for
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no friction is involved which could have example, a red laser beam has only red light.
limited their speed. These so called Laser is very coherent and can be transmitted
‘Bullet Trains’ move at very high speed over great distances, without the beam
spreading. It also has the advantage that a lot of
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upto 500 mph.

A
power is concentrated in a very small area. On
Research in India: Acknowledging the the other hand, Sunlight, electric light and the
importance of super-conductivity, a Programme light from a candle is incoherent. It is a jumble
Management Group was set up by the of different wavelengths and brightness, in what
Government in 1987. It was soon replaced by seems to be a steady light emitted in every
the National Super-conductivity Science and direction. To produce a coherent beam, the
Technology Board in 1991. Research work was original light has to be coherent, and that’s what
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entrusted to DAE, CSIR and IITs. The areas of a laser is for.

research work included improvement in critical
Applications: The Laser beams, which are a
temperature, workability of Yitrium, Bismuth,
coherent beam of light and intense enough to
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Thalium, QNG and MTMG techniques, SQUIDS,

vaporise the hardest material ever known, are
HGMS, etc.
being used to drill holes in diamond, to weld
The National Physical Laboratory, New detached retina of eye and destroy maligant brain
Delhi, has developed a SQUID at liquid Nitrogen tumours located deep inside the brain or in the
temperature of 77K. They will help in geological spinal cord, and to transmit information. Some
prospecting and bio-magnetism. Similarly, of the major use of laser beams are :
Super-conducting magnetic ore separators are I. In Consumer Electronics: In the
being used in places like Kudremukh, etc. In yet consumer electronics industry, compact
another field, super-conducting compounds discs (CDs) have revolutionised the
called monophasic compounds with a critical audio industry with their durability and
transition temperature of 110 K, 90K and 80K the fidelity of reproduction. Lasers are
have been obtained. The highest critical an essential part of the recording and
transition temperature of 110 K has been reached reading of Compact Discs (CDs). The
for the compound bismuth, strontium, calcium recording process is basically similar to
and copper oxide. In a major development, that of an LP, except that instead of a
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Hyderabad has needle, laser lights are used to read the

[40] Chronicle IAS Academy

 ‘grooves’. Since the waves are extremely surgeons to produce self-cauterizing
small, the amount of information stored cuts.
on a CD can be huge, leading to
V. In Defence: Lasers are being used to
exceptional fidelity.
generate the immense temperatures
II. In Computer Technology: Computer required to study thermonuclear fusion,
memories are another area where lasers and like other technologies, lasers are
have had a tremendous impact on being conceived as offensive and
ROMs (Read Only Memories). These defensive weapons. In fact, lasers
optical discs allow a far more dense formed one of the main technological
storage of data, which are extremely mainstays of the Strategic Defence
durable and have a further advantage Initiative or Star Wars.

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in having much faster access times for
Lasers are used to find the target and
retrieval of data.
to measure the range of targets

Y
III. In Industries: The whole edifice of accurately, fusion process requires a
today’s industrial society is based on starting temperature of millions of
reliable and fast communications. Lasers degrees, obtained by concentrated laser

EM
are playing an extremely vital role in beams.
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providing data networks.
VI. In Telecommunication: In a telephone
In clothing factories, computer-guided system employing Fibre Optics, voice
lasers move across dozens of layers to vibrations are converted into pulses of
cloth at a time, cutting material for laser light, thousands of per second.
dozens of suits in a minute. In machine This would be impossible with ordinary
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shops, lasers cut through steel much light sources, such as, tungsten bulb,
faster than saws or other wedge tools. which require start-up and cool-down
In a car factory, high-power laser beams time for each light pulse. Laser light is
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spot-weld the parts of a car body instantaneous, so millions of pulses can

A
together. be transmitted in a second. A hair-thin
glass fibre can carry several thousand
Industrial applications of Lasers provide
telephone messages at once.
a very concentrated and easily-
controlled source of energy. This VII. In cleaning of monuments: Cleaning by
property finds use in laser welding and laser, which was introduced in Italy in
drilling, especially where sensitive parts the 1970s, has until now remained an
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have to be welded and the damage to expensive method with a generally

the surrounding parts is to be limited performance, mainly consisting
minimised. of laboratory equipment transported to
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the site. With the development of Lama

IV. Medicine & Health Care: Laser surgery
(portable laser for the cleaning of
is becoming increasingly, safe and
facades and historic buildings),
cheap, thanks to the rapid pace of
however, a decisive step has been taken
technical development. One of the
that could see the widespread adoption
earliest medical uses of lasers was in
of laser-cleaning.
retinal surgery, where detached retinas
were fixed. With the development of Laser Technology in India
fibre optics, lasers are being used to
‘burn’ arterial clots, thus, preventing The importance of laser was recognized by
risky and expensive open-heart surgery. the scientific community in India fairly early and
several institutions initiated research and
A wide beam of laser light can be
development (R&D) projects, although modest
focused to an extremely fine point, thus,
ones, in this area in the mid-sixties. Since then,
producing a very high temperature at
laser-related R&D programmes in India have
that point. This type of tools is called a expanded considerably and now encompasses
‘heat knife’, which are used by the

Chronicle IAS Academy [41]

 most of the Department of Atomic Energy to Varanasi. The Tata Institute of Fundamental
develop lasers and explore their applications has Research, Mumbai, BARC, Mumbai, IIT,
been quite massive. Kharagpur are the centres where theoretical
works on lasers or related topics are being carried
Dr. Homi Bhabha, the founder of Indian
out.
atomic energy programme, always encouraged
research in frontier areas of science, whether or The Survey of India is making use of lasers
not directly related to the atomic energy in range findings, whereas, for accurate
programme. Thus, a modest attempt to develop measurement of air pollutants through Rayleigh
semiconductor lasers at the Bhabha Atomic scattering by Laser Diffractrometer, IIT, Madras
Research Centre (BARC) was initiated in 1964 has done significant works.
though at that time laser was in its infancy and

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its applications were limited. The first Hence lasers have wide range of
applications. But due to limited availability of

Y
semiconductor laser in India was developed at
BARC in 1965. This was a major achievement lasers, their components and cost effectiveness,
for India. In another significant breakthrough the activities are still very slow in our country in
comparison to other countries.

EM
an optical communication link using Indian-
made semiconductor laser was established in
C IC Laser Development
1966 between BARC and the Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research (TIFR), a distance of 20 As the name suggests, Centre for Advanced
kms. Dr. Bhabha had constantly encouraged this Technology (CAT) has given priority to
activity and had often visited the laboratories developing technologies of important lasers and
and the site of the optical transmitter to exploring their application in industry, medicine
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encourage the scientists. Dr. Bhabha’s successors and R&D. The first laser built at CAT was a
continued his policy of encouraging research in copper vapour laser. It is the most powerful laser
frontline science after his tragic death in an air emitting visible light. Copper vapour lasers
capable of giving upto 40 Watt average power
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crash in 1967.
A
had been development at CAT. These lasers are
The laser-related activity in the Department also used to pump tunable dye lasers whose
of Atomic Energy got a fillip in 1987 when a new wavelengths can be changed. Several such lasers
research institute called Centre for Advanced have been given by CAT to universities and
Technology (CAT) was established. Since its another research laboratories for spectroscopic
inception, CAT has made commendable progress studies.
in both the areas and is widely recognised as an
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important R&D centre of India. Another important laser developed by CAT

is the carbon dioxide (CO2) laser. Incidentally,
At present over 90 research institutions are the CO2 laser was invented by a well-known
working on various aspects of lasers, like their Indian scientist, Dr. C.K.N. Patel, who was then
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fabrications, development of laser materials and working at Bell Labs in USA. CAT has developed
their applications to various fields like technologies of several types of CO 2 lasers
meteorology, communications, medicines, namely, low power slow CO2 laser, high power
isotope separation and in basic researches. fast flow CO2 laser, tunable CO2 laser and high
Scientists then started indigenous commercial pressure pulsed CO2 laser and is also pursuing
production of nitrogen, argon, helium, cadmium, applications of these CO2 lasers in medicine and
and nitrogen pumped dye lasers at various units. industry. Laser surgery has many advantages
BARC has also done extensive work on Go2 over conventional surgery. In laser surgery there
lasers. is virtually no bleeding, far less trauma to the
In the field of semiconductor lasers, which patients and healing is faster. Although use of
differ from other lasers, works are going on at laser in surgery is widespread in the western
BARC and Solid State Physics Laboratory, New countries, its application in India was limited
Delhi. The major centres in India with extensive due to the high cost of imported surgical lasers.
facilities for development of lasers are BARC, CAT therefore decided to develop a surgical laser
Mumbai, IIT, Kanpur, IIS, Bangalore and BHU, based on a 60W CO2. This surgical laser has an
articulated arm with seven elbows to allow the

[42] Chronicle IAS Academy

 surgeon to guide the laser beam. The laser is lasting about a millionth of a second. The waves
designed for Indian conditions and can travel at the speed of light, i.e., 3,00,000 kms per
withstand the extreme ambience. Twelve such second or 1,86,000 miles per second, until they
lasers have already been supplied to hospitals in strike some reflecting surface, which may be
India in cities extending from Delhi to almost anything from solid rock to the water
Thiruvananthapuram and from Mumbai to vapour in clouds. The reflected waves are
Kolkata. received by the same antenna, in the intervals
Medical Applications: CAT has also been between the pulses. The time interval between
developing lasers for surgery. It has promoted outgoing and reflected pulses is continually
research in this area in various hospitals through translated into visual data on the screen of a
a National Laser Programme. Apart from the cathode ray tube, similar to a TV picture tube.
surgical CO2 laser, CAT has developed nitrogen The time taken for the reflected waves to return,

D LE
laser for medical use. Nitrogen laser has been gives the distance of the object and the direction

Y
found useful for treatment of tuberculosis. Many of return tells about its location.
patients of TB develop cavities in their lungs
Application: Radar has a large variety of
which become breeding ground of the TB
applications, involving precise measurements of

EM
bacillus.
distances. Besides, being used for navigating
C IC RADAR AND SONAR ships and aircrafts, it is used for mapping storms
and other meteorological disturbances, and
RADAR : studying planets and their Moons or Satellites.
It is acronym for Radio Detecting and It is used for determining altitudes of
Ranging. Radar is a technique and apparatus
A N
aeroplanes, navigating in fog and in the dark,
for determining the location of an object by the and even mapping the cloud-shrouded surface
use of radio-waves. The most visible and of Venus. A useful application of radar is for
ubiquitous aspects of radar are the rotating, ‘police speed traps’. Here, a special radar device
S RO

curved-surface antennas seen on the top of most

A
is used, which responds differently to the
ships and airport towers. Not visible, but equally reflections from moving objects and stationary
important, are the radar antennas hidden in the objects.
noses of aeroplanes.
SONAR:
It is a system employing microwaves for the
purpose of locating, identifying, navigating or Acronym for Sound Navigation and
guiding such objects as ships, aircrafts, missiles Ranging, Sonar is a technique and apparatus for
IA H

or official satellites. It can determine the determining the location of an object by reflected
direction, distance, height and speed of objects sound-waves. In fact, it is a system for detecting
that are not visible to the human eyes. and locating submerged objects or
C

communication under water by transmitting a

The working principle of radar is similar to
high frequency sound wave and collecting the
that of sight. We see an object when light waves
fall on an object and are reflected from it, and reflected wave.
reach our eyes forming an image of it. Radar uses The Sonar principle is used to determine the
a powerful radio transmitter to illuminate objects depth of shallow bodies of water and to locate
with radio-waves and a sensitive radio receiver fish, under-water submarines, mines, wrecks,
to detect the reflected waves, also called echoes, and other obstacles. Initially, developed as a
which are amplified and electronically military instrument for locating submarines, it
transformed so that they can be seen on a display
is widely used for measuring water depth, and
monitor as spots of light or as an image of the
in Arctic regions, for measuring ice-thickness.
object observed. A single antenna, generally,
serves both as a transmitter and receiver. In Active Sonar, pulses of high-frequency
(high-pitched) sounds are beamed downwards
In operation, radar antennas emit pulses of
and at angles from the bottom of a ship. The
radio-waves, about 1000 pulses per second, each
‘echoes’ are received by an apparatus that

Chronicle IAS Academy [43]

 measures the time interval, then computes the automatically on a chart. Passive Sonar does not
distance and friction of the reflecting object. This send out sounds. It detects sounds made by
information is shown on a dial or plotted submarine engines or other sound-producing
objects.

MISCELLANEOUS

Scientific Institutions

Institutes Location

Agharkar Research Institute Pune

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Bose Institute Kolkata

Y
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research Bengaluru

Indian Association for the Cultivation of Sciences Kolkata

EM
C IC
Indian Institute of Astrophysics

Shri Chaitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology

Bengaluru

Thiruvananthapuram

S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences Kolkata

Raman Research Institute Bengaluru

A N
Birbal Shahni Institute of Palaeobotany Lucknow

Indian Institute of Geomagnetism Mumbai

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A
International Advanced Research Centre for Power Metallurgy and Hyderabad

New Materials

Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology Dehradun

Indian Academy of Sciences Bengaluru

IA H

Indian National Science Academy New Delhi

Indian National Academy of Engineering New Delhi

Indian Science Congress Association Kolkata

C

National Academy of Sciences Allahabad

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) Mumbai

Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) Kalpakkam

Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) Indore

Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC) Kolkata

Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) Hyderabad

Heavy Water Board (HWB) Mumbai

Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) Hyderabad

Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT) Mumbai

Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL) Mumbai

[44] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. (UCIL) Jharkhand (Jaduguda)
Indian Rare Earth Ltd. (IRE) Mumbai

Electronic Corporation of India Ltd. (ECIL) Hyderabad

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) Mumbai

Tata Memorial Centre (TMC) Mumbai

Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics (SINP) Kolkata

Institute of Physics (IOP) Bhubaneshwar

Harish Chandra Research Institute (HRI) Allahabad

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Institute of Mathematical Sciences (IMSC) Chennai

Y
The Institute for Plasma Research (IPR) Ahmedabad

National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) Bengaluru

EM
C IC
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) Thiruvananthapuram

ISRO Satellite Center Bengaluru

Sriharikota High Altitude Rocket (SHAR) Centre Sriharikota

A N
Space Application Centre (SAC) Ahmedabad

Liquid Propulsions System Center (LPSC) Bengaluru,

Valiamala (Kerala) &

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A
Mahendragiri (T.N)

Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU) Ahmedabad

National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) Hyderabad

Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) Ahmedabad

IA H

ISRO Inertial System Unit Thiruvananthpuram

ISRO Telemetry Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) Bengaluru

C

National Institute of Immunology (NII) New Delhi

National Facilities For Animal Tissue and Cell Culture

(NFATCC) Pune

National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository

(NFPTCR) New Delhi

Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) Lucknow

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource (NBPGR) New Delhi

Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI) Trivandrum

National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) Karnal, Haryana

Chronicle IAS Academy [45]

 • Compatibility: The extent to which a
COMPUTER TERMINOLOGY given piece of hardware or software
conforms to an accepted standard
• Access: To retrieve data from a storage
regardless of the original manufacturer.
device such as a hard disk, or to log in to
a computer system or network. • Compiler: A program that translates a
• Algorithm: A formal set of instructions high-level programming language such as
that can be followed to perform a specific C or Pascal into a machine language
task, such as a mathematical formula or program.
a set of instructions in a computer • Connectivity: In networking, the degree
program. to which any given computer or

D LE
• Aliasing: In computer graphics, the effect application program can cooperate with

Y
produced by diagonal lines, curves or other network components, either
circles, when display resolution is too hardware or software, purchased from
coarse to hide the stair-stepped jagged other vendors.

EM
appearance. Aliasing is also seen when a • Cropping: An editing operation during
bit-mapped graphic is enlarged many
C IC which pieces of a graphics image or a
times its original size.
halftone are removed to make the image
• Animation: A method of creating the fit into a given area, or to remove
illusion of movement by displaying a series unnecessary parts of the image.
of slightly different images very quickly
• Cyberspace: A descriptive term for the
A N
so that the eye is deceived into seeing
virtual geography of the online world.
smooth motion. Animation is a major
component of multimedia applications This term first appeared in print in
and is widely used in computer games. William Gibson’s novel Neuromancer,
S RO

published in 1984, where it describes the

A
• Attenuation: In communications, the online world of computers and the
decrease in power of a signal transmitted elements of society that use these
over a wire. Attenuation is measured in computers.
decibels, and increases as the power of
the signal decreases. • Debugging: The process of finding,
locating and removing logical or
• Bounce: The return of an e-mail message
syntactical errors from a computer
IA H

to its original sender due to an error in

program.
delivery. This may be due to a simple
spelling mistake in the e-mail address, the • Defragmentation: The process of
C

recipient’s computer system may be down, reorganizing and rewriting files so that
or they may no longer subscribe to or they occupy one large continuous area
have an account on the system. on your hard disk rather than several
• Brouter: In networking, a device that smaller areas.
combines the attributes of a bridge and a • Digitizer: A computer peripheral that
router. A brouter can route one or more converts linear pictorial information such
specific protocols, such as TCP/IP, and as maps into digital data by tracing the
bridge all others. image with a puck. Also known as a
• Browser: An application program used to digitizing tablet.
explore Internet resources. A browser lets you • Dithering: In computer graphics, the use
wander from node to node without concern of dots of different colours or shades to
for the technical details of the links between
produce what seems to be a new colour.
the nodes or the specific methods used to
access them, and presents the information- • Documentation: The instructions,
text, graphics, sound, or video-as a document tutorials, specifications, troubleshooting
on the screen. advice, and reference guides that

[46] Chronicle IAS Academy

 accompany a computer program or a piece • Handshaking: The exchange of control
of hardware. codes or particular characters to maintain
and coordinate data flow between two
• e-mail: Also called electronic mail. The
devices, so that data is only transmitted
use of a network to transmit text messages,
when the receiving device is ready to
memos, and reports.
accept the data.
• Emulator: A device built to work exactly
• Hypertext: A method of presenting
like another device, either hardware,
information so that it can be viewed by
software or a combination of both.
the user in a non-sequential way,
• Encapsulation: The primary goal of regardless of how the topics were
encapsulation is to isolate the internal originally organized.
workings of a particular object class, so

D LE
• Interface: That point where a connection
that it can be changed and improved by
is made between two different parts of a

Y
the programmer without causing
system, such as between two hardware
dangerous side effects anywhere else in
devices, between a user and program or
the system. By using encapsulation, large
operating system, or between two

EM
programs can be made much more
application programs.
readable, because all of the data and
C IC
related code is in the same place. • Interoperability: The ability to run
application programs across local, wide,
• Encryption: The process of encoding
and metropolitan area networks, giving
information in an attempt to make it
users convenient access to data and
secure from unauthorized access. The
application programs across multi-vendor
A N
reverse of this process is known as
networks.
decryption.
• Lurking: The practice of reading an
• Ethernet: A popular network protocol
Internet mailing list or USENET
S RO

and cabling scheme with a transfer rate

A
newsgroup without posting anything
of 10 megabits per second, originally
yourself.
developed by Xerox in 1976.
• Mail Merge: A facility found in most
• Firewall: A method of preventing
word processors that joins two files
unauthorized access to a computer
together to produce a mass mailing of
system, often found on networked
personalized form letters.
computers. A firewall is designed to
IA H

provide normal service to authorized • Mnemonic: Pronounced ‘nem-onic’. A

users, while at the same time preventing name or abbreviation used to help you
those unauthorized users from gaining remember a long or complex instruction.
C

access to the system. Programming languages use many

different mnemonics to represent complex
• Freeware: A form of software distribution
instructions.
where the author retains copyright of the
software, but makes the program available • Morphing: A contraction of meta-
to others at no cost. Freeware is often morphosing. The use of specialized
distributed on bulletin boards, or through animation software to change one image
user groups. The program may not be into another using a series of intermediate
resold or distributed by others for profit. images. Morphing is used to provide
many of the special effects seen in popular
• Genlocking: A contraction of generator
movies where a man turns into a wolf, or
lock. The synchronization and
a fluffy kitten changes into a furious
superimposition of computer generated
roaring lion.
text or graphics onto a video signal, so
that the two images can be combined onto • Multithreading: The concurrent
the same signal and displayed at the same processing of several tasks or threads
time. inside the same program. Because several

Chronicle IAS Academy [47]

 tasks can be processed in parallel, one task is then read from disk, and displaces old
does not have to wait for another to finish information held in memory.
before starting.
• Telecommuting: Working at home on a
• Outsourcing: To subcontract a company’s computer connected to the office by
data processing operations to outside modems and telephone lines instead of
contractors rather than maintain commuting to the office.
corporate hardware, software, and staff.
Out sourcing is often used as a cost-cutting • Teleconferencing: The use of audio,
mechanism, although the cost savings are video, or computer systems, linked by a
sometimes difficult to quantify. communications channel, to allow widely
separated individuals to take part in a

D LE
• Portability: The degree to which a
discussion or meeting all at the same time.
program can be moved easily to various

Y
different computing environments with a • Thesaurus: In word processing, a
minimum number of changes. program feature that locates and suggests
• Posting: The process of sending an alternative words, or synonyms, from a

EM
individual article or e-mail message to a list of alternative words stored on disk.

