Direct Digital Synthesis
Primer
Ken Gentile, Systems Engineer
ken.gentile@analog.com
David Brandon, Applications Engineer
David.Brandon@analog.com
Ted Harris, Applications Engineer
Ted.Harris@analog.com
May 2003
Contents
I. Introduction to DDS
II. Fundamental DDS Architecture
III. Spectral Characteristics
IV. DDS as a Building Block
DDS Primer - May 2002 2
Introduction to DDS
Definition of DDS:
A digital technique for generating a sine
wave from a fixed-frequency clock source.
DDS Primer - May 2002 3
Introduction to DDS
DDS “advantages”:
The sine wave FREQUENCY is digitally
tunable (typically with sub-Hertz resolution).
The sine wave PHASE is digitally adjustable,
as well, with only a slight increase in circuit
complexity.
Since DDS is digital and the frequency &
phase are determined numerically, there are
NO ERRORS from drift due to temperature
or aging of components.
DDS Primer - May 2002 4
Introduction to DDS
DDS “restrictions”:
The output FREQUENCY must be less than
or equal to 1/2 the clock source frequency.
The sine wave AMPLITUDE is fixed. This
can be modified by additional circuitry.
Since the sine wave is digitally generated by
using sampling techniques, the user must
be willing to accept a certain amount of
DISTORTION. That is, the sine wave is not
spectrally “pure”.
DDS Primer - May 2002 5
Fundamental DDS Architecture
Basic DDS building blocks:
Accumulator
a digital block consisting of an adder with
feedback
Phase-to-Amplitude converter
a digital block that converts digital phase values to
digital amplitude values
DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter)
a digital/analog hybrid that converts digital
“numbers” to a scaled analog quantity (voltage or
current)
Converts the sampled sine wave generated by the
digital blocks to a continuous (analog) signal.
DDS Primer - May 2002 6
Fundamental DDS Architecture
A Basic DDS
Accum ulator
Angle
Tuning N-bits P-bits D-bits Sam pled
to
W ord DAC Sine
Am plitude
IN W ave
Converter
N-bits
CLOCK
DDS Primer - May 2002 7
Fundamental DDS Architecture
Sine Wave Synthesis
Accumulator
Angle
Tuning Sampled
N-bits P-bits to D-bits
Word Amplitude
DAC Sine
IN Wave
Converter
N-bits
- Amplitude +
2N 2P
Phase
Phase
0 0
Phase Truncated Phase Angle to Amplitude Quantized Amplitude Sampled Sine Wave
Transformation
DDS Primer - May 2002 8
Fundamental DDS Architecture
The “Phase Wheel” Concept: 8
+1
C = 32
5
4 Instantaneous value of
the accumulator output.
•Accumulator capacity 3
2T T 2
T = 5 7T
A M P L I T U D E
1
•Tuning word value P H A S E
0
3T 0
N = 5
16 32 = 2N = C
6T 31
•Accumulator bits
4T
5T
For this particular case, one
revolution around the phase -1
wheel requires 6.4 clock cycles 24
(C/T=6.4).
DDS Primer - May 2002 9
Fundamental DDS Architecture
Determining the output frequency (Fo) of a DDS
Fo depends on 3 parameters:
Fs -- the DDS clock frequency
C -- the accumulator capacity
• where C = 2N
T -- the tuning word value
• where 0 < T < C/2
Definition of frequency:
f = δΦ/δt (i.e., the derivative of phase w.r.t. time)
DDS Primer - May 2002 10
Fundamental DDS Architecture
DDS output frequency (cont’d)
δt is the duration of a DDS time step, namely 1/Fs.
δt = 1/Fs
δΦ is the phase angle change in time interval, δt.
Note that the tuning word is the amount by which
the accumulator increments on each DDS time
step (δt).
Therefore, δΦ is the ratio of the tuning word to the
capacity of the accumulator (T/C).
Since C=2N, we have:
δΦ = T/ 2N
DDS Primer - May 2002 11
Fundamental DDS Architecture
DDS output frequency (cont’d)
Combining these results gives the frequency (Fo) of
the output sine wave as:
Fo = FsT / 2N
DDS Primer - May 2002 12
Fundamental DDS Architecture
How Many Phase Bits?
Accumulator
Angle
Tuning Sampled
N-bits P-bits to D-bits
Word Amplitude
DAC Sine
IN Wave
Converter
N-bits
CLOCK
The AAC must generate amplitude values that are
accurate to 1/2 LSB of the DAC. To accomplish this,
P requires at least 4 more bits than the DAC
DDS Primer - May 2002 13
Fundamental DDS Architecture
Amplitude
sin(θ)
1/2 LSB = 2-(D+1)
θ
0 2π
DDS Primer - May 2002 14
Spectral Characteristics
DDS is a “sampled data system”
Sampled nature of DAC output produces
replicated spectra (“images”) of the output
frequency.