•
C IC
USENET newsgroup or to a mailing list.
Prodigy: An online information service
providing a variety of services to users of
• Thrashing: An excessive amount of disk
activity in a virtual memory system, to
the point where the system is spending
personal computers, including sports, all its time swapping pages in and out of
weather and stock market reports, travel memory, and no time executing the
A N
information, and home shopping services. application.
• Programming: The process of designing, • Topology: The map of a network. Physical
writing, testing, debugging, documenting, topology describes where the cables are
and maintaining a program.
S RO

run and the workstations or nodes are

A
• Protocol: In networking and located: logical topology refers to the paths
communications, the specification that that messages take to get from one user
defines the procedures to follow when on the network to another.
transmitting and receiving data. Protocols
define the format, timing, sequence, and • Trojan horse: A type of virus that
error checking systems used. pretends to be a useful program, such as
a game or a utility program, when in
IA H

• Router: In networking, an intelligent

reality it contains special code that will
connecting device that can send packets
to the correct local area network segment internationally damage any system onto
to take them to their destination. which it is loaded.
C

• Semaphore: In programming, an • Virtual memory: A memory-management

interprocess communication signal that technique that allows information in
indicates the status of a shared system physical memory to be swapped out to a
resource, such as shared memory. hard disk. This technique provides
• Sort: To place a set of data items into an application programs with more memory
ordered list, either numerically, space than is actually available in the
alphabetically, or by some other criteria computer.
like file date or time. • Virtual reality: Abbreviated VR. A
• Spamming: To flood someone’s mailbox computer generated environment that
with unwanted e-mail messages. presents the illusion of reality. The user
may wear a head-mounted display (HMD)
• Swapping: The process of exchanging one
item for another. In a virtual memory which displays a three-dimensional image
system, swapping occurs when a program of the environment, and use an
requests a virtual memory location that is instrumented glove to manipulate objects
not currently in memory; the information within the environment.

[48] Chronicle IAS Academy

 • Voice mail: A computerized store-and- application. Common plug-ins are those
forward system for voice messages. A for web browsers (Real Audio, Quick
voice mail system uses prerecorded Time, etc.) or graphics programs (Kai’s
messages to route the caller to the correct Power Tools, DigiMarc, etc.)
person, department, or mailbox, and then
• Shell Account: A software application
digitizes the incoming messages and stores
that allows use of another machine's
them on disk. Recipients can review their
Internet connection. Users do not have a
messages and can often forward them to
direct Internet connection, instead, an
another department or person after
Internet connection is made through a
attaching their own comments.
host computer’s connection.
• Wizard: A technique used by some
• Packet filter: Looks at each packet
applications to guide the inexperienced or

D LE
entering or leaving the network and
infrequent user through a complex set of
accepts or rejects it based on user-defined

Y
steps by asking questions about the
rules. Packet filtering is fairly effective and
document they are in the process of
transparent to users, but it is difficult to
creating as they are actually creating it.
configure. In addition, it is susceptible to

EM
• Channel: In an ISDN system it is the IP spoofing.
C IC
bearer channel that carries voice or data
at 64 kbps in either direction. This is in • Application Gateway: Applies security
contrast to D channel which is used for mechanisms to specific applications, such
control signals and data about the call as FTP and Telnet servers. This is very
several B channels can be multiplexed into effective, but can impose a performance
degradation.
A N
higher rate H channel.
• HiperLAN: HiperLAN is a set of wiereless • Proxy Server: Intercepts all messages
local area network (WLAN) entering and leaving the network. The
proxy server effectively hides the true
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communication standard primarily used

A
in European countries. There are two network addresses. In practice, many
specifications. HiperLAN/I and firewalls use two or more of these
HiperLAN/2. Both have been adopted by techniques in concert. A firewall is
the European Telecommunications considered a first line of defence in
Standards Institute. The HiperLAN protecting private information. For greater
standards provide features and capability security, data can be encrypted.
similar to those of the IEEE 802.11 WLAN
IA H

• Flame War: When an online discussion

standard used in US and other countries. degenerates into a series of personal
• Finger: An Internet tool for locating attacks against the debaters, rather than
people on other sites. Finger can also be a discussion of their positions, it is referred
C

used to give access to non-personal to as a flame war.

information, but the most common use is • Information Superhighway: There is
to see if a person has an account at a some debate about this term. Some claim
particular site. it refers to the future, where everyone will
• Phishing: A technique whereby the have fast, easy access to the Internet and
websites of known institutions are entirely things such as video conferencing will be
or partly copied and e-mails are used to widely available. Others claim that the
obtain private or confidential data of the Internet as we already know it is the
customers of those institutions. The information Superhighway.
request to provide those data is often
• Masking: To conceal a web site’s URL in
motivated by so-called safety measures or
some manner, normally by using a
the need to update data banks.
domain name. For example, if a URL
• Plug-in: A small piece of software that shows up as “http://www.example.com/
adds features to a larger software ” but the web site is actually located at

Chronicle IAS Academy [49]

 “http://www.somewhere-else.com/ this a Favourite Place or a Hot Spot. Most
example/”, that URL is said to be browsers contain a simple “address book”
“masked”. where the reader can store the addresses
of their favourite places. Click on the name
• Ping: A program for determining if
of the place, and the Browser
another computer is presently connected
automatically goes there, like an online
to the Internet.
phone book with an autodialer.
• Trolling: The act of deliberately posting Bookmaking a site just means adding it to
false or inflammatory information in order your address book. When someone
to start a flame war or cause aggravation bookmarks your site, it means they are
to others. probably going to come back.

D LE
• Pixel: Shorthand for “picture element”, a • Data Compression: Any method of

Y
pixel is the smallest unit of resolution on
encoding data so that it occupies less space
a monitor. It is commonly used as a unit
than in its original form. Many different
of measurement.
mathematical techniques can be used, but

EM
• Router: A computer or software package the overall purpose is to compress the data
C IC
that handles the connection between two
or more networks. Routers spend all their
time looking at the destination addresses
so that it can be stored, retrieved, or
transmitted more efficiently. Data
compression is used in facsimile and many
of the packets passing though them to other forms of data transmission, CD-
decide which route to send them on. ROM publishing, still image and video
A N
• Bookmark: It’s just an address book entry image manipulation and database
for a Web Address. Some browsers call management systems.
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A




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C

[50] Chronicle IAS Academy

 GREAT INDIAN CHRONICLE
SCIENTISTS IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol

ARYABHATTA
and a concept. Discovery of zero enabled
Aryabhatta was a great mathematician and Aryabhatta to find out the exact distance
astronomer of India and the earliest known between the earth and the moon. The discovery

D LE
author on Algebra. It is believed that he was born of zero also opened up a new dimension of
in 476 A.D. in Kusumpur, India. Aryabhatta negative numerals.

Y
was a fifth century mathematician, astronomer, Algebra: His other works include algebra,
astrologer and physicist. He was a pioneer in the arithmetic, trigonometry, quadratic equations
field of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote and the sine table. He gave the formula (a + b)2 =

EM
Aryabhattiya, which is a summary of a2 + b2 + 2ab
C IC
mathematics of his time.
Astronomy:
There are four sections in this scholarly work.
In the first section he describes the method of The last two sections of Aryabhattiya were
denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets. In on Astronomy. Evidently, Aryabhatta contri-
the second section, we find difficult questions buted greatly to the field of science too,
A N
from topics of modern day Mathematics such as particularly Astronomy.
number theory, geometry, trigonometry and
In ancient India, the science of astronomy
Beejganita (algebra). The remaining two sections
was well advanced. It was called Khagolshastra.
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are on astronomy.
A
Khagol was the famous astronomical
Achievements & Contribution observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta
Mathematics: studied. In fact science of astronomy was highly
advanced and our ancestors were proud of it.
Aryabhatta's contribution in mathematics is
The aim behind the development of the
unparalleled. He suggested formula to calculate
science of astronomy was the need to have
the areas of a triangle and a circle, which were
IA H

accurate calendars, a better understanding of

correct. He was the first mathematician to give
climate and rainfall patterns for timely sowing
the 'table of the sines', which is in the form of a
and choice of crops, fixing the dates of seasons
single rhyming stanza. This remarkable man
and festivals, navigation, calculation of time and
C

was a genius and continues to baffle many

casting of horoscopes for use in astrology.
mathematicians of today. His works was then
Knowledge of astronomy, particularly
later adopted by the Greeks and then the Arabs.
knowledge of the tides and the stars, was of
Pi as Irrational: Aryabhata worked on the great importance in trade, because of the
approximation for Pi (π), and may have realized requirement of crossing the oceans and deserts
that π is irrational. In the second part of the during night time.
Aryabhatiya, he writes "Add four to 100,
multiply by eight and then add 62,000. By this Disregarding the popular view that our
rule the circumference of a circle of diameter planet earth is ‘Achala’ (immovable),
20,000 can be approached." In other words, Aryabhatta stated his theory that ‘earth is round
π = ~ 62832/20000 = 3.1416, correct to five and rotates on its own axis’ He explained that
digits. After Aryabhatiya was translated the appearance of the sun moving from east to
into Arabic (ca. 820 AD) this approximation was west is false by giving examples. One such
mentioned in Al-Khwarizmi's book on algebra. example was: When a person travels in a boat,
the trees on the shore appear to move in the
Discovery of zero: Aryabhatta showed that opposite direction. He also correctly stated that

Chronicle IAS Academy [51]

 the moon and the planets shined by reflected Bose once was awarded 110 marks out of 100 in
sunlight. mathematics because he had solved some
problems in the exam paper by more than one
He was the first person to say that Earth is
method. He made a name for himself in school
spherical and it revolves around the sun. He
due to his love for science; in collaboration with
already knew that the earth spins on its axis,
some of his friends, he constructed a telescope
the earth moves round the sun and the moon
and other scientific instruments. “
rotates round the earth. He talks about the
position of the planets in relation to its movement Achievements & Contribution
around the sun. He refers to the light of the
Scientists at Europe's CERN research centre
planets and the moon as reflection from the sun.
have found a new subatomic particle that could
He also gave a scientific explanation for solar

D LE
be the Higgs boson, the basic building block of
and lunar eclipse. He goes as far as to explain
the universe. It is well known that the 'Higgs' of

Y
the eclipse of the moon and the sun, day and
Higgs boson refers to British physicist Peter
night, the contours of the earth, the length of
Higgs, who in 1964 laid much of the conceptual
the year exactly as 365 days.
groundwork for the presence of the elusive

EM
He even computed the circumference of the particle. However, it's not exactly common
C IC
earth as 24835 miles which is close to modern
day calculation of 24900 miles.
Sidereal periods: Considered in modern
knowledge that the term "boson" owes its name
to the pioneering work of the late Indian
physicist, Satyendra Nath Bose.““Bose
completed his graduation from Presidency
English units of time, Aryabhata calculated the
College in Kolkata and Masters from Calcutta
sidereal rotation (the rotation of the earth
A N
University. He joined the Physics Department
referenced the fixed stars) as 23 hours 56 minutes
of Calcutta University in 1916. After completing
and 4.1 seconds; the modern value is 23:56:4.091.
his master's degree, Bose became a research
Similarly, his value for the length of the sidereal
scholar at the University of Calcutta in 1916 and
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year at 365 days 6 hours 12 minutes 30 seconds

A
began his studies on the theory of relativity. In
is an error of 3 minutes 20 seconds over the
1921, Bose joined the physics department at the
length of a year. The notion of sidereal time was
University of Dhaka, which had then been
known in most other astronomical systems of the
recently formed, and went on to establish new
time, but this computation was likely the most
departments, laboratories and libraries in which
accurate in the period.
he could teach advanced courses.
Recognition and Honours
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Bose, who worked in Kolkata and Dhaka,

India's first satellite Aryabhata, was named was a contemporary of Albert Einstein. He made
after him and the lunar crater Aryabhata is important contributions to the field of quantum
named in his honour. physics in the 1920s that changed how particle
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physics has been studied ever since.

SATYENDRA NATH BOSE
Bose wrote a paper in 1924 in which he
Satyendra Nath Bose was the great physicist derived Planck's quantum radiation law without
of the universe, born on January 1, 1894, in referencing classical physics—which he was able
Calcutta (now Kolkata). Satyendra Nath Bose to do by counting states with identical properties.
discovered what became known as ‘bosons’ and The paper would later prove seminal in creating
went on to work with Albert Einstein to define the field of quantum statistics.
one of two basic classes of subatomic particles. In 1924, Bose sent the paper to Albert Einstein
Much of the credit for discovering the boson, or in Germany, and the scientist recognized its
"God particle," was given to British physicist importance, translated it into German and
Peter Higgs, much to the chagrin of the Indian submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious
government and people. scientific journal Zeitschrift für Physik. The
His father Surendranath was employed in publication led to recognition, and Bose was
the Engineering Department of the East India granted a leave of absence to work in Europe
Railway. As a student of the Hindu High School, for two years at X-ray and crystallography

[52] Chronicle IAS Academy

 laboratories, where he worked alongside Einstein and a passionate teacher. Prafulla Chandra Ray
and Marie Curie, among others. was the founder of the Indian School of modern
chemistry. He was a pioneer of chemical
Einstein had adopted Bose's idea and
industries in India. Ray’s activities were not
extended it to atoms, which led to the prediction
confined to his laboratory and teaching. His
of the existence of phenomena that became
activities concerned with all spheres of human
known as the Bose-Einstein Condensate, a dense
interest—educational reform, industrial
collection of bosons—particles with integer spin
development, employment generation & poverty
that were named for Bose.
alleviation, economic freedom and political
After his stay in Europe, Bose returned to the advancement of the country. He was a pioneer
University of Dhaka in 1926. Although he did in social reform in the country. He took to social
not have a doctorate, Einstein had recommended service with a missionary zeal. He was a great

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he be made a professor, and so Bose was made critique of the prevailing caste system in the
head of the physics department. But upon his Hindu society.

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return, Bose did not publish for a significant
P C Ray was born on 2 August 1861 in Raruli-
period of time.
Katipara, a village in the District of Khulna (in

EM
According to a July 2012 New York Times present day Bangladesh). His early education
started in his village school. After attending the
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article in which Bose is described as the "Father
of the 'God Particle,'" the scientist's interests village school, he went to Kolkata, where he
wandered into other fields, including studied at Hare School and the Metropolitan
philosophy, literature and the Indian College. The lectures of Alexander Pedler in
independence movement. He published another the Presidency College, which he used to attend,
physics paper in 1937 and in the early 1950s attracted him to chemistry, although his first love
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worked on unified field theories. was literature. He continued to take interest in
literature, and taught himself Latin and French
After 25 years in Dhaka, Bose moved back at home. After obtaining a F.A. diploma from
to Calcutta in 1945 and continued to research
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the University of Calcutta (now Kolkata), he

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and teach there until his death in 1974. proceeded to the University of Edinburgh on a
Recognition and Honours Gilchrist scholarship where he obtained both his
B.Sc. and D.Sc. degrees.
The Government of India honored Bose in
1954 with the prestigious Padma Vibhushan, the Achievements & Contribution
second-highest civilian award in India. Five years Prafulla Chandra Ray, one of the first Indian
later, he was appointed as the National Professor,
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chemical researchers, studied at the prestigious

the highest honor in the country for a scholar. Edinburgh University. After graduating from
Bose remained in that position for 15 years. Bose university, he took a position as a Chemistry
also became an adviser to the Council of Professor at the Presidency College in 1889.
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Scientific and Industrial Research, as well as Berthelot who was a very famous chemist,
president of the Indian Physical Society and the helped and encouraged him with his admirable
National Institute of Science. He was elected research in Ayurveda.
general president of the Indian Science Congress
and president of the Indian Statistical Institute. In 1888, P C Ray made his journey home to
In 1958, he became a Fellow of the Royal Society. India. Initially he spent a year working with his
famous friend Jagadish Chandra Bose in
About 12 years after Bose's death on February his laboratory. In 1889, Prafulla Chandra was
4, 1974, the Indian parliament established the appointed an Assistant Professor of Chemistry
S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences in in the Presidency College, Kolkata. His
Salt Lake, Kolkata. publications on mercurous nitrite and its
derivatives brought him recognition from all over
PRAFULLA CHANDRA RAY
the world. Equally important was his role as a
“Prafulla Chandra Ray was an eminent teacher - he inspired a generation of young
scientist, an exemplary entrepreneur, a patriot chemists in India thereby building up an Indian

Chronicle IAS Academy [53]

 school of chemistry. Famous Indian scientists like Then he completed graduation in physics from
Meghnad Saha and Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar the Presidency College, Calcutta in 1912. He also
were among his students. completed Tripos at King’s College, Cambridge.
After that he came back to Calcutta, India, and
In 1902, his research work of History of
here he was introduced to the Principal of
Hindu Chemistry was published. P C Ray
Presidency College and was invited to take
believed that the progress of India could be
classes in physics.
achieved only by industrialization. He set up the
first chemical factory in India, with very Achievements & Contribution
minimal resources, working from his home. In
1901, this pioneering effort resulted in the Prof. Mahalanobis's first paper on statistics
formation of the Bengal Chemical and entitled 'Anthropological Observations on Anglo-

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Pharmaceutical Works Ltd. Indians of Calcutta, Part I: Male Stature',
published in Records of the Indian Museum in

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He retired from the Presidency College in 1922. This paper attracted the attention of Sir
1916, and was appointed as Professor of Gilbert Walker, Director General of
Chemistry at the University Science College. In Observatories, who requested Mahalanobis to

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1921 when P C Ray reached 60 years, he undertake a systematic study of some
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donated, in advance, all his salary for the rest of
his service in the University to the development
of the Department of Chemistry and to the
metrological problems. This resulted in an
important discovery by Mahalanobis that the
region of highest control for changes in weather
creation of two research fellowships. The value on the surface of the earth is located about 4
of this endowment was about two lakh rupees. kilometers above sea-level. Subsequently, he was
He eventually retired at the age of 75. In 1936
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appointed Meteorologist in the Alipore
Ray retired from his service in the University Observatory and he held this post from 1922 to
College of Science but he continued as Emeritus 1926.
Professor of Chemistry till his death. He got
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elected as the Indian Science Congress President At the request of the Indian Government,
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in 1920. Mahalanobis undertook some work on
prevention of floods in various regions of the
In P C Ray, the qualities of both a scientist country. His findings and recommendations,
and an industrial entrepreneur were combined though often contrary to engineering wisdom
and he can be thought of as the father of the of the time, were accepted by the Government
Indian Pharmaceutical industry. P C Ray died
and resulted in alleviation of the problem of
on June 16, 1944 in his living room in the
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flooding to a large extent.

University College of Science of the Calcutta
University. Lasting Gift to Statistics:

PROF. PRASANTA CHANDRA Mahalanobis's contributions to large scale

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sample surveys are among his most significant

MAHALANOBIS
and lasting gifts to statistics. He stared his work
Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis was a great on sample surveys with estimation of area and
scientist and applied statistician. He is famous yield of jute crop in Bengal in 1937.
for the ‘Mahalanobis Distance’, a statistical He made many methodological contributions
measure. He did pioneering work on to survey sampling that included optimal choice
anthropometric variation in India. Professor of sampling design using variance and cost
Mahalanobis made valuable contributions to the
functions, and the technique of interpenetrating
development of statistical science in India.
network of subsamples for assessment and
Scientist P.C. Mahalanobis was born on June control of errors, especially non-sampling errors,
29, 1893 and died on June 28, 1972. He was the in surveys. The concept of pilot surveys was a
son of Prabodh Chandra and Nirodbasini. His forerunner of sequential sampling developed by
father was an active member of the Sadharan Abraham Wald, as acknowledged by Wald in
Brahmo Samaj. He started education from his book. In addition to introducing these
Brahmo Boys School in Calcutta (now Kolkata). concepts, Mahalanobis raised important and

[54] Chronicle IAS Academy

 difficult philosophical questions on randomness Statistical System in India:
and representativeness of a sample, which
Mahalanobis's role as a planner prompted
remain relevant and challenging even today.
him to play a pioneering role in the organized
He was elected Chairman of the United collection of official statistics. He established the
Nations Subcommission on Statistical Sampling National Sample Survey in 1950 with the
in 1947, and held the post till 1951. His tireless objective of providing comprehensive statistics
advocation of the usefulness of sample surveys relating to all economic and social aspects on an
resulted in the final recommendation of this all-India basis. He also helped in setting up of
subcommission that sampling methods should the Central Statistical Organization in India, an
be extended to all parts of the world. apex body for coordination of statistical activities
Mahalanobis received the Weldon Medal from in India. He was instrumental in the
establishment of formal teaching of statistics in

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Oxford University in 1944 and was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society, London, in 1945, many Indian universities and also in the Indian

Y
for his fundamental contributions to Statistics, Statistical Institute. In collaboration with the
particularly in the area of large-scale sample International Statistical Institute, he established
surveys. an International Statistical Education Centre at

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the Indian Statistical Institute.
Plans for Economic Prosperity of Nation:
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Mahalanobis believed that statistics should
Recognition and Honours

be an integral part of the dynamics of national Mahalanobis became the Honorary President
planning. He was acutely aware of national of the International Statistical Institute in 1957,
problems and national resources. He took a keen and was elected a fellow of the American
Statistical Association in 1961. Throughout his
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interest and played a key role in formulating
India's second five-year plan based on the four- career he received many other academic honours
sector model developed by him. Broad sectoral and awards. He received the highest national
allocations of employment, capital investment honour, Padma Vibhushan, from the President
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of India in 1968 for his contribution to science

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and increment in national income were worked
out and then split into detailed targets. Even and services to the country.
though national planning seems to have now He had appointed as the Honorary Statistical
gone out of fashion, the need for planning in the Advisor to the cabinet of the Government of
initial stages of a nation's development is still India. He had Weldon medal from Oxford
acknowledged and Mahalanobis's contributions University in 1944. He was also elected a fellow
to Indian national planning continue to be held of the Royal Society, London in 1945.
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in high esteem by economists.

SIR C. V. RAMAN
During the last decade of his life, he devised
a statistical method, fractile graphical analysis, Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was a
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for comparison of socio-economic conditions of great Physicist of India born on November 7th,
groups of people. This technique has now been 1888, in a small village of Thiruvanaikaval near
used in many other branches of science. Tiruchirapalli (Trichonopoly in those days),
Tamil Nadu. His father was a lecturer in
ISI as an Institution of National Importance:
mathematics and physics so that from the first
The year 1931 marks a watershed in the he was immersed in an academic atmosphere.
development of statistics in India. From the He entered Presidency College, Madras (now
fledgling Statistical Laboratory formed in the Chennai), in 1902, and in 1904 passed his B.A.
early 1920s by Mahalanobis within the Physics examination, winning the first place and the gold
department of Presidency College, he founded medal in physics; in 1907 he gained his M.A.
the Indian Statistical Institute on 17 December, degree, obtaining the highest distinctions.“
1931. In 1959, by an act of the Indian Parliament,
Contributions and Achievements:
the Institute was declared as an 'Institution of
National Importance'. C. V. Raman earliest researches in optics and
acoustics - the two fields of investigation to which

Chronicle IAS Academy [55]

 he has dedicated his entire career - were carried and theoretical studies on the diffraction of light
out while he was a student. Since at that time a by acoustic waves of ultrasonic and hypersonic
scientific career did not appear to present the frequencies (published 1934-1942), and those on
best possibilities, Raman joined the Indian the effects produced by X-rays on infrared
Finance Department in 1907; though the duties vibrations in crystals exposed to ordinary light.
of his office took most of his time, Raman found
In 1948 Raman, through studying the
opportunities for carrying on experimental
spectroscopic behaviour of crystals, approached
research in the laboratory of the Indian
in a new manner fundamental problems of
Association for the Cultivation of Science at
crystal dynamics. His laboratory has been
Calcutta (now Kolkata).
dealing with the structure and properties of
In 1917 he was offered the newly endowed diamond, the structure and optical behaviour of

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Palit Chair of Physics at Calcutta University, and numerous iridescent substances (labradorite,

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decided to accept it. After 15 years at Calcutta pearly felspar, agate, opal, and pearls).
he became Professor at the Indian Institute of
Science at Bangalore (1933-1948), and since 1948 Raman developed a vibrant and excellent
he is Director of the Raman Institute of Research school of physics. He established the Indian

EM
at Bangalore, established and endowed by Academy of Sciences Bangalore (1934) and the
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himself. He also founded the Indian Journal of
Physics in 1926, of which he is the Editor. Raman
sponsored the establishment of the Indian
Raman Research Institute (1948). Among his
other interests have been the optics of colloids,
electrical and magnetic anisotropy, and the
Academy of Sciences and has served as physiology of human vision. Sir C.V. Raman
President since its inception. He also initiated died on November 21, 1970.
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the Proceedings of that academy, in which much Recognition and Honours
of his work has been published, and is President
of the Current Science Association, Bangalore, Raman was honoured with a large number
which publishes Current Science (India). of honorary doctorates and memberships of
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A
scientific societies. Raman was elected as a
Raman made many major scientific Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1924 in
discoveries in acoustics, ultrasonic, optics,
recognition of his outstanding researches in
magnetism and crystal physics. Raman's works
physical optics, molecular diffraction of light, X-
on the musical drums of India was epoch-making
ray scattering by liquids and a molecular
and it revealed the acoustical knowledge of the
anisotropy. It may be noted that Raman had
ancient Hindus. It may be noted here that it was
resigned the Fellowship of the Royal Society. He
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Pythagoras who first formulated what makes a

was conferred a Knighthood by the British
sound musical to the human ear.
Government in 1929. In 1941 he was awarded
Some of Raman's early memoirs appeared as the Franklin Medal. The erstwhile Soviet Union
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Bulletins of the Indian Association for the honoured him with the International Lenin Prize
Cultivation of Science (Bull. 6 and 11, dealing with in 1957.
the "Maintenance of Vibrations"; Bull. 15, 1918,
In 1930, C. V. Raman was the first `non-
dealing with the theory of the musical
white', Asian and Indian to receive the Nobel
instruments of the violin family). He contributed
prize in physics for his work on scattering of light
an article on the theory of musical instruments
and discovery of the Raman effect. In 1954 the
to the 8th Volume of the Handbuch der Physik,
Government of India awarded him the title of
1928.
the Bharat Ratna. India celebrates National
In 1922 he published his work on the Science Day on 28 February of every year to
"Molecular Diffraction of Light", the first of a commemorate the discovery of the Raman Effect
series of investigations with his collaborators in 1928.
which ultimately led to his discovery, on the 28th
of February, 1928, of the radiation effect which JAGADISH CHANDRA BOSE
bears his name and which gained him the 1930
Jagadish Chandra Bose was an Indian
Nobel Prize in Physics.“Other investigations
scientist who discovered and proved in the world
carried out by Raman were: his experimental

[56] Chronicle IAS Academy

 that plants also have life. They consume food Bose devised and fabricated a new type of
and sleep during nights, and wake up early in radiator for generating radio waves. He also built
the mornings. Pain and pleasures are there for a unique and highly sensitive ‘Coherer’ or radio
plants too. They also have birth, growth and receiver for detecting radio waves. Bose’s coherer
death, as human beings. He is regarded as India’s was far more compact, efficient and effective
first modern scientist. Jagadis Chandra Bose was than the ones used in Europe. On 29 March 1904
born on 30th November 1858 in Mymensingh, he became the first Indian to get a US patent,
now in Bangladesh. for his "detector for electrical disturbances".
He had his early education in St. Xavier’s He also demonstrated a new type of radio
High School, and college education in Calcutta waves as small as 1 centimeter to 5 millimeters.
(now Kolkata) and later at Cambridge, England. Such waves are now called microwaves, and are
He joined the Presidency College, Calcutta as used in radars, ground telecommunication,

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Assistant Professor of Physics in 1855. satellite communication, remote sensing and

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microwave ovens. In May 1895, he read his first
Contributions and Achievements: research paper before the Asiatic Society of
J. C. Bose is one of the most prominent first Bengal ‘On the polarisation of Electric Rays by
Double Reflecting Crystals”. In the same year

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Indian scientists who proved by experimentation
one of his papers titled “On the Determination
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that both animals and plants share much in
common. Bose demonstrated that plant tissues of the Indices of Refraction of Sulphur for the
Electric Ray” was communicated to the Royal
under different kinds of stimuli like mechanical,
application of heat, cold, light, noise, electric Society of London by Lord Rayleigh.
shock, chemicals and drugs, produce electric J. C. Bose was sent to England to get enrolled
response similar to that produced by animal
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into Indian Civil Service. He took interest in
tissues. He also tried to demonstrate that similar Botany and Zoology. J. C. Bose, as Assistant
electric response to stimulation could be noticed Professor and researcher in Physics discovered
in certain inorganic systems. For his the following:
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investigations Bose invented several novel and

A
highly sensitive instruments. Among these the 1) Generation of electro-magnetic waves of
most important one was the Crescograph -an wavelengths 2mm to 5 mm
instrument for measuring the growth of a plant. 2) Common nature of electric response to
It could record a growth as small as 1/100,000 all forms of stimulation.
inch per second.
3) He was the first to find a device that
Bose’s experiments on plants were mostly generated micro-waves of very short
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performed on Minosa pudica and Desmondium wavelength.

gyrans (Indian Telegraph plant). His findings
subsequently influenced subjects like physiology, J. C. Bose attained his greatness in the field
chronobiology, cybernetics, medicine and of Botany. He was the author of the world
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agriculture. famous books.

Bose did pioneering research, first in physics • Response in the Living and Non-living
and then in physiology. In 1888 Heinrich Rudolf • The Nervous Mechanism of Plants
Hertz (1857-94) produced and detected
electromagnetic waves in the 60 cm wavelength Recognition and Honours
range and in doing so he verified James Clerk
Maxwell’s (1831-79) electromagnetic theory. In 1903 Bose was honoured with
However, Bose was the first to produce Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
millimeter-length radio waves and study their (CIE) at Delhi by the British Government. He
properties. Bose was a pioneer in microwave received in 1912 the Commander of the Star of
optics technology. He was the first to show that India (CSI) at the Coronation of the British
semiconductor rectifiers could detect radio Emperor. He was knighted by the British
waves. Bose’s galena receiver was amongst the Government in 1916. Bose was elected a fellow
earliest examples of a lead sulphide photo of the Royal Society (FRS) of London in 1928.
conducting device. Bose died on 23 November 1937. He was the

Chronicle IAS Academy [57]

 member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, the Ahmedabad Education Society, which was
1928 and President of the 14th session of the founded by his parents. Subsequently, it got
Indian Science Congress in 1927. support from the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Department
The 230-year-old Indian Botanic Garden,
of Atomic Energy.
Kolkata was renamed as the Acharya Jagadish
Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden in June Establishing Physical Research Laboratory
2009 in honour of J.C. Bose.
His interest in solar physics and cosmic rays
VIKRAM A SARABHAI led him to set up many observation stations
around the country. Vikram Sarabhai
Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai was the main established centers for scientific research in

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personality behind the launching of India’s first several places of India. He was instrumental in
satellite, ‘Aryabhatta’. He is considered as the establishing the Physical Research Laboratory

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‘Father of the Indian Space Programme’. Vikram (PRL) in Ahmedabad. In this, he formed the
Ambalal Sarabhai had devoted their entire life ‘Group for the Improvement of Science
to the progress of science in our country. Education’, in 1963. In the same year, he

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established the Nehru Foundation for
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Sarabhai's name will remain inseparable
from India's space programme. It was Sarabhai
who put India on the international map in the
Development, for the study of social and
education problems.
In 1966, under its auspices, he established
field of space research. But then he made equally
pioneering contributions in other fields. He the Community Science Center, whose object
worked in the fields of textiles, pharmaceuticals, was to spread scientific knowledge, to create
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nuclear power, electronics and many others interest in science and to promote
incessantly till last. experimentation among students, teachers and
the general public. After the sudden death of
Vikram Sarabhai was born on August 12,
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Dr. Sarabhai in 1971, the then Prime Minister

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1919 at Ahmedabad, Gujarat to Shri Ambalal of India, Smt. Indira Gandhi, renamed the
Sarabhai and Smt. Sarladevi Sarabhai, in a Centre as the Vikram A. Sarabhai Community
family of Industrialists. His father Ambalal Science Centre, to associate its name with that
Sarabhai was an affluent industrialist and of its founder.
owned many mills in Gujarat.
To train efficient managers of factories, he
He had his early education in a private started the Indian Institute of Management (IIM)
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school. Here the prevent atmosphere injected at Ahmedabad. Of all the institutions, he
into the young by the seeds of scientific curiosity, established the most important were the ‘Indian
ingenuity and creativity. From this school he Space Research Organization’ with Centers at
proceeded to Cambridge for his college
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Thumba, Ahmedabad, Shriharikota and Arvi.

education and took the tripods degree from St. He established Rocket Launching Stations at
John’s College in 1940. When World War II Thumba and Shrihatikota. Along with his work
began, he returned home and joined as a on the science front, he took utmost interest and
research scholar under Sir C.V. Raman at the managed family business of Textiles and
IISc, Bangalore. In September, 1942 Vikram Pharmaceuticals.
Sarabhai married Mrinalini Sarabhai who was
a celebrated classical dancer of India. He was also responsible for the Equatorial
Achievements & Contribution Rocket Building Station at Thumba. Sarabhai set
up the Ahmedabad Textile Industries Research
Vikram Sarabhai started his work on cosmic
Association, a laboratory for research in physics
rays and built the necessary equipment with
and the Indian Institute of Management.
which he took measurements. He returned to
Cambridge in 1945. In 1947 he was awarded Effect of solar activity on cosmic rays
the Ph. D. degree. The Physical Research
Laboratory (PRL) was established in November Sarabhai’s study of cosmic rays under the
1947 in a few rooms in M.G. Science Institute of eminent scientist Dr. C.V.Raman revealed that
cosmic rays are a stream of energy particles

[58] Chronicle IAS Academy

 reaching the earth from the outer space, being Space Science and Technology Center at Thumba
influenced on their way by the sun, the for creating fabrication, testing and other
atmosphere and magnetism. This study helps in auxiliary facilities. Establishing an Experimental
observing terrestrial magnetism and the Satellite Communication Earth Station at
atmosphere, the nature of the sun and outer Ahmedabad.
space.
In 1965, the UN General Assembly gave
By collecting and analysing his own recognition to TERLS as an international facility.
observations as well as those of other scientists, With the sudden death of Homi Bhabha in an
Sarabhai's team concluded that meteorological air crash, Sarabhai was appointed Chairman,
effects could not entirely affect the observed daily Atomic Energy Commission in May 1966.
variations of cosmic rays; further, the residual
As a result of Dr. Sarabhai’s dialogue with
variations were wide and global and these were

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NASA in 1966, the Satellite Instructional
related to variations in solar activity.
Television Experiment (SITE) was launched

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In the observed cosmic ray anisotropies were during July 1975-July 1976 (when Dr. Sarabhai
to be regarded as modulation effect to the solar was no more). Dr. Sarabhai started a project for
wind, then Sarabhai could visualize a new field the fabrication and launch of an Indian Satellite.

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of research opening up in solar and
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interplanetary Physics. was put in orbit in 1975 from a Russian
Cosmodrome. This development furthers the
The first opportunity came in 1957-58 during indigenous capability for satellite launching from
the International Geo-physical year (IGY). The low-orbiting to synchronous levels.
Indian program for the IGY had been one of the
most significant ventures of Sarabhai. It exposed Like Bhabha, Sarabhai wanted the practical
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him to the new vistas of space science with the application of science to reach the common man.
launching in 1957 of Sputnik-I. Subsequently, Thus he saw a golden opportunity to harness
the Indian National Committee for Space space science to the development of the country
Research was created, of which Sarabhai became in the fields of communication, meteorology,
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Chairman. remote sensing and education. Vikram Sarabhai
died at the age of 52 on December 31, 1971 at
Soaring to Space
Kovalam, Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala.
The establishment of the Indian Space
Some of the most well-known institutions
Research Organisation (ISRO) was one of his
established by Sarabhai are :-
greatest achievements. He successfully convinced
the government to the importance of a space 1. Physical Research Laboratory (PRL),
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programme for a developing country like India Ahmedabad

after the Russian Sputnik launch. 2. Indian Institute of Management (IIM),
Rocket Launching Station: Dr. Homi Jehangir Ahmedabad
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Bhabha, supported Dr. Sarabhai in setting up 3. Community Science Centre, Ahmedabad

the first rocket launching station in India. The
Rocket Launching station (TERLS) was 4. Darpan Academy for Performing Arts,
established at Thumba near Thiruvanantha- Ahmedabad (alongwith his wife)
puram on the coast of the Arabian Sea, primarily 5. Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre,
because of its proximity to the equator. After a Thiruvananthapuramm
remarkable effort in setting up the infrastructure,
personnel, communication links, and launch 6. Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad
pads, the inaugural flight was launched on 7. Faster Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR),
November 21, 1963 with a sodium vapour Kalpakkam
payload.
8. Varaiable Energy Cyclotron Project,
To implement the space programme, Kolkata
Sarabhai took the following steps during 1961-
1966. Expanding PRL and making it the 9. Electronics Corporation of India Limited
headquarters for Space activities. Setting up the (ECIL), Hyderabad

Chronicle IAS Academy [59]

 10. Uranium Corporation of India Limited he directed the Indian space programme through
(UCIL), Jaduguda, Jharkhand a period of extraordinary growth and
spectacular achievement. Major Programmes
Recognition and Honours were carefully defined and systematically
Sarabhai was President of the Physics section executed, including in particular the launch of
of the Indian Science Congress (1962), President Indian satellites on Indian rocket vehicles.
of the General Conference of the I.A.E.A., Even while he was the head of the Indian
Vienna (1970), Vice-President, Fourth U.N. space programme, he devoted substantial efforts
Conference on `Peaceful uses of Atomic Energy' towards boundary layer research. His most
(1971). important contributions are presented in the
seminal book Boundary Layer Theory by

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Sarabhai was the second chairman of India’s
Atomic Energy Commission and the Indian Hermann Schlichting. “He was a popular

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Space Research Organization (ISRO). He was professor at the Indian Institute of Science, (IISc)
conferred ‘Padma Vibhushan’ in 1972. He was located in Bangalore. He is credited for setting
also awarded ‘Dr. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar up the first supersonic wind tunnel in India at

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Medal in Physics’ in 1962. IISc. He also pioneered research on
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PROF. SATISH DHAWAN flows, three-dimensional boundary layers and
trisonic flows.
Prof. Satish Dhawan was an Indian rocket
Prof. Satish Dhawan carried out pioneering
scientist who was born on September 25, 1920,
experiments in rural education, remote sensing
in Srinagar, India. He is considered by the Indian
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and satellite communications. His efforts led to
scientific community to be the father of
operational systems like INSAT- a
experimental fluid dynamics research in India
telecommunications satellite, IRS - the Indian
and one of the most eminent researchers in the
Remote Sensing satellite and the Polar Satellite
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field of turbulence and boundary layers. “His

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Launch Vehicle (PSLV) that placed India in the
father was a high-ranking civil servant of
league of space faring nations.
undivided India and retired as the resettlement
Commissioner of Government of India at the These projects were all distinguished by their
time of partition. He completed graduation from keen sensitivity to the true needs of a developing
the University of Punjab in Lahore, Pakistan. He nation, a confident appreciation of the ability of
also completed B.A. in Mathematics and physics, its scientists and engineers, and the carefully
and M.A. in English Literature and a B.E. in
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planned involvement of Indian space

Mechanical Engineering. In 1947, he obtained programme came to be seen in the 1980s as a
an M.S. in Aeronautical Engineering from the model of technology development and
University of Minnesota. Later, he moved to the application carried out within the country.
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California Institute of Technology, where he was

awarded the Aeronautical Engineer’s Degree in Recognition and Honours
1949, and a Ph. D in Aeronautical and Following the death of Prof. Satish Dhawan
Mathematics in 1951, which he pursued with on January 3, 2002, the Indian satellite launch
eminent aerospace scientist Professor Hans W. centre at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, located
Liepmann as adviser. about 100 km north of Chennai in South India
Achievements & Contribution was renamed as the Prof. Satish Dhawan Space
Centre.
After completion of education he joined the
Indian Institute of Science in 1951 and became Prof. Satish Dhawan received many awards
its Director in 1962. In 1972, he was appointed for his contribution to science and technology,
Chairman of the Space Commission and of the few of them are as:
Indian Space Commission and of the Indian • Padma Vibhushan Award, (India’s second
Space Research Organization (ISRO), and highest civilian honour), in 1981.
Secretary to the Government of India in the • Indira Gandhi Award for National
Department of Space. In the following decade, Integration, in 1999.

[60] Chronicle IAS Academy

 • Distinguished Alumnus Award, Indian Chandrasekhar in 1930, when he was a student.
Institute of Science. The Chandrasekhar Limit plays a crucial role in
• Distinguished Alumnus Award, California understanding the stellar evolution. If the mass
Institute of Technology, 1969. of a star exceeded this limit, the star would not
become a white dwarf. It would continue to
SUBRAHMANYAN CHANDRASEKHAR collapse under the extreme pressure of
gravitational forces. The formulation of the
The ‘Nobel Laureate’ in physics Chandrasekhar Limit led to the discovery of
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was one of the neutron stars and black holes. It may be noted
greatest scientists of the 20th century became a that stars are stable, that is they do not collapse
legend in his life time. He was a great scientist, because internal pressures (due to the thermal
an accomplished teacher and a formidable motion of the atomic nuclei and electrons and

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scholar. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was also the pressure of the radiation generated by
born in Lahore on October 19, 1910. His father nuclear reactions) balance gravity.

Y
C. Subrahmanyan Iyer was in Government
Service. However, for every star a time will come
when nuclear reactions will cease and that
C.V. Raman, the first Indian to get Nobel

EM
means there will be no internal pressure to match
Prize in science was the younger brother of the gravitational pull. Depending on the mass
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Chandrasekhar's father. Chandrasekhar grew
up in Madras (now Chennai). He went to a
there are three possible final stages of a star -
white dwarf, neutron star and black hole.
regular school when he was eleven. He joined
the Madras Presidency College in 1925 where Recognition and Honours
in the first two years he studied Physics,
Chandrasekhar was awarded (jointly with
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Chemistry, English and Sanskrit. On July 31,
the nuclear astrophysicist W.A. Fowler) the
1930 Chandrasekhar left for England for higher
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983. While
studies and thus began a long and outstanding
Chandrasekhar is best known for
scientific career which spanned 65 years. Except
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Chandrasekhar Limit, for him there was no limit.

A
for the first six years he worked at the University
His work spanned physics, astrophysics and
of Chicago.
applied mathematics.
Achievements & Contribution
The genius Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar,
Chandrasekhar was renowned for his work known to the world as Chandra, died on August
in the field of stellar evolution, and in the early 21, 1995 in Chicago, Illinois, USA.
1930s, he was the first to theorise that a
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collapsing massive star would become an object DR. HAR GOBIND KHORANA
so dense that not even light could escape it, now
Har Gobind Khorana was born on January
known as the Black hole. He demonstrated that
9th, 1922 in Raipur, Punjab, which is now part
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there is an upper limit (known as

of eastern Pakistan. He is the youngest of a family
‘Chandrasekhar Limit’) to the mass of a White
of one daughter and four sons. His father was a
dwarf star. His theory challenged the common
‘patwari’, a village agricultural taxation clerk in
scientific notion of the 1930s that all stars, after
the British Indian system of government.
burning up their fuel, became faint, planer-sized
remmants known as white dwarfs. But today, Har Gobind Khorana did his schooling from
the extremely dense neutron stars and black holes the D.A.V. High School in Multan (now West
implied by Chandrasekhar’s early work are a Punjab, Pakistan). Later, he studied at the Punjab
central part of the field of astrophysics. University in Lahore where he obtained an M.
Sc. degree.
He is best known for his celebrated discovery
of Chandrasekhar Limit. He showed that there Khorana lived in India until 1945, when the
is a maximum mass which can be supported award of a Government of India Fellowship
against gravity by pressure made up of electrons made it possible for him to go to England and he
and atomic nuclei. The value of this limit is about studied for a Ph. D. degree at the University of
1.44 times a solar mass. This was derived by Liverpool. Roger J. S. Beer supervised his

Chronicle IAS Academy [61]

 research, and, in addition, looked after him indispensable tools in biotechnology, widely used
diligently. It was the introduction of Khorana to in biology labs for sequencing, cloning and
Western civilization and culture. genetic engineering.
Contributions and Achievements: Recognition and Honours
Khorana spent a postdoctoral year (1948- Dr. Har Gobind Khorana shared the Nobel
1949) at the Eidgenössische Technische Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1968 with
Hochschule in Zurich with Professor Vladimir Marshall Nirenberg and Robert Holley. Khorana
Prelog. The association with Professor Prelog has won many awards and honors for his
molded immeasurably his thought and achievements, amongst them the Padma
philosophy towards science, work, and effort. Vibhushan, Membership of the National

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Academy of Sciences, USA as well as a Fellow
After a brief period in India in the fall of 1949,
of the American Association for the

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Khorana returned to England where he obtained
Advancement of Science. H. Gobind Khorana
a fellowship to work with Professor G. W.
died on 9 November 2011.
Kenner and Lord A.R. Todd. He stayed in

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Cambridge from 1950 till 1952. Again, this stay
HOMI JEHANGIR BHABHA
proved to be of decisive value to Khorana.
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Interest in both proteins and nucleic acids took Homi Jehangir Bhabha is mostly known as
root at that time.““A job offer in 1952 from Dr. the chief architect of India's nuclear programme.
Gordon M. Shrum of the University of British Homi Jehangir Bhabha was a multifaceted
Columbia took him to Vancouver. The British personality - scientist, visionary and institution
Columbia Research Council offered at that time builder. He was born on October 30, 1909 in a
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very little by way of facilities, but there was ‘all Parsi family of Bombay (now Mumbai).
the freedom in the world’ to do what the
researcher liked to do. After finishing schooling, Bhabha’s parents
sent him to Cambridge University, UK for higher
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During the following years, with Dr. Shrum's

A
education in mechanical engineering. In 1930,
inspiration and encouragement and frequent Bhabha completed mechanical engineering in
help and scientific counsel from Dr. Jack first class and stay for the degree in physics. After
Campbell, a group began to work in the field of
completing his degree in 1932, Bhabha
biologically interesting phosphate esters and
continued his research at Cambridge University.
nucleic acids. Among the many devoted and
loyal colleagues of this period, there should, in Contributions and Achievements:
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particular, be mention of Professor Gordon M.

Tener, who contributed much to the spiritual Bhabha’s first paper appeared in 1934, based
and intellectual well-being of the group.““In on theoretical explanation of shower production
1960 Khorana moved to the Institute for Enzyme in cosmic rays. His name is associated with
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Research at the University of Wisconsin. He Bhabha scattering, which involves relativistic

became a naturalized citizen of the United States. exchange scattering of electrons and Bhabha-
As of the fall of 1970 Khorana was appointed Heitler theory, dealing with production of
Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Biology and electron and positron showers in cosmic rays.
Chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Thus, it was no surprise that at an young age of
Technology. 31, he was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society,
London. Bhabha rubbed shoulders with great
Dr. Har Gobind Khorana shared the Nobel physicists like Bohr, Pauli, Dirac, Cockcroft and
Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1968 with others, who later became Noble Laureates.
Marshall Nirenberg and Robert Holley for
cracking the genetic code. They established that Bhabha was on vacation during 1939, when
this code, the biological language common to all the second world war broke out and he could
living organisms, is spelled out in three-letter not go back abroad to continue his research. He
words: each set of three nucleotides codes for a then joined Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
specific amino acid. Dr. Khorana was also as a Reader in Department of Physics, headed
the first to synthesize oligonucleotides (strings of by Sir C. V. Raman and set up a cosmic ray
nucleotides). Today, oligonucleotides are research unit.

[62] Chronicle IAS Academy

 In 1944, Bhabha wrote his historical letter to Bhabha gave utmost importance to the
the Tata trust for support in setting up a centre development of quality human resources. The
for research work in nuclear science, which commencement and continuation of BARC
could play a central role in the development of Training School for the scientific manpower over
nuclear energy. This was just two years after the last 50 years is a real tribute to Bhabha’s
1942, when the first experimental demonstration foresight on quality manpower.
of nuclear reactor was made in USA. Bhabha, a person of perfection, purpose and
All the more so, the country was still under excellence, ensured these qualities in all his
endeavours viz., research, management,
the British rule and industrially undeveloped.
buildings and environment. Bhabha was a great
There was a clear similarity in vision between
scientific manager and followed the mantra of
the great Jamshedji Nusserwanji Tata and
right man for the right job.

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Bhabha with respect to the need for education,
scientific research and human resource Recognition and Honours

Y
development for economic prosperity. Based on
this letter, Tata Trust supported him to set up a Bhabha had received many prestigious
laboratory at Kenilworth, Bombay. Subsequently, national and international awards and

EM
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was recognitions. In 1954, he was conferred
with Padma Bhushan award for outstanding
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formed and large scale research in physics,
chemistry, electronics and mathematics contributions to nuclear science. In 1955, he was
commenced. Thus, Bhabha had converted the elected as the President of the first International
difficulty of not going back abroad to a great Conference on the 'Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy', organized by the UN at Geneva.
opportunity of setting up of front ranking
research facilities within the country.
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At a young age of 56, Bhabha suddenly
passed away in 1966 due to a plane crash in
Creation of Atomic Energy Commission:
Switzerland.
Bhabha was instrumental for the formation
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SRINIVASA RAMANUJAN
A
of Atomic Energy Commission in 1948 and the
Department of Atomic Energy in 1954 and he
chalked out a focussed research and minerals Srinivasa Ramanujan, Indian mathe-
matician, whose contributions to the theory of
exploration programmes for nuclear energy. He
numbers includes pioneering discoveries of the
was such a visionary that he had realized the
properties of the partition function. Srinivasa
importance of nuclear power programme way
Ramanujan Aiyangar was an Indian
back in 1950s and enunciated a three stage
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Mathematician who was born in Erode, Tamil

nuclear programme so as to meet the energy
Nadu on December 22, 1887. Ramanujan is very
security of the nation. It consisted of utilization
well known for his efforts on continued fractions
of natural uranium, plutonium and abundant
and series of hypergeometry. When Ramanujan
thorium resources in thermal, fast and advanced
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was thirteen, he could work out Loney’s

nuclear reactors with closed fuel cycle.
Trigonometry exercises without any help. At the
He also had balanced perspective on the role fourteen, he was able to acquire the theorems of
of other energy resources such as coal, oil and cosine and sine given by L. Euler. Synopsis of
solar. A significant factor that contributed for Elementary Results in Pure and Applied
the growth of nuclear sciences and its Mathematics by George Shoobridge Carr was
applications was Bhabha's rapport with the then reached by him in 1903. The book helped him a
Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, who lot and opened new dimensions to him which
reposed complete confidence in him. This was helped him introduce about 6,165 theorems for
possible because Bhabha had the deserving himself.
credentials and his passion matched with As he had no proper and good books in his
Nehru’s vision of modern India. There was a reach, he had to figure out on his own the
great synergy in thinking between Nehru and solutions for all the questions. It was in this quest
Bhabha with respect to industrialization and that he discovered many tremendous methods
scientific research, evolving hand-in-hand. and new algebraic series.

Chronicle IAS Academy [63]

 In 1904, he received a merit scholarship in a much additional unorganized material which
local college and became more indulgent into remained uninvestigated until the sustained
mathematics. He lost his interest in all other efforts of Berndt and his coworkers who
subjects due to which he lost his scholarship. systematically examined and proved
Ramanujan's sometimes vague or ambiguous
Contributions and Achievements: statements. For anyone with a little knowledge
In 1911 Ramanujan published the first of his of number theory, Ramanujan's notebooks make
papers in the Journal of the Indian Mathematical absolutely fascinating reading. It is therefore a
Society. His genius slowly gained recognition, great pity that their publisher, Springer-Verlag,
and in 1913 he began a correspondence with the has chosen to price these slim volumes at the
British mathematician Godfrey H. Hardy that led ridiculous price of about $100 apiece.

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to a special scholarship from theUniversity of Srinivasa Ramanujan hailed as an all-time
Madras and a grant from Trinity College,

Y
great mathematician, like Euler, Gauss or Jacobi,
Cambridge. Ramanujan traveled to England in for his natural genius, has left behind 4000
1914, where Hardy tutored him and collaborated original theorems, despite his lack of formal
with him in some research.
education and a short life-span.

EM
Hardy said Ramanujan could have become
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an outstanding mathematician if his skills had
been recognized earlier. It was said about his The number 1729 is known as the Hardy–
talents of continued fractions and Ramanujan number after a famous anecdote of
hypergeometric series that, “he was the British mathematician G.H. Hardy regarding
unquestionably one of the great masters.” It was a visit to the hospital to see Ramanujan. Hardy
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due to his sharp memory, calculative mind, said ‘’I remember once going to see him when
patience and insight that he was a great formalist he was ill. I had ridden in taxi cab number 1729
of his days. But it was due to his some methods and remarked that the number seemed to me
of working in the work analysis and theories of
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rather a dull one, and that I hoped it was not an

A
numbers that did not let him excel that much. unfavorable omen. "No," he replied, "it is a very
Ramanujan’s knowledge of mathematics interesting number; it is the smallest number
(most of which he had worked out for himself) expressible as the sum of two cubes in two
was startling. Although almost completely different ways."
ignorant of what had been developed, his The two different ways are:
mastery of continued fractions was unequaled
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by any living mathematician. He worked out the 1729 = 13 + 123 = 93 + 103.

Riemann series, the elliptic integrals, Generalizations of this idea have created the
hypergeometric series, the functional equations notion of "taxicab numbers". Coincidentally,
of the zeta function, and his own theory of
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1729 is also a Carmichael number.

divergent series. On the other hand, the gaps in
his knowledge were equally startling. He knew Recognition and Honours
nothing of doubly periodic functions, the
classical theory of quadratic forms, or Cauchy’s He got elected as the fellow in 1918 at the
theorem, and had only the most nebulous idea Trinity College at Cambridge and the Royal
of what constitutes a mathematical proof. Society. He died on April 26, 1920.

In England, Ramanujan made further On the 125th anniversary of his birth,

advances, especially in the partition of numbers. Government of India declared the birthday of
His papers were published in English and Ramanujan, December 22, as 'National
European journals, and in 1918 he became the Mathematics Day' and the year 2012 celebrated
first Indian to be elected to the Royal Society of as the National Mathematics Year.
London.
MEGHNAD SAHA
Ramanujan published some of his results in
journals, and many are beautiful indeed. Meghnad Saha was a great Indian scientist.
However, his working notebooks contained He made remarkable contribution to the field of

[64] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Astrophysics. He put forward an “ionization installed in the institute. In 1950, India had its
formula” which explained the presence of the first cyclotron in operation. He invented an
spectral lines. Meghnad Saha belonged to a poor instrument to measure the weight and pressure
family and struggled to rise in life. He was born of solar rays. He produced the famous equation,
in Seoratali, Dacca district, now in Bangladesh, which he called ‘equation of the reaction-isobar
on October 6, 1893. for ionization’, which later became known as
Saha’s “Thermo-Ionization Equation”.
Meghnad Saha took admission in the
Kishorilal Jubilee School and passed the Entrance Saha was the leading spirit in organizing the
examination of the Calcutta University in 1909, scientific societies like the ‘National Academy of
standing first among the student from East Science’ (1930), ‘Indian Institute of Science’
Bengal obtaining the highest marks in languages (1935), and the ‘Indian Association for the
(English, Bengali and Sanskrit combined) and in Cultivation of Science’ (1944). The lasting

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Mathematics. In 1911, he ranked third in the ISc memorial to him is the ‘Saha Institute of Nuclear

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exam while the first position went to another physics’ founded in 1943 in Calcutta.
great scientist Satyendranath Bose. After that he
He was the chief architect of river planning
took admission in Presidency College, Calcutta
in India. He prepared the original plan for

EM
(now Kolkata). In 1913, he graduated from
Damodar Valley Project. For the sake of
Presidency College with Mathematics major and
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got the second rank in the first one. In 1915, both
development of science he joined politics and in
1952 he was elected as a Member of Parliament
S. N. Bose and Meghnad Saha ranked first in
for the North-West Calcutta constituency. He
M.Sc. exam, Meghnad Saha in Applied
was an advocate for the peaceful use of nuclear
Mathematics and S.N. Bose in Pure Mathematics.
energy and instrumental in the reformation of
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Contributions and Achievements: the Indian calendar. He died on February 16,
1956 due to a heart attack.
In 1917, he started his professional career and
joined as lecturer at the newly opened University Recognition and Honours
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College of Science in Calcutta. He taught

A
Meghnad Saha was an Indian astrophysicist
Quantum Physics. Along with S.N. Bose, he
who nominated for the ‘Nobel prize’ in physics
translated the papers published in German by
in 1935-36. In 1927, Meghnad was elected as a
Einstein and Hermann Minkowski on relativity
fellow of London's Royal Society.
into English versions. In 1919, American
Astrophysical Journal published – “On Selective In 1947, he established Institute of Nuclear
Radiation Pressure and its Application” – a Physics which later was named after him as Saha
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research paper by Meghnad Saha. He put Institute of Nuclear Physics. He took the first
forward an “ionization formula” which effort to include Nuclear Physics in the
explained the presence of the spectral lines. The curriculum of higher studies of science.
formula proved to be a breakthrough in
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astrophysics. He went abroad and stayed for two RAJA RAMANNA

years. He spent time in research at Imperial
College, London and at a research laboratory in Raja Ramanna was a multifaceted
Germany. personality – an eminent nuclear physicist, a
highly accomplished technologist, an able
In 1932, Meghnad Saha moved to Allahabad administrator, an inspiring leader, a gifted
University and Uttar Pradesh Academy of musician, a scholar of Sanskrit literature and
Science was established in 1932. He returned to philosophy. He made important contributions,
Science College, Calcutta in 1938. During this both theoretical and experimental, in various
time, Saha got interested in Nuclear physics. In areas of nuclear physics.
1947, he established Institute of Nuclear Physics
which later was named after him as Saha Following the ideals of his illustrious
Institute of Nuclear Physics. predecessors Homi Bhabha and Vikram
Sarabhai in India’s nuclear energy programme,
Having seen cyclotrons used for research in Ramanna played an important role in placing
nuclear physics abroad, he ordered one to be the country’s indigenous nuclear capabilities on

Chronicle IAS Academy [65]

 a firm footing and in this process his a programme of experimental investigations of
contributions towards shaping India’s energy secondary radiations emitted in thermal neutron-
and security programmes are quite significant. induced fission of U235.
In fact Ramanna is regarded as one of the most
Ramanna and his coworkers measured the
successful creators of Science and Technology
energy and angular distributions of prompt
in India.
neutrons and gamma rays emitted by fission
Ramanna’s contribution to India’s peaceful fragments. Such measurements provided
nuclear explosion experiment is well-known. important information on the times of these
India’s first peaceful nuclear experiment was radiations, presence of scission neutrons, the
carried out underground in the Rajasthan desert, average spin of the fission fragments and so on.
Pokhran, on May 18, 1974. The investigations carried out by Ramanna and

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his coworkers on light charged particle emission
Ramanna was born in Tumkur in Karnataka

Y
in fission induced by thermal and fast neutrons
on January 28, 1925. His father, B. Ramanna,
provided important insight on the mechanism
was in the judicial service of the Mysore state.
of emission of these particles.
He had his early education in Mysore and

EM
Bangalore. After completing his intermediate The stochastic theory of fragment mass and
C IC
studies at St Joseph’s, Bangalore he joined the
Madras Christian College in Tambaram. After
obtaining his BSc (Honours) degree in physics
charge distributions in fission is a unique
contribution of Ramanna to fission theory. The
theory, which was based on the model of a
from Madras Christian College in Tambaram, random exchange of nucleons between the two
he went to England to work for his doctoral in nascent fission fragments prior to scission, could
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the field of nuclear physics at the King’s College, explain most of the observed features of
London, as Tata Scholar. He obtained his PhD fragment mass and charge distribution in low
degree in 1948. Ramanna was deeply influenced energy fission and their dependence on the
by Homi Jehangir Bhabha. Ramanna died on excitation energy of the fissioning nucleus. A
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A
24th September, 2004 at Mumbai after a cardiac geometrical interpretation of atomic and nuclear
arrest. binding energies was another novel contribution
of Ramanna and his group.
Achievements & Contribution
Ramanna’s most important contribution was
Ramanna made important contributions in
the creation of a vast pool of trained scientific
several areas of neutron, nuclear and reactor
manpower. To develop the skilled manpower
physics. Ramanna played a leading role in
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required for this task, the BARC (DAE) Training

organizing physics and rector physics
School was established in 1957 under the
programmes at the Bhabha Atomic Research
leadership of Ramanna.
Centre, Trombay. Ramanna was a young reactor
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physicist in the team under Bhabha, when Ramanna directly or indirectly helped to
India’s first research reactor, Apsara, was build up a number of institutions in the country.
commissioned on August 04, 1956. In the early 1980s he took the initiative for setting
up a Centre for Advanced Technology at Indore,
As a part of the studies relating to the design
devoted to the development for advanced
and construction of Apsara, Ramanna studied
accelerators, lasers and other related
the process of neutron thermalisation in several
technologies. He helped to establish the Variable
moderating assemblies. Ramanna and his group
Energy Cyclotron Centre (VEC) at Kolkata.
determined the neutron diffusion and slowing
down constants in water and beryllium oxide Recognition and Honours
by using a pulsed neutron source. The neutron
Raja Ramanna was an able administrator.
spectra emerging out of these moderating
He held many prestigious positions. He was the
assemblies were also studied.
Director of the Bhaba Atomic Research Centre
Apsara, once commissioned, made intense (1972-78 and 1981-83). He was Scientific
thermal neutron beams available for basic Advisor to the Minister of Defence; Director-
research. This prompted Ramanna to undertake General, DRDO and Secretary for Defence

[66] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Research, Government of India (1978-81). He museum of the Bombay Natural History Society.
was Chairman of the Atomic Energy Only 20 years old, he conducted the visitors and
Commission (1984-87). He was first Director of instructed them about the preserved birds. His
the National Institute of Advanced Studies, interest in the living conditions of birds grew
Bangalore established by J. R. D. Tata and even more. Therefore, Salim visited Germany
President, 30th General Conference of the and saw Dr. Irvin Strassman. He came back to
International Atomic Energy Agency (1986). India after one year but his post in the museum
had been removed for financial reasons.
Ramanna served as the Minister of State for
Defence in the Union Cabinet (January to Salim Ali, as a married man, required money
November 1990). Ramanna was a nominated to make a living, so he joined the museum as a
Member of the Parliament, Rajya Sabha, (August clerk. He published a research paper discussing
1997-August 2003). He was a member of the first the nature and activities of the weaver bird in

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National Security Advisory Board. In whichever 1930. The piece made him famous and

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capacity he worked, he worked with a established his name in the field of ornithology.
missionary zeal. Salim also traveled from place to place to find
Among the various awards that he received out more about different species of the birds.

EM
included: Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award
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(1963), Padma Vibhushan Award (1975), “The Book of Indian Birds in 1941? in which he
Meghnad Saha Medal of the Indian National discussed the kinds and habits of Indian birds.
Science Academy (1984), R. D. Memorial Award The book sold very well for a number of years.
(1985-86), Asutosh Mookerjee Gold Medal He also collaborated with S. Dillon Ripley, a
(1996). He was awarded doctorate (honoris world-famous ornithologist, in 1948. The
causa) by several universities.
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collaboration resulted in the ‘Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan’ (10 Volume Set); a
DR. SALIM ALI
comprehensive book that describes the birds of
the subcontinent, their appearance, habitat,
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Salim Moizuddin Abdul Ali was one of the

A
greatest ornithologists and naturalists of all time breeding habits, migration etc. Salim also
and is also known as the “Birdman of India”. published other books. His work “The Fall of
He was one of the very first scientists to carry Sparrow” included many incidents from his real
out systematic bird surveys in India and abroad. life.
His research work is considered highly influential Salim not only researched about birds, but
in the development of ornithology. Dr. Sálim Ali
also contributed to the arena of protection of
is also known as the father of Indian ornithology.
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nature. For his extraordinary efforts, he was

Salim Ali was born on November 12, 1896 given an international award of Rs. 5 lacs, but
in Bombay (now Mumbai). He attended college, he donated all the money to Bombay Natural
but did not receive any university degree. To History Society. The Government of India
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assist his brother in wolfram mining, he went to honored him with Padma Vibushan in 1983.
Burma (now called Myanmar), but spent most
National Wildlife Fellowship Award
of his time looking for birds. Soon, he returned
back to Bombay. In order to commemorate the memory of the
great wildlife conservationist of the country, i.e.,
This genius died on June 20, 1987 at the age
Dr. Salim Ali to inspire and promote, particularly
of 90.
the younger generation of wildlife managers and
Contributions and Achievements: scientists for taking up research/experimental
projects aimed at conservation of the rich wildlife
For twenty years he camped and studied
heritage of this country, the Govt. of India,
birds. With a notebook in his pocket and
Ministry of Environment and Forests has decided
binoculars, he walked hundreds of miles. It was
to award the fellowship alternatively each year.
hard, scary, dangerous work.
Dr. Salim Ali National Wildlife Fellowship
As soon as Salim returned, he studied Award, 2011 for, Research/experimental project
zoology, and secured a position of a guide at the on avian wildlife is due for award.

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 Education and Educational Adviser to the
DR. SHANTI SWAROOP BHATNAGAR Government. He played a major role both in
Dr. Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar was a the Constitution and Deliberations of the
eminent Scientist of India. He was known Scientific Manpower Committee Report of 1948.
as “The Father of Research Laboratories”. He was a University Professor for more than 19
Bhatnagar was born on February 21, 1894 in years. He first worked at the Banaras Hindu
Shahpur, now in Pakistan. After completing his University, then he moved to Punjab University,
M. Sc. in India, he went to England on a where he had a reputation as a very inspiring
fellowship. He got his D. Sc. degree from the teacher.
London University in the year 1921, under the His contribution in the areas of magneto-
guidance of chemistry professor Frederick G. chemistry and physical chemistry of emulsion

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Donna. When he came back, Bhatnagar was were largely recognized. He played an

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presented with proposal of professorship at the instrumental role in the establishment of the
renowned Banaras Hindu University. National Research Development Corporation
Contributions and Achievements: (NRDC) of India, which brinsg coordination

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between research and development. He was
Though his area of interest included
C IC responsible for the initiation of the Industrial
emulsions, colloids, and industrial chemistry, but Research Association movement in India.
his primary contributions were in the spheres of
magneto- chemistry. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Bhatnagar constituted the one-man
Nehru himself was an activist of scientific Commission in 1951 to negotiate with oil
development. After India gained freedom from companies for starting refineries and this
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British rule in 1947, the Council of Scientific and ultimately led to the establishment of many oil
Industrial Research was established under the refineries in different parts of the country. He
leadership of Dr. Bhatnagar, who was appointed induced many individuals and organizations to
donate liberally for the cause of science and
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its first director-general. He became the first

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director-general of the Council of Scientific and education. He exhibited high poetic talent
Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1940. particularly in Urdu. He died in 1st January 1955
at the age of 60 in New Delhi.
He was known as the “The Father of
Research Laboratories”. He is largely Recognition and Honours
remembered for having established various Bhatnagar used to spend all his spare time
chemical laboratories in India. He also developed in his laboratory doing research. Dr. Bhatnagar
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a total twelve national laboratories, just a few was knighted by the British Government in the
names are Central Food Processing year 1941 as an award for his research in science,
Technological Institute, Mysore, the National whereas, on March 18, 1943 he was selected as
Physical Laboratories, New Delhi, National
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fellow of the Royal Society. Bhatnagar was also

Chemical Laboratory, Pune, the Central Fuel a recipient of “Padma Vibhushan” in 1954. After
Institute, Dhanbad, and the National his death, ASIR established a Bhatnagar
Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur. Memorial award for eminent scientists in his
He also played an important part with Homi honour.
Jehangir Bhabha, P .C. Mahalanobis, Vikram Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize
Sarabhai and others in building of post-
independent S &T infrastructure and in the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (SSB) Prize for
formulation of India’s science and technology Science and Technology was instituted in the
policies. He was the founder Director of the year 1957, in the memory of late Dr (Sir) Shanti
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Swarup Bhatnagar, FRS, the founder director of
(CSIR) which later it became a major agency for the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research
research in India. He was also the Chairman of (CSIR). The SSB Prize is awarded each year on
the University Grants Commission (UGC). the basis of conspicuously important and
outstanding contributions to human knowledge
Bhatnagar was the Secretary of Ministry of and progress, made through work done primarily

[68] Chronicle IAS Academy

 in India during the five years, preceding the year him. Amongst a large number of fossil plants
of the prize. The SSB Prize comprises a citation, described by him from Rajmahal Hills of
a cash award of Rupees 5,00,000/- and a plaque. Jharkhand, was his most remarkable discovery
of a new group of fossil gymnosperms, to which
BIRBAL SAHNI he gave the name “Pentoxylae”. Sahni studied
Ptilophyllum and other related elements from
Birbal Sahni (1891- 1949) was a world Rajmahal Hills and found that stem Buaklandia,
famous palaeobotanist, who studied the fossils leaf Ptilophyllum and flower Williamsonia
of the Indian subcontinent. He was born on 14th belong to the same plant which he reconstructed
November 1891 at Bhera, Saharanpur District, and named as Williamsonia sewardiana.
now a part of West Punjab in Pakistan. He was
the founder of Birbal Sahni Institute of Birbal Sahni was not only botanist but also
geologist. By using simple instruments and his

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Palaeobotany, which is situated in Lucknow.
huge knowledge of ancient plants, he estimated
He was the son of Ishwar Devi and Lala

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the age of some old rocks. He showed to the
Ruchi Ram Sahani. His father was a chemistry people that the age of the salt range, now in
teacher who was interested in the study of Pakistan Punjab, is 40 to 60 million years old and
nature. He got his education from Punjab

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not about 100 million years, as believed till then.
University, Lahore. Later on, in 1911 he went to He found that the Deccan Traps in Madhya
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England, where he entered the Emmanuel
College at Cambridge. In 1913 Sahni obtained a
Pradesh were of the tertiary period, about 62
million years old. Besides, Sahni took a keen
first class in Part-I of the Natural Sciences Tripos interest in archaeology. One of his investigations
and he completed the Part-II of the Tripos in led to the discovery of coin moulds in Rohtak in
1915. After that he studied under Professor A.C. 1936. For his studies on the technique of casting
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Seward, and got his D.Sc. Degree from Landon coins in ancient India he was awarded the
University in 1919. Nelson Wright Medal of the Numismatic Society
Contributions and Achievements of India in 1945.
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After completion of his education Birbal Palaeobotanical studies should be done in
Sahni came back to India and worked as relation to the geological and geographical
Professor of Botany at Banaras Hindu conditions under which the plants lived and
University, Varanasi and Punjab University for died. He himself made important contributions
about a year. in geological studies. He threw considerable light
on problems like the age of the Deccan Traps,
Palaeobotany is a subject which requires the the Saline Series and the timing of the Himalayan
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knowledge of botany and geology subject. It also uplift.

require for an daring guts and a physique good
enough for trekking on the mountains for Being a teacher, Sahni first raised the
collection of rocks that contain plant fossils. Once standard of teaching at the Department of
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the rocks have been collected and ground, the Botany. Next he established the Department of
abilities of a detective are required to piece Geology. A logical sequence was the
together the picture of that ancient plant from establishment of the institute of palaeobotany.
the scattered information available in the fossils. It was the first of its kind in the world.
From childhood Sahni was interested in these Recognition and Honours
qualities.
Because of abiding interest in geology and
Birbal Sahni was the first botanist to study his fundamental contributions to the study of
extensively the flora of Indian Gondwana. Sahni plant life in the past, Birbal Sahni was recognized
also explored the Rajmahal hills in Jharkhand, by several academies and institutions in India
which is a treasury of fossils of ancient plants. and abroad. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Here he discovered some new genus of plants. Society of London (FRS) in 1936, the highest
His research contribution in palaeobotany British scientific honor, awarded for the first time
covered such a vast range that no aspect of to an Indian botanist. He was elected Vice-
palaeobotany in India was left untouched by President, Palaeobotany section, of the

Chronicle IAS Academy [69]

 International Botanical Congresses of 1930 and went to Tiruchchirapalli for his higher studies.
1935, respectively; General President of the After completing his BSc from St. Joseph’s college
Indian Science Congress for 1940; President, he joined the Madras Institute of Technology
National Academy of Sciences, India, 1937–1939 (MIT), for studying aeronautical engineering.
and 1943-1944. In 1948 he was elected an From MIT, he went to Hindustan Aeronautics
Honorary Member of the American Academy Limited (HAL) at Bangalore as a trainee. As
of Arts and Sciences. Another high honour aeronautical engineer Dr. Kalam had two
which came to him was his election as an options -- in short, to join the Directorate of
Honorary President of the International Botanical Technical Development and Production, or DTD
Congress, Stockholm in 1950. & P (Air) of the Ministry of Defence or the Indian
Air Force. As he could not make it to Indian Air
Sahni died on 10th April, 1949 within less

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Force, Dr. Kalam joined the Technical Centre
than a week of the foundation stone laying
(Civil Aviation) of the DTD&P (Air) as Senior

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ceremony of his institute. His wife, Savitri Sahni,
Scientific Assistant on a basic salary of Rs. 250/
completed the task he had left undone. The
.
institute is today known as the Birbal Sahni

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Institute of Palaeobotany. In November 1969 the While working at the Air force Directorate
Palaeobotanical Society divested its possession
C IC he got a chance to realise his dream. He joined
of the Institute and transferred its assets to Birbal the Indian Committee for Space Research
Institute of Plaeobotany Society whereby the (INCOSPAR), the predecessor of the Indian
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaebotany came Space Research Organisation (ISRO). And thus
under the management of its new Governing Dr. Kalam started his much talked about career
Body under the Department of Science and in rocket and missile technology.
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Technology, Government of India.
First Phase: Before he became President of
DR. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM the country, Dr. Kalam had divided his career
in four phases. In the first phase (1963-82) he
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Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam, worked with the Indian Space Research
popularly known as Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, Organisation (ISRO). At ISRO he served in
served the country as the 11th President of India. various capacities. After initiating Fibre
It is very significant that he is the first scientist Reinforced Plastics (FRP) activities and spending
to occupy the Rashtrapati Bhavan. He is a man some time with the aerodynamics and design
who has taken unto himself, the task of changing group he joined the satellite launching vehicle
the destiny of India. He is a man with a vision. team at Thumba. Here he was made the Project
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Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam is often also referred to Director of the Mission for SLV-3. He played a
as the ‘Missile Man of India’. crucial role in developing satellite launch vehicle
technology and expertise in control, propulsion
His vision is to make India a developed
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and aerodynamics. The SLV-3 project managed

country. He has given his plan of action and a to put Rohini, a scientific satellite, into orbit in
road map for realizing his vision. He has July 1980. India also acquired the ability to
articulated his thoughts in his three books: India design various kinds of rocket systems.
2020: A Vision for the New Millennium, Wings
of Fire: An Autobiography of A. P. J. Abdul Second Phase: The second phase of his
Kalam and Ignited Minds: Unleashing the Power career started when he joined the Defence
Within India. Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO) in 1982. As Director of DRDO, Dr.
Dr. Kalam was born on October 15, 1931, in Kalam was entrusted with the Integrated Guided
a middle-class Tamil family in the island town Missile Development Programme (IGMDP).
of Rameswaram, Dhanushkodi, in Tamil Nadu. Under his leadership India has been able to
Achievements & Contribution develop strategic missiles. Like Nag (an anti-tank
guided missile), Prithvi (a surface to surface
After studying in a primary school in battlefield missile), Akash (a swift, medium -
Ramaeswaran, Dr. Kalam went to Schwartz range surface-to-air missile), Trishul (a quick-
High School at Ramanathpuram from where he reaction surface-to-air missile) and Agni (an

[70] Chronicle IAS Academy

 intermediate range ballistic missile). Three new Recognition and Honours
laboratories/facilities in the area of missile
In 1997 Dr. APJ Kalam was given the highest
technology were established.
civilian award of India, the Bharat Ratna.
Third Phase: Dr. Kalam identifies his third Dr. Kalam became the President of India on July
phase with his participation with India’s mission 25, 2002.
to become a nuclear weapon state, jointly
DR. LALJI SINGH
undertaken by DRDO and Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE) with the active support Dr. Lalji Singh is one of the eminent scientists
of the armed forces. During this phase he, as of the country and served as the 25th Vice-
Chairman of the Technology Information, Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University (BHU),
Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC), Varanasi. Born on 5th July, 1947 in Jaunpur,
also got involved with the creation of Technology

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Uttar Pradesh, Dr. Singh rose to acquire the place
Vision 2020 and the India Millennium Missions among the premier scientists of India. He holds

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(IMM 2020), which is an integratied version of the position of Bhatnagar Fellow of CSIR at
technology vision and India’s security concerns. Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
In November 1999 Dr. Kalam was appointed as (CCMB), Hyderabad, of which he was Director

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Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government for a long period of 11 years from 1998 to 2009.
of India.
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Fourth Phase: His fourth phase started after
He spent 13 years in the Institute of Animal
Genetics, University of Edinburgh (1974-1987)
he left the post of Principal Scientific Adviser. before joining CCMB.
He joined the Anna University at Chennai as Dr Lalji Singh obtained his M.Sc., and Ph.D
Professor of Technology and Societal (Cytogenetics) from Banaras Hindu University,
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Transformation. As part of realizing his mission which later awarded him Honorary degree of
he decided to ignite the minds of the young. For D.Sc. in the year 2004 and its Distinguished
this purpose he wanted to reach at least 100,000 Alumnus Award in the year 2009. Dr. Lalji was
students in different parts of the country before awarded Ph.D. in 1971 for his work in the area
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August 2003. He has already met about 40,000 of Cytogenetics and he worked on "Evolution of
students. His fourth phase took a sudden turn, karyotypes in snakes".
which he himself perhaps did not visualize: He
became the President of India. Achievements & Contribution

Other field of Interest Dr. Lalji Singh has an exemplary research

and professional experience of around 45 years,
Kalam continues to take an active interest in during which he has published more than 219
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other developments in the field of science and research papers in internationally reputed
technology as well. He has proposed a research journals, including a full article in 'Nature' (2009)
programmed for developing bio-implants. He is which has been also covered on the cover page
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a supporter of pen source software over of 'Nature'.

proprietary solutions and believes that the use
In June 1987 Lalji came back to India and
of open source software on a large scale will
joined Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
bring more people the benefits of Information
(CCMB), Hyderabad as senior scientist. His
Technology.
research interests include Molecular basis of Sex-
Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam regards his work on determination; DNA Fingerprinting and genetic
India’s nuclear weapons program as a way to diversity; Wildlife Conservation; Silkworm
assert India’s place as a future superpower. Even Genome Analysis; Human Genome Analysis and
during his tenure as president, APJ Kalam took Ancient DNA Studies.
avid interest in all spheres of India’s science and
Dr. Lalji Singh and his colleagues developed
technology. He has even put forward a project
a probe called Bkm-derived probe for DNA
plan for establishing bio-implants. He is also an fingerprinting which brought CCMB to limelight.
ardent advocate of open source software over Since then this probe is being extensively used
proprietary solutions to churn out more profits for forensic investigation, paternity
in the field of information technology in India. determination and seed stock verification.

Chronicle IAS Academy [71]

 For the first time in the annals of Indian Award for Life Sciences’ 2008; Vigyan Gaurav
history DNA fingerprinting evidence was Award of the Council of Science & Technology,
presented in the court of law. This unique work Government of Uttar Pradesh (2003); Goyal
of Lalji, prompted Government of India's Prize in Life Sciences (2000) and New
Department of Biotechnology (DBT) to form Millennium Plaques of Honour Award 2001-
autonomous institution "Centre for DNA 2002 for outstanding services in the field of
Fingerprinting and Diagnostics (CDFD)" in 1995. Biological Sciences presented by the Prime
Currently housed at CCMB, Lalji shouldered the Minister of India at the 89th Session of the Indian
responsibility of setting up of this new national Science Congress(2002) to name a few. He is also
facility. As its Officer-on-Special-Duty (OSD), Fellow of the Third World Academy of Sciences,
Lalji worked towards development, acquisition Trieste, Italy (2002).

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and standardization of protocols for carrier
detection, prenatal diagnosis and genetic M.S. SWAMINATHAN

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counseling for all the genetic disorders prevalent
within India. India's well-known geneticist and
international administrator, Monkombu

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In order to explore the tremendous potential Sambasivan Swaminathan was born on August
of the indigenously developed technology of
C IC 7, 1925 in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu. After
DNA fingerprinting, Dr. Lalji Singh has preliminary education in Tamil Nadu,
proposed, pursued and established a new centre, Swaminathan obtained his Ph D as a geneticist
the Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and from Cambridge University, United Kingdom,
Diagnostics (CDFD) at Hyderabad under the in 1952. Popularly known as the Father of Green
Department of Biotechnology (DBT). In July Revolution in India, the missionary of ever-green
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1998 he was appointed as the Director of the revolution continues to work for a hunger-free
Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology society.
(CCMB), Hyderabad.
His stated vision is to rid the world of hunger
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Based on the studies of Dr. Lalji Singh and and poverty. Swaminathan is an advocate of
his colleagues on Wildlife Conservation, moving India to sustainable development,
Government of India has set up a "Laboratory especially using environmentally sustainable
for the Conservation of Endangered Species agriculture, sustainable food security and the
(LaCONES)" in Hyderabad. For regenerative preservation of biodiversity, which he calls an
medicine, Dr Singh has setup 'Clinical Research "evergreen revolution".
Facility (CRF)' in collaboration with NIMS. He
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is founder of 'Genome Foundation', a non-profit- Contributions and Achievements:

making organization registered under After a two-year postdoctoral stint at the
Companies Act 25 in Hyderabad. University of Wisconsin, USA, he returned to
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The social impact of some of the research India and joined the Indian Agricultural
works carried out by Dr. Singh include Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi. It was from
development of a Universal Probe for DNA IARI that the ‘wheat revolution’ was
fingerprinting, conservation of wildlife, species choreographed during the 1960s. He is known
identification for forensic applications, DNA for his contributions in wheat, rice, potato and
based molecular diagnostics and work on genetic jute genetics, after which he worked on Mexican
affinities of Andaman islanders. dwarf wheat varieties and conservation of plant
genetic resources.
Recognition and Honours
He established the National Bureau of Plant,
The contribution of Dr. Lalji Singh has been Animal and Fish Genetic Resources of India and
profusely rewarded which include, apart from the International Plant Genetic Resources
"Padmashri" by President of India in 2004, B P Institute, besides serving as the Principal
Pal Memorial Award at the 97th Indian Science Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture,
Congress, 2010; Life Time Achievement Award Government of India.
for the year 2008 by the Biotech Research Society
(BRSI), BHU, Varanasi; CSIR Technology During the next two decades he held a

[72] Chronicle IAS Academy

 number of research and administrative positions for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
(mostly in the Indian civil service). While Resources in 1988.
working in these positions he helped introduce
Dr. Swaminathan has been recognized with
Mexican semi-dwarf wheat plants to Indian
a number of national and international awards,
fields and helped to bring about greater
including Padma Shri (1967), Padma Bhushan
acceptance of modern farming methods. The
(1972), Padma Vibhushan (1989), the Ramon
seeds of ‘Green Revolution’ in India were sown
Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership
in Punjab Agricultural University (PAU).
(1971), and the Albert Einstein World Award
Recognition and Honours on Science (1986). He was the first laureate of
the World Food Prize (1987) that is regarded as
From 1972 to 1979 he was director general
the Nobel Prize in Agriculture. He was also a
of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
nominated Member of Parliament (Rajya Sabha).

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and he was minister of Agriculture from 1979
to 1980. He served as director general of the He was awarded the First World Food Prize

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International Rice Research Institute (1982–88) in October 1987 and has been described by the
and became president of the International Union United Nations Environment Programme as "the
Father of Economic Ecology".

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Chronicle IAS Academy [73]

 NEW DEVELOPMENTS
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

The device AV Magnivisualizer which was

1. MRAM Technology
developed by the Institute of Cytology and
A team of researchers, led by Dr Yang Preventive Oncology under the Indian Council

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Hyunsoo, from the Department of Electrical & of Medical Research (ICMR) has 95 per cent
Computer Engineering at the National accuracy for detecting pre-cancerous lesions.

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University of Singapore (NUS) Faculty of Randomised clinical control trials have
Engineering developed the new Magnetoresistive confirmed its efficacy in reducing incidence and
Random Access Memory (MRAM) technology mortality of the disease. It can be made available

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that that enables bigger and longer lasting in remote rural areas.
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memory in electronics such as laptops and
smartphones. The technology will drastically
increase storage space and enhance memory
which will ensure that fresh data stays intact,
This is a user-friendly device which costs
about Rs 10,000 as against the present devices
which cost between Rs 8-10 lakh and are beyond
even in the case of a power failure. the reach of most people.
The device has a white light source with
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The new technology can also be applied in
transportation, military and avionics systems, variable interchangeable magnification and can
robotics, etc. Currently pursued schemes with be operated on a 12- volt battery in rural and
a very thin magnetic layer can only retain semi-urban areas where electric supply is not
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regular. Magnivisualizer has been found to pick

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information for about a year. The innovation is
expected to change the architecture of up 1.5 times more high-grade pre-cancerous
computers, making them much easier to lesions than the ordinary tungsten light.
manufacture as it does away with many AV Magnivisualizer would be available in
facilities such as flash memory, effectively the market within the next 8-9 months and
bringing down the cost. efforts would be made to provide them up to
the Community Health Centres in the initial
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MRAM is emerging as the next big thing in

data storage as it is non-volatile, which means phase. In the next phase it would be made
that data can be retrieved even when the available in the Primary Health Centres (PHC),
electronic equipment is not powered up. The where cervical cancer cases go undetected.
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current methods of applying MRAM revolve Cervical cancer is the most common
round the technology which uses an 'in-plane', malignancy among Indian women, particularly
or horizontal, current-induced magnetisation. those who marry early. Current estimates
This method uses ultra-thin ferromagnetic indicate that approximately 1.32 lakh new cases
structures which are challenging to implement are diagnosed and 74,000 deaths occur annually
due to their thickness of less than 1 nanometre. in India, accounting for nearly one-third of
Their manufacturing reliability is low and tends global cervical cancer deaths.
to retain information for only less than a year. Cervical cancer takes about a decade to fully
2. Indigenous Cervical Cancer Diagnostic develop and is often detected when it has spread
Kit substantially. It starts from a pre-cancer stage
called dysplasias and early detection and
The Union Health and Family Welfare appropriate treatment at this stage can halt its
Ministry launched AV Magnivisualizer, an progression, resulting in decreased incidence or
indigenous device that can detect early cervical mortality.
cancer and be used even by healthcare workers
with basic training. At present, cytology screening or Pap Smear

[74] Chronicle IAS Academy

 is available only in advanced cytology centres, 3. Greenest Supercomputer
Regional Cancer Centres and some medical
One of the world's greenest supercomputer
colleges. The required infrastructure, trained
has been created by Cambridge University. The
manpower and related mechanism for initial
energy-efficient high-performance computer,
screening are not available to carry out
named Wilkes after Cambridge computing
population-based screening at the State or the
pioneer Maurice Wilkes, has been listed second
national level.
in the 'Green 500'; placed 166 in the Top 500 list
Worldwide Facts About Cervical Cancer of the world's fastest supercomputers. It is the
• Cervical cancer is the No. 1 women's most efficient air-cooled supercomputer in the
cancer in sub-Saharan Africa and is the world and fastest GPU supercomputer in the
third most common cancer in women UK.

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worldwide, with 530,000 new cases and The performance of Wilkes is equivalent to
275,00 deaths annually. 4,000 desktop computers working at the same

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• Some 80 to 90 percent of women in sub- time; it has energy efficiency of 3,361 Mega-flops
Saharan Africa have never had a pelvic per watt; provides 100 gigabytes per-second
exam. bandwidth, and a message rate of over 137

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million messages a second.
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• More than 85 percent of the global burden
of cervical cancer occurs in resource- The supercomputer, designed and built by
limited countries, yet the World Health the in-house engineering team, will be used for
Organization estimates less than 5 the development of the Square Kilometre Array
percent of these women have access to (SKA), the world's largest telescope.
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screening even once in a lifetime.
Apart from playing a crucial role in the design
• Cervical cancer is four to five times more process of SKA, the supercomputer can also be
prevalent among women who are HIV- used to design and test jet engines and new drugs
positive. to fight cancer, and study the fundamental
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nature of the nucleus of the atom.
• HPV vaccination offers a promising
solution for women in developing nations 4. MAVEN launched by NASA
who do not have access to screenings for
NASA has launched its unmanned MAVEN
cervical cancer, although the cost of the
spacecraft towards Mars to study the Red
vaccination is a major barrier for many
Planet's atmosphere for clues as to why Earth's
resource-limited countries.
neighbour lost its warmth and water over time.
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• Cervical cancer is the No. 1 cancer The white Atlas V 401 rocket carrying the Mars
affecting women in 37 countries in South Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN)
and Central America, west and southern orbiter blasted off on schedule time. MAVEN is
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Africa, and Asia. the first spacecraft devoted to exploring and

• Cervical cancer occurs in the cells of the understanding the Martian upper atmosphere.
cervix, the lower part of the uterus that The flawless lift-off of the $671 million
connects to a woman's vagina. Various spacecraft kicked off the 10-month journey to
strains of the human papillomavirus the Red Planet. Arrival at Mars is scheduled for
(HPV), a sexually transmitted infection, September 2014, with the science mission of the
are the culprits in causing most cases of solar-wing panelled orbiter set to begin two
cervical cancer. months later.
• Most women's immune systems prevent One of its three scientific tools is a solar wind
the HPV virus from turning cancerous. In and ionosphere gauge called the Particles and
a small percentage of women, however, Fields Package, built by the University of
the virus survives for years, and, if not California at Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory.
detected and prevented, some cells on the A second tool, called the Remote Sensing
surface of the cervix turn into cancer cells. Package, was built by the Laboratory for

Chronicle IAS Academy [75]

 Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University Orbiter into its trajectory is about 40
of Colorado and will determine global minutes.
characteristics of the upper atmosphere and
• The cost of the mission is approximately
ionosphere. The third instrument, the Neutral
Rs. 450 crore.
Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer, was built by
NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. It will • With this mission, India will be the first
measure the composition and isotopes of neutrals Asian country and the fourth in the world
and ions. to take part in interplanetary exploration.

The probe is different from past NASA The Mars Orbiter payloads
missions because it focuses not on the dry surface
but on the mysteries of the never-before-studied Lyman Alpha Photometer(LAP): This device

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upper atmosphere. Much of MAVEN's year-long is an absorption cell photometer that will help
determine the relative abundance of Deuterium

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mission will be spent circling the planet 6,000
kilometers above the surface. However, it will and Hydrogen from Lyman-Alpha emission in
execute five deep dips to a distance of just 125 the upper Martian atmosphere. The results from
the device will mainly help us understand the

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kilometers above the Martian landscape to get
readings of the atmosphere at various levels. loss process of water from Mars, among other
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Researchers have described the mission as a
search for a missing piece to the puzzle of what
things.
Mars Colour Camera(MCC): This tri-colour
happened to Mars' atmosphere, perhaps billions camera will provide information regarding the
of years ago, to transform Earth's neighbour from Martian surface like surface features and
composition. It will also help monitor the
A N
a water-bearing planet that might have been
favourable for life to a dry, barren desert. dynamic events and weather on the planet. The
camera will also monitor Phobos, and Deimos,
5. Mars Orbiter Mission the two satellites of mars.
S RO
A
The mission objectives are both technological Methane Sensor for Mars(MSM): This
and scientific in nature. Here are some of the device will measure Methane(CH4) in the planet's
important objectives for ISRO. atmosphere and map its sources.
• Design and realisation of a Mars orbiter
Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition
with a capability to survive and perform
Analyser(MENCA): This device is a mass
Earthbound manoeuvres, cruise phase of
spectrometer that can analyse neutral
IA H

300 days, Mars orbit insertion / capture,

composition in the range of 1 to 300 amu with
and on-orbit phase around Mars. unit mass resolution.
• Deep space communication, navigation,
Thermal Infrared Imaging
mission planning and management.
C

Spectrometer(TIS): This device will measure the

• Exploration of Mars surface features, thermal emission both during day and night. TIS
morphology, mineralogy and Martian can also map surface composition and
atmosphere by indigenous scientific mineralogy of the planet.
instruments.
6. India Rolls out its First Indigenous LCA -
Mission Facts Tejas
• The 1,337 kg Mars Orbiter Satellite will Tejas, India's first indigenous Light Combat
be put into a 250 km X 23,500 km Aircraft (LCA), which is all set to replace the
elliptical orbit. MiG-21 series, has been developed by the Defence
• The launch vehicle being used is a PSLV- Research and Development Organization
C25. (DRDO) with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
(HAL) as its principal partner.
• This is the 25th mission of PSLV and fifth
in the XL configuration. Tejas is the smallest, light weight, single
engine, single seat, supersonic, multirole, combat
• Time from launch to injection of the

[76] Chronicle IAS Academy

 aircraft, and best in its class in the world. It has European Union have the observer status.
many features of stealth fighter aircraft. It will
The exercises are aimed at training technical
be used by both the Indian Air Force (IAF) and
personnel and their leadership as well as testing
the Navy.
the capability of NATO and its partners to
This fourth generation combat aircraft has coordinate their efforts in foiling multiple
Carbon Composites, light weight/high strength simulated cyber attacks.
material for primary structures, quadruplex
About Cyber Defence Exercises
Digital Flight Control System; glass Cockpit and
digital Avionics to give multirole capabilities • Objective: Cyber defence exercise allows
with carefree manoeuvring. These capabilities its participants to learn and test the skills
are further raised by several on-board Sensors, needed to fend off a real attack.
Communication and Navigation Systems that

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• First exercise: 2008, a joint between
are supported by powerful Mission Computers Swedish and Estonian universities.

Y
and Cockpit Display System.
• Second Exercise: Baltic Cyber Shield
This is for the first time an indigenously (2010), organised by Swedish National
designed and developed military fighter aircraft Defence College (SNDC), various Swedish

EM
has been certified for Indian Air Force. institutions and the Estonian Cyber
C IC
Stealth aircraft are designed to avoid Defence League.
detection using a variety of advanced • Since 2012, the exercise series is called
technologies that reduce reflection/emission Locked Shields.
of radar, infrared, visible light, Radio-
Frequency (RF) spectrum, and audio, 8. World's First Nanotube Computer
A N
collectively. Unveiled

Features of stealth fighter aircraft A group of Stanford researchers led by

Professor Subhasish Mitra had successfully built
S RO

• The aircraft has a totally digital fly-

A
by-wire control system; the wings are a working computer albeit an extremely simple
made entirely of composite structures. one entirely from transistors fashioned from
carbon nanotubes. The nanotubes have long
• Built by unstable configuration' held the promise of allowing smaller, faster and
technique. It has open architecture lower-powered computing, though they have
software for avionics. DRDO can proved difficult to work with.
update it as and when required.
IA H

The computer can right now perform only

• It integrates a 'glass cockpit' in which basic functions at speeds likened to a 1950s
information is displayed 'real-time' to computer, but the tiny machine was hailed as a
the pilot. breakthrough in the search for an alternative to
C

silicon transistors. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are

7. Cyber Coalition 2013: NATO's Largest-
rolled-up, single-layer sheets of carbon atoms
ever Cyber-security Exercise
tens of thousands can fit into the width of a
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization single human hair. They are pliable and have
(NATO) has started its largest-ever cyber security the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any
exercises to practice thwarting large and known material. Silicon is a good semiconductor
simultaneous attacks on member states and their but cannot be reduced to such a thin layer.
partners. The drill was hosted by National Experts believe the structure of CNTs may make
Defence College training centre in Tartu, Estonia. them better at carrying currents thus yielding
transistors that are faster, more energy efficient
Codenamed Cyber Coalition 2013, the and smaller than silicon.
exercises involve participants from more than 30
countries across Europe, including five non- The computer is just a few square millimetres
NATO nations: Austria, Finland, Ireland, in size and able to perform basic counting and
Sweden, and Switzerland. New Zealand and the number-sorting functions using 178 transistors

Chronicle IAS Academy [77]

 each holding between 10 and 200 nanotubes. It Control and Prevention (CDC) and WHO
runs at 1 kilohertz—a processing capacity (World Health Organization), there are no
millions of times weaker than today's computers. specific treatments for patients who become ill
The 178-transistor limit was due to the team with MERS-CoV infection.
using a university chip-making facility rather
All what doctors can currently do is provide
than an industrial process, meaning the
supportive medical care to help relieve the
computer could in theory be made much bigger
symptoms. Supportive cares means providing
and faster. The machine ran a basic operating
treatment to prevent, control or relieve
system that allowed it to multitask and swap
complications and side effects, as well as
between the two processes.
attempting to improve the patient's comfort and
Mitra and his team had been able to deal quality of life. Supportive care (supportive

D LE
with two inherent shortcomings of CNT therapy) does not include treating or improving

Y
transistors: the tubes do not always grow in the illness/condition.
perfectly straight lines, which mean that
10. Fixed Dose Drug Combinations
mispositioned ones can cause a short circuit,

EM
while others changed form and could not be A combination drug most commonly refers
switched on and off. The team devised a method
C IC to a fixed-dose combination (FDC), which is a
to burn up and eliminate the uncontrolled CNTs formulation including two or more active
in a transistor and to bypass mispositioned ones. pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) combined in
a single dosage form, which is manufactured and
9. MERS VIRUS
distributed in certain respective fixed doses.
MERS-CoV (Middle East Respiratory
A N
Advantages-
Syndrome Coronavirus), previously known as
the Novel Coronavirus or SARS-like virus, is a • Simpler dosage schedule improves
member of the coronavirus family. compliance and therefore improves
S RO

treatment outcomes.
A
Coronaviruses commonly cause respiratory
illness in mammals, including humans. • Reduces inadvertent medication errors.
Coronaviruses are responsible for approximately • Allows for syngergistic combinations.
1 in every 3 cases of the common cold. MERS-
CoV is much more deadly than any other • Eliminates drug shortages by simplifying
coronavirus seen before. drug storage and handling, and thus
lowers risk of being "out of stock".
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MERS-CoV is a new coronavirus strain that

• Procurement, management and handling
appeared last year. It started making people ill
of drugs is simplified.
in the Middle East in 2012 and was first identified
when a man in Saudi Arabia came down with • Side effects are reduced by using one drug
C

"SARS-like" symptoms. He died in June 2012. of the combination for this purpose.
Symptoms • Potential for drug abuse can be minimized
by using one drug of the combination for
Coronaviruses cause respiratory infections in this purpose.
humans and animals. Patients have been
presented with fever, cough and breathing Disadvantages-
difficulties. • FDCs are (possibly) more expensive than
It causes pneumonia and, sometimes, kidney separate tablets.
failure. Most of the people who have been • Potential quality problems, especially with
infected so far have been older men, often with rifampicin in FDCs for TB, requiring bio-
other medical conditions. availability testing.
What are the treatment options for MERS- • Dosing is inflexible and cannot be
CoV infection? regulated to patient's needs (each patient
According to the US Centers for Disease has unique characteristics such as weight,

[78] Chronicle IAS Academy

 age, pharmacogenetics, co-morbidity, that with a pair of electronic keys - public and private
may alter drug metabolism and effect). keys - and this association is endorsed by the CA.
The certificate contains information about a
• Drug interactions may lead to alteration
user's identity (for example, their name, pincode,
of the therapeutic effect.
country, email address, the date the certificate
11. Umpire Decision Review System was issued and the name of the Certifying
Authority that issued it).
The Umpire Decision Review System is a
technology-based system used in the sport of These keys complement each other in that
cricket. The system was first introduced in Test one does not function in the absence of the other.
cricket, for the sole purpose of reviewing They are used by browsers and servers to encrypt
controversial decisions made by the on-field and decrypt information regarding the identity
of the certificate user during information

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umpires in the case of a batsman being dismissed
or not. exchange processes. The private key is stored on

Y
the user's computer hard disk or on an external
There are basically three components in device such as a token. The user retains control
UDRS. of the private key; it can only be used with the

EM
• Hawk-Eye, Eagle Eye, or Virtual Eye: ball-
C IC issued password.
tracking technology that plots the
The public key is disseminated with the
trajectory of a bowling delivery that has
encrypted information. The authentication
been interrupted by the batsman, often
process fails if either one of these keys in not
by the pad, and can determine whether it
available or do not match. This means that the
would have hit the wicket or not.
encrypted data cannot be decrypted and
A N
• Hot Spot: Infra-red imaging system that therefore, is inaccessible to unauthorized parties.
illuminates where the ball has been in
13. 3D Printing Technology
contact with bat or pad.
Additive manufacturing or 3D printing is a
S RO

• Snickometer, which relies on directional

A
microphones to detect small sounds made process of making a three-dimensional solid
as the ball hits the bat or pad, however is object of virtually any shape from a digital model.
3D printing is achieved using an additive
no longer used.
process, where successive layers of material are
12. Digital Signature laid down in different shapes. 3D printing is also
considered distinct from traditional machining
A digital signature is a mathematical scheme techniques, which mostly rely on the removal of
IA H

for demonstrating the authenticity of a digital material by methods such as cutting or drilling.
message or document. A valid digital signature
gives a recipient reason to believe that the Advantages-
message was created by a known sender, such
C

• Manufacture of Customized Products.

that the sender cannot deny having sent the
• Rapid Prototyping.
message (authentication and non-repudiation)
and that the message was not altered in transit • Low cost of production.
(integrity). Digital signatures are commonly used
for software distribution, financial transactions, Disadvantages-
and in other cases where it is important to detect • Manufacture of Dangerous Items
forgery or tampering.
• Issues of counterfeiting.
Digital signatures can be used to authenticate • Issues of intellectual property rights.
the source of messages. When ownership of a
digital signature secret key is bound to a specific 3D printing applications
user, a valid signature shows that the message
was sent by that user. One of the most important applications of
3D printing is in the medical industry. With 3D
A Digital Signature Certificate explicitly printing, surgeons can produce mockups of parts
associates the identity of an individual/device

Chronicle IAS Academy [79]

 of their patient's body which needs to be operated although other fibres such as paper or wood or
upon. asbestos have been sometimes used. FRP has the
following properties-
3D printing makes it possible to make a part
from scratch in just hours. It allows designers • Light weight
and developers to go from flat screen to exact • High strength-to-weight ratio
part.
• Corrosion resistance
Nowadays almost everything from aerospace
• Weather resistance
components to toys are getting built with the help
of 3D printers. 3D printing is also used for • Low thermal conductivity
jewellery, architecture, fashion designing, art, • Non-magnetic

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and interior designs.
Applications of FRP Composites in

Y
What is the difference between a basic rapid
Construction
prototyping machine and a 3D printer?
Fibre-reinforced plastics are best suited for
3D printers are the simple version of rapid

EM
any design programme that demands weight
prototyping machines.
C IC
Rapid prototyping is a conventional method
that has been used by automotive and aircraft
savings, precision engineering, finite tolerances,
and the simplification of parts in both production
and operation. A moulded polymer artefact is
cheaper, faster, and easier to manufacture than
industries for years.
cast aluminium or steel artefact, and maintains
In general 3D printers are compact and similar and sometimes better tolerances and
A N
smaller than RP machines. They are ideal for use material strengths
in offices. They use less energy and take less
space. They are designed for low volume There are three broad divisions into which
applications of FRP in civil engineering can be
S RO

reproduction of real objects made of nylon or

A
other plastics. That also means 3D printers make classified: applications for new construction,
smaller parts. Rapid prototyping machines have repair and rehabilitation applications, and
build chambers at least 10 inches on a side, a 3D architectural applications.
printer has less than 8 inches on a side. However, FRPs have been used widely by civil
a 3D printer is capable of all the functions of engineers in the design of new construction.
rapid prototyping machine such as verifying and Structures such as bridges and columns built
validating design, creating prototype, remote
IA H

completely out of FRP composites have

sharing of information, etc. demonstrated exceptional durability, and
effective resistance to effects of environmental
Consequently 3D printers are easy to handle
exposure. Pre-stressing tendons, reinforcing bars,
and cheap to maintain. You can buy one of those
C

grid reinforcement and dowels are all examples

DIY kit in the market and build up yourself. It is
of the many diverse applications of FRP in new
cheaper than the professional rapid prototyping,
structures.
for $1000 or less you can have one 3D printer,
while the professional rapid prototyping cost at One of the most common uses for FRP
least $50,000. involves the repair and rehabilitation of damaged
or deteriorating structures. Several companies
3D printers are less accurate than rapid across the world are beginning to wrap damaged
prototyping machines. Because of its simplicity bridge piers to prevent collapse and steel-
the material choices are also limited. reinforced columns to improve the structural
14. FRP Composite Material integrity and to prevent buckling of the
reinforcement.
Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fibre-
reinforced polymer) is a composite material made Architects have also discovered the many
of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The applications for which FRP can be used. These
fibres are usually glass, carbon, basalt or aramid,include structures such as siding/cladding,
roofing, flooring and partitions.

[80] Chronicle IAS Academy

 Sample Questions CHRONICLE
(Science & Technology) IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

1. Native resolution is the resolution at which a 4. Project Glass - a smart pair of glasses with an
TV or monitor is designed to display images. integrated heads-up display revealed by Google
720p and 1080i are the two main standards for is a:
broadcasting HDTV signals.
I. Prototype for an “augmented reality”
I. The "i" in 1080i means it presents fast- headset that would have the capabilities of

Y
AD LE
moving action much more clearly. a smartphone and more.
II. The “p” in 720p means fewer video frames II. It will include a camera, GPS functionality,
per second, thus it doesn't handle fast-

EM
and Internet connectivity, and voice-
moving video.
activation software.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
AC IC III. The operating system software used in the
(a) I only (b) II only glasses will be Symbian OS.
(c) Both (d) None IV. Google Glasses will also use voice input and
output.
2. Match the following
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
S ON
Lunar Missions Country
A. SMART-1 I. Japan (a) I and II (b) I, II and IV
B. Luna 2 II. USA (c) II, III and IV (d) I only
C. Hiten III. European Space 5. Read the following statements related to pulsar
Agency stars.
D. GRAIL IV. Soviet Union I. A pulsar is a highly magnetized, rotating
IA R

Codes: neutron star that emits a beam of electro-

magnetic radiation.
(a) A-III; B-II; C-I; D-IV
CH

II. These are very dense stars composed almost

(b) A-III; B-IV; C-I; D-II
entirely of neutrons and have a diameter
(c) A-IV; B-II; C-III; D-I of only 20 km (12 miles) or less.
(d) A-IV; B-II; C-I; D-III III. It emit only at X-ray or gamma-ray
3. Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is a suite of wavelengths.
standard network layer protocols for the
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Internet. The salient characteristics of IPV6 are:
(a) Only I and II
I. IPv6 has 132-bit (16-byte) source and
destination addresses. (b) Only II
II. It provides better support for QoS. (c) Only I and III
III. It provides an in-built security and (d) All of these
promotes interoperability between different
IPv6 implementations. 6. India's Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)
has become the member of the Multinational
Which of the above statements is/are correct? Design Evaluation Program (MDEP). Read the
(a) I only (b) I and II following statements related to MDEP and
choose the correct answer from the codes given
(c) II and III (d) All
below.
© Chronicle IAS Academy 1
 I. MDEP is a program through which Which of the above statements are incorrect?
national regulators share technical data and (a) Only I
standardize regulations and practices in
order to avoid duplication of work and (b) Only I and III
review new nuclear power reactor designs. (c) Only II and III
II. Participating nations are Canada, China, (d) None of the above
France, Russia, the UK and the USA only.
III. All licensing and regulatory decisions are 9. What is Surface Computing?
taken by MDEP and national regulators are (a) Surface computing is the ability to use
bonded by the order. computing capability without a pre-defined
location and/or connection to a network
Codes:
to publish and/or subscribe to information.

Y
AD LE
(a) I only
(b) Surface computing allows people to interact
(b) II and III
with content and information by using their

EM
(c) I and III hands and natural movements.
(d) I and II (c) Surface computing is a practice of using a
AC IC
7. Ultrasound waves or ultrasonic waves are the
terms used to describe elastic waves with
network of remote servers hosted on the
Internet to store, manage, and process data,
frequency greater than 20,000 Hz. Read the rather than a local server.
following statements related to ultrasound (d) Surface computing is term used in
waves.
computer science to refer the problem in
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I. It propagates through the medium (liquid computer science whose solution is not
and gaseous only) in a finite time as a predictable, uncertain and between 0 and 1.
mechanical sound wave by the vibrations
of molecules, atoms or any particles present. 10. Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a planned
II. The speed of propagation depends upon ground-based large segmented mirror reflecting
their frequencies. telescope, which will enable astronomers to
study objects in our own solar system and stars
IA R

III. They cannot be transmitted over long

distance as loss of energy is very high. throughout our Milky Way and its neighboring
galaxies, and forming galaxies at the very edge
Which of the above statements correctly defines of the observable Universe. The board of
CH

the characteristics of ultrasound waves? directors of the TMT Observatory Corporation

(a) I only has selected which of the following as the
(b) II only preferred site for the Thirty Meter Telescope?

(c) II and III (a) Cerro Armazones in Chile

(d) I and III (b) Mauna Kea in Hawai‘i

(c) San Pedro Mártir, Mexico
8. Lithium-ion batteries are nowadays very
popular in iPods, laptops, cellphones. The (d) Cerro Tolar, Chile
advantages of Lithium-ion batteries over other
batteries are: 11. Indo-French space cooperation is all set to soar
to new heights with the scheduled launch of a
I. The rate of self-discharge is much lower
satellite to study changes in the environment.
than that of other rechargeable cells such
Consider these statements regarding SARAL
as Ni-Cad and NiMH forms.
and identify incorrect statement/s;
II. Memory effect” is almost nil in Lithium-ion
I. The SARAL-Altika satellite, a joint project
batteries.
of the space agencies of India and France,
III. The energy density is very high as compared will complement the observations of the
to other batteries. seas made by current satellites.

2 © Chronicle IAS Academy

 II. India’s rocket, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle resources, thus making it a clean source of
(PSLV) will put the 450 kg Indo-French energy
satellite into orbit from its spaceport at
III. Shale gas is believed to change the energy
Sriharikota.
dynamics of the world as it will reduce the
III. SARAL is short for Satellite with ARgos and dependence on the middle eastern
ALtiKa, the two main devices on it which petroleum resources
have been provided by ISRO. Besides
building the spacecraft, French space agency (a) I only (b) II only
CNES will launch and operate it through (c) I and III (d) II and III
its life.
14. A quantum dot display is a type of display
IV. AltiKa is a Ka-band altimeter system, technology used in flat panel displays as
dedicated to accurate measurement of the an electronic visual display. Quantum dots (QD)

Y
rise in the sea levels.

AD LE
or semiconductor nanocrystals are a form of
Codes: light emitting technology and consist of nano-
scale crystals that can provide an alternative
(a) Only II and III

EM
for applications such as display technology.
(b) Only II and IV Which of the statements about QD displays are
(c) Only III
AC IC true?
(d) Only IV I. Quantum dot displays are able to yield a
greater portion of the visible spectrum than
12. Consider the following statements current technologies, thus enlarging the
I. Nishant is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle- colour range of the display
(UAV) developed by ADE (Aeronautical II. Quantum dot displays use 30 to 50% less
S ON

Development Establishment) of the DRDO. electrical power than an LCD, in large part
II. Rustom is a lightweight multirole fighter because nanocrystal displays don't need a
aircraft developed by DRDO. backlight
III. Tejas is a Medium Altitude Long Endurance III. Compared to LCD and OLED, the
unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) manufacturing cost of QD-LED is relatively
being developed by DRDO. low and development of novel and even
IA R

IV. Ulka is an air-launched expendable target more cost-efficient fabrication process is

drone developed by DRDO. possible, effectively bringing the cost even
lower
Which of these statements are true?
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(a) I and II
(a) I and III only
(b) II and III
(b) I, II and III
(c) I and III
(c) I and IV only
(d) All of the above
(d) II, III and IV
15. Consider the following statements and select
13. Shale gas is natural gas formed from being the correct answer?
trapped within shale formations. Shale gas has
become an increasingly important source of I. Black silicon is a semiconductor material,
natural gas since the start of this century. Which with very low reflectivity and high
among these statements regarding Shale gas are absorption of visible light.
true? II. Black silicon is produced by irradiating
I. Production of shale gas increased standard silicon with femtosecond laser
considerably after technological advances in pulses under a sulfur containing
directional and horizontal drilling, atmosphere.
microseismic imaging, and hydraulic III. Black silicon solar cells can absorb nearly
fracturing all of the sunlight that hits them, including
II. The greenhouse effect of Shale gas is infrared radiation, and produce twice the
minimal when compared to other petroleum electricity of regular solar panels.

© Chronicle IAS Academy 3

 Codes: 19. Which of these statements about Integrated
(a) I, II, only (b) II, III, only chips are
(c) I, III only (d) All I. An integrated circuit (IC) an entire electrical
circuit with numerous transistors, wires,
16. A quantum computer is a computation device and other electrical devices all built into a
that uses quantum mechanical phenomena, single square of semiconductor such as
such as superposition and entanglement, to silicon, germanium, antimony, etc.
perform operations on data. Quantum II. Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system
computers require data to be encoded in form of building very-large integrated circuits
of that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce
(a) bits (b) qubits a single "super-chip".
(c) 0 or 1 (d) Both (a) & (c) III. The cost of ICs over discrete circuits are low

Y
because the chips, with all their

AD LE
17. Open source software (OSS) is computer components, are printed as a unit
software with its source code made available by photolithography rather than being
and licensed with an open source license in constructed one transistor at a time.

EM
which the copyright holder provides the rights
to study, change and distribute the software to (a) Only 1 & 3 are correct
anyone and for any purpose. Which among the
AC IC (b) Only 2 & 3 are correct
following statements regarding open source
(c) Only 1 & 2 are correct
software are true?
I. GNU/Linux, Mozilla Firefox, Apache (d) All are correct
HTTP Server, Android etc. are examples of 20. Brain Fingerprinting is a forensic science
open source software technique to determine whether specific
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II. In general, open source software is information is stored in a subject's brain. Which
compact, and as a result requires less among the following statements are true
hardware power to accomplish the same regarding Brain Fingerprinting?
tasks as compared to closed/proprietary I. It does this by measuring electri-
software, thus bringing down the cost of cal brainwave responses to words, phrases,
hardware power required. or pictures that are presented on a
computer screen.
Codes:
IA R

(a) I only (b) II only II. The technique of Brain Fingerprinting is

controversial, because some people consider
(c) Both of the above (d) None of the above it unethical and invasive to electrically
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probe human thoughts and feelings.

18. In the context of recent outbreaks of Swine flu
consider the following statements and select the (a) I only (b) II only
correct answer? (c) Bothe of the above
I. Swine influenza, also called, swine flu, hog
(d) None of the above
flu and pig flu, is a respiratory disease,
caused by a strain of the influenza type A 21. Research into the health benefits of foods has
virus known as H1N1. been escalating during the last five to seven
II. Symptoms of Swine flu include fever, years, driven by consumers aware of the
cough, sore throat, body aches, headache, relationship of diet to optimal health, ever-
chills and fatigue. increasing health care costs and others
motivated to take control of their own health.
III. Swine influenza A (H1N1) virus has
Which of the following are correctly matched?
components of pig and bird influenza
viruses thus the transmission of the virus I. Nutraceutical - a food or food product that
from pigs to humans is most common and reportedly provides health and medical
always leads to human flu. benefits, including the prevention and
treatment of disease.
Codes:
II. Functional foods - are enriched with
(a) I, II only (b) II, III only vitamins and minerals, usually at a range
(c) I, III only (d) All up to 100 percent of the Dietary Reference
4 © Chronicle IAS Academy
 Intake, formally called the Recommended II. The density of heavy water is lower than
Daily Allowance for that nutrient. normal water.
III. Fortified foods - any product (other than III. Heavy water is usually radioactive.
tobacco) that is intended to supplement the
diet and contains vitamin, mineral, herb or Which of the above statements are true?
other botanical; an amino acid or (a) I and II (b) II and III
metabolite; an extract; or any combination (c) All of the above (d) None of the above
of the mentioned items.
24. Consider the following statement about the
Codes: recently launched Science, Technology and
(a) Only I (b) Only II Innovation Policy (STI) 2013 and select the
correct answer?
(c) Only III (d) All of the above

Y
I. One of the main aims of policy is to

AD LE
22. Bio-engineering researchers from Stanford promoting the spread of scientific temper
University have developed the first biological among the youth.
Internet or 'Bi-Fi'. Read the following statements

EM
II. A Strong and viable Science, Research and
regarding Bi-Fi: Innovation system for High Technology led
I. The technology uses an innocuous
AC IC path for India (SRISHTI) are the goal for
bacterium called M13 to increase the the STI policy.
complexity and amount of information that III. New policy seeks to raise the Gross
can be sent from cell to cell. Expenditure in Research and Development
II. M13 reproduces within its host, takes (GERD) to 2% from the present 1% of the
strands of DNA -- strands that engineers GDP in this decade by encouraging
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can control -- wrap them up one by one enhanced private sector contribution.
and send them out encapsulated within Codes:
proteins produced by M13 that can infect
(a) I, II only (b) II, III only
other cells.
(c) I, III only (d) All
Which of the above statements are true?
25. Which among the following is/ are produced
(a) I only (b) II only
by the Council of Scientific & Industrial
IA R

(c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II Research (CSIR)?

23. Heavy water is a form of water that contains a I. ‘Risorine’- indigenously drug formulation
against tuberculosis.
CH

larger than normal amount of the hydrogen

isotope deuterium rather than the II. First indigenous Wankel Engine powered
common hydrogen-1 isotope that makes up most unmanned Air Vehicle ‘NISHANT’.
of the hydrogen in normal water. Heavy water III. ‘Diastep’ - shelf footwear for low risk
is used in nuclear reactors. Read the following diabetic patients.
statements about the heavy water:
Codes:
I. Heavy water has molecular weight of
18amu. (a) I, II only (b) II, III only
(c) I, III only (d) All

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 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
CHRONICLE
(ANSWERS)
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

1. (d) 14. (a)

2. (b) 15. (d)

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3. (d) 16 (b)

EM
4. (b) 17. (c)
AC IC
5. (a) 18. (a)
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6. (a) 19. (b)

7. (b) 20. (c)

8. (d) 21. (a)

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9. (b) 22. (b)

CH

10. (b) 23. (d)

11. (c) 24. (b)

12. (c) 25. (d)

13. (c)

6 © Chronicle IAS Academy

 UPSC Questions CHRONICLE
(Science & Technology) IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

1. Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic 5. Mercury 6. Lead

Engineering) allows genes to be transferred. 7. Plutonium
1. across different species of plants.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
2. from animals to plants.
below.
3. from microorganisms to higher organisms.

Y
AD LE
(a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
Select the correct answer using the codes given (b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
below.
(c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only

EM
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
AC IC 5. The efforts to detect the existence of Higgs boson
2. Which of the following can be found as particle have become frequent news in the recent
pollutants in the drinking water in some parts past. What is /are the importance/importances
of India? of discovering this particle?
1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 1. It will enable us to understand as to why
elementary particles have mass.
S ON
3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde
5. Uranium 2. It will enables us in the near future to
develope the technology to transferring
Select the correct answer using the codes given matter from one point to another without
below. traversing the physical space between them.
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only 3. It will enable us to create better fuels for
(c) 1, 3 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 nuclear fission.
IA R

3. With reference to the usefulness of the by- Select the correct answer using the codes given
products of sugar industry, which of the below:
following statements is/are correct? (a) 1 only
CH

1. Bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for the (b) 2 and 3 only
generation of energy.
(c) 1 and 3 only
2. Molasses can be used as one of the
feedstocks for the production of synthetic (d) 1, 2 and 3
chemical fertilizers.
6. Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been used in
3. Molasses can be used for the production of rehabilitating degraded sites because mycorrhiza
ethanol. enables the plants to.
Select the correct answer using the codes given 1. resist drought and increase absorptive area
below. 2. tolerate extremes of PH
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 3. Resist disease infestation
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Select the correct answer using the codes given
4. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old below:
and used computers or their parts, which of (a) 1 only
the following are released into the environment
as e-waste? (b) 2 and 3 only
1. Beryllium 2. Cadmium (c) 1 and 3 only
3. Chromium 4. Heptachlor (d) 1, 2 and 3
© Chronicle IAS Academy 1
 7. Consider the following statements: Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
If there were no phenomenon of capillarity
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
1. It would be difficult to use a kerosene lamp.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
2. One would not be able to use a straw to
consume a soft drink. 11. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What
3. The blotting paper would fail to function. is its importance?

4. The big trees that we see around would 1. It is a two-dimensional material and has
not have grown on the Earth. good electrical conductivity.
2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest
Which of the statements given above are correct? materials tested so far.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only 3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high

Y
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(c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 optical transparency.

8. Consider the following kinds of organisms: 4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes'

required for touch screens, LCDs and

EM
1. Bacteria organic LEDs.
2. Fungi
Which of the statements given above are correct?
3. Flowering plants
AC IC (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only
Some species of which of the above kinds of (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
organisms are employed as biopesticides?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 12. With reference to ‘stem cells’, frequently in the
news, which of the following statements is/are
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(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 correct?
9. Biomass gasification is considered to be one of 1. Stem cells can be derived from mammals only.
the sustainable solutions to the power crisis in 2. Stem cells can be used for screening new
India. In this context, which of the following drugs.
statement is/are correct?
3. Stem cells can be used for medical
1. Coconut shells, groundnut shells and rice therapies.
husk can be used in biomass gasification.
IA R

2. The combustible gases generated from Select the correct answer using the codes given
biomass gasification consist of hydrogen below:
and carbon dioxide only. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
CH

3. The combustible gases generated from (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

biomass gasification can be used for direct
heat generation but not in internal 13. A team of scientists at Brookhaven National
combustion engines. Laboratory including those from India created
the heaviest anti-matter (anti-helium nucleus).
Select the correct answer using the codes given What is/are the implication/implications of the
below: creation of anti-matter?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 1. It will make mineral prospecting and oil
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 exploration easier and cheaper.
2. It will help probe the possibility of the
10. What is the role of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in existence of stars and galaxies made of anti-
the water purification systems? matter.
1. It inactivates/kills the harmful micro- 3. It will help understand the evolution of the
organisms in water. universe.
2. It removes all the undesirable odours from
water. Select the correct answer using the codes given
below:
3. It quickens the sedimentation of solid
particles, removes turbidity and improves (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
the clarity of water. (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

2 © Chronicle IAS Academy

14. Which of the following is/are cited by the 17. What are the reasons for the people's resistance
scientists as evidence/evidences for the to the introduction of Bt brinjal in India?
continued expansion of universe? 1. Bt brinjal has been created by inserting a
1. Detection of microwaves in space. gene from a soil fungus into its genome.
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in 2. The seeds of Bt brinjal are terminator seeds
space. and therefore, the farmers have to buy the
3. Movement of asteroids in space. seeds before every season from the seed
companies.
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in
space. 3. There is an apprehension that the
consumption of Bt brinjal may have adverse
Select the correct answer using the codes given impact on health.
below:

Y
4. There is some concern that the introduction

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(a) 1 and 2 of Bt brinjal may have adverse effect on
(b) 2 only the biodiversity.

EM
(c) 1, 3 and 4 Select the correct answer using the codes given
below:
(d) None of the above can be cited as evidence
AC IC (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
15. Electrically charged particles from space
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
travelling at speeds of several hundred km/sec
can severely harm living beings if they reach 18. Other than resistance to pests, what are the
the surface of the Earth. What prevents them prospects for which genetically engineered
from reaching the surface of the Earth? plants have been created?
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(a) The Earth’s magnetic field diverts them 1. To enable them to withstand drought.
towards its poles.
2. To increase the nutritive value of the
(b) Ozone layer around the Earth reflects them produce.
back to outer space.
3. To enable them to grow and do
(c) Moisture in the upper layers of atmosphere photosynthesis in spaceships and space
prevents them from reaching the surface of stations.
IA R

the Earth.
4. To increase their shelf life.
(d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given
above is correct. Select the correct answer using the codes given
CH

below:
16. To meet its rapidly growing energy demand,
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only
some opine that India should pursue research
and development on thorium as the future fuel (c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
of nuclear energy. In this context, what
19. Satellites used for telecommunication relay are
advantage does thorium hold over uranium?
kept in a geostationary orbit. A satellite is said
1. Thorium is far more abundant in nature to be in such an orbit when:
than uranium.
1. The orbit is geosynchronous.
2. On the basis of per unit mass of mined
2. The orbit is circular.
mineral, thorium can generate more energy
compared to natural uranium. 3. The orbit lies in the plane of the Earth's
equator.
3. Thorium produces less harmful waste
compared to uranium. 4. The orbit is at an altitude of 22,236 km.

Which of the statements given above is/are Select the correct answer using the codes given
correct? below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 (c) 2 and 4 Only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

© Chronicle IAS Academy 3

20. At present, scientists can determine the (b) Bluetooth is used for Wireless Local Area
arrangement or relative positions of genes or Networks, (WLAN) only, whereas Wi-Fi is
DNA sequences on a chromosome. How does used for Wireless Wide Area Networks
this knowledge benefit us? (WWAN) only.
1. It is possible to know the pedigree of (c) When information is transmitted between
livestock. two devices using Bluetooth technology, the
2. It is possible to understand the causes of all devices have to be in the line of sight of
human diseases. each other, but when Wi-Fi technology is
used the devices need not be in the line of
3. It is possible to develop disease-resistant
sight of each other.
animal breeds.
(d) The statemen (a) and (b) given above are
Which of the statements given above is/are correct in this context.

Y
correct?

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(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 Only 24. What is the difference between a CFL and an
LED lamp?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. To produce light, a CFL uses mercury

EM
21. Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of vapour' and phosphor while an LED lamp
sustainable energy. Why? uses semiconductor material.
AC IC
1. They use living organisms as catalysts to
generate electricity from certain substrates.
2. They use a variety of inorganic materials
2. The average life span of a CFL is much
longer than that of an LED lamp.
3. A CFL is less energy-efficient as compared
as substrates. to an LED lamp.
3. They can be installed in waste water
S ON
Which of the statements given above is/are
treatment plants to cleanse water and correct?
produce electricity.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the Statements given above is/are (c) l and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 25. A new optical disc format known as the Blu-
ray Disc (BD) is becoming popular. In what
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
IA R

way is it different from the traditional DVD?

22. The Function of heavy water in a nuclear 1. DVD supports Standard Definition video
reactor is to. while BD supports High Definition video.
CH

(a) Slow down the speed of neutrons. 2. Compared to a DVD, the BD format has
(b) Increase the speed of neutrons. several times more storage capacity.
(c) Cool down the reactor. 3. Thickness of BD is 2-4 mm while that of
DVD is 1-2 mm.
(d) Stop the nuclear reaction.
Which of the statements given above is /are
23. What is the difference between Bluetooth and
correct?
Wi-Fi devices?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(a) Bluetooth uses 2-4GHz .radio frequency
band, whereas Wi-Fi can use 2-4 GHz or (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
5GHz frequency band.

4 © Chronicle IAS Academy

 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
UPSC QUESTIONS
CHRONICLE
(ANSWERS)
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

1. (a) 14. (b)

2. (a) 15. (a)

Y
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3. (d) 16 (d)

EM
4. (b) 17. (b)
AC IC
5. (a) 18. (c)
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6. (d) 19. (a)

7. (d) 20. (d)

8. (d) 21. (d)

IA R

9. (a) 22. (a)

CH

10. (a) 23. (c)

11. (c) 24. (c)

12. (b) 25. (b)

13. (c)

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