Zero-order-hold characteristic of the DAC
causes the spectrum to be attenuated
according to the SIN(x)/x (or SINC) envelope.
DDS Primer - May 2002 15
Spectral Characteristics
Spectral Consequences of Sampling
M agnitude
B a seb an d
S p ectrum
C ontinuous S pectrum
f
0 F m ax
M agnitude
S am pled S pectrum (Ideal)
B a seb an d
im age im ag e im ag e
S p ectru m
f
0 Fs 2F s 3F s
F m ax
N yquist (F s /2 > F m ax )
DDS Primer - May 2002 16
Spectral Characteristics
“Ideal” sampled spectrum occurs when the
sample pulses are infinitely narrow.
• That is, in the time domain the width of the sample
pulses (Ts) approaches 0.
If the sample pulses have finite width (Ts > 0),
then SIN(x)/x (or SINC) distortion occurs.
In the frequency domain, the SINC
“envelope” is characterized by lobes with
null points at frequencies that are multiples
of 1/Ts.
DDS Primer - May 2002 17
Spectral Characteristics
SINC Envelope
sin(x)/x
Magnitude
SINC Envelope
f
0 1/Ts 2/Ts 3/Ts 4/Ts
DDS Primer - May 2002 18
Spectral Characteristics
In a DDS system, the DAC is clocked at the
same rate as the accumulator.
This is the DDS sample rate, Fs.
Thus, the minimum width of a sample pulse
produced by the DAC is 1/Fs, which is Ts.
This means that in a DDS, the nulls of the
SINC envelope are coincident with multiples
of the DDS sample rate.
DDS Primer - May 2002 19
Spectral Characteristics
SINC Envelope
Magnitude
SINC Envelope
f
0 Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs 4Fs
DDS Primer - May 2002 20
Spectral Characteristics
SUMMARY
A DDS is a sampled system
A sampled system produces images of the baseband
spectrum at multiples of the sample rate.
The finite pulse width resulting from the operation of the
DAC distorts the spectrum by attenuating the baseband
signal and its images based on the SINC envelope.
DDS Primer - May 2002 21
Spectral Characteristics
The output of a basic DDS is a single tone
(i.e., a sine wave at a specific frequency).
Since the DDS is a sampled system, the
actual output signal is the desired tone PLUS
its images.
The images must be filtered out in order to
provide a spectrally “pure” sine wave.
DDS Primer - May 2002 22
Spectral Characteristics
Pure vs Synthesized Sine Wave
Magnitude
Fo: desired DDS output frequency
Fs: DDS clock frequency
f
Fo Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs 4Fs
Pure Sine Wave
Magnitude
SINC Envelope
2Fo
2Fo
Fundamental Image 2Fo
2Fo
f
Fo Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs 4Fs
Sampled Sine Wave
DDS Primer - May 2002 23
Spectral Characteristics
ODD and EVEN Nyquist Zones
Magnitude
Fundamental
Image
f
Fo Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs 4Fs
Nyquist Zone 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 etc.
DDS Primer - May 2002 24
Spectral Characteristics
ODD and EVEN Nyquist Zones:
A Nyquist zone spans a frequency range of Fs/2.
ODD zones
A change in the frequency of the fundamental results in
an equal change in frequency of the half image
EVEN zones
A change in frequency of the fundamental results in an
equal but opposite (negative) change in the frequency of
the half image
DDS Primer - May 2002 25
Spectral Characteristics
Filtering the DDS Output
Accumulator
Angle
Tuning "Pure"
N-bits P-bits to D-bits
Word Amplitude
DAC RCF Sine
IN Wave
Converter
N-bits
Sampled
Sine
Wave
Magnitude
Reconstruction Low Pass Filter
Reconstruction filter removes the unwanted images
f
Fo Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs 4Fs
DDS Primer - May 2002 26
Spectral Characteristics
Additional artifacts in the DDS output spectrum:
Phase truncation spurs
DAC nonlinearity
DAC switching noise
DDS Primer - May 2002 27
Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs
Phase Truncation Error
(8-bit accumulator truncated to 5 bits with a tuning word of 6)
64
8
E3
E2
E1
128 16 0 0
24
192
DDS Primer - May 2002 28
Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs
phase truncation spurs
• Rigorous analysis is beyond the scope of this presentation.
• However, a practical explanation follows.
DDS Primer - May 2002 29
Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs
• The spectral characteristics of phase error are rooted in the
time domain behavior of the truncated phase bits.
• The behavior of the truncated phase bits can be thought of as
a mini-accumulator of width B with an initial tuning word
that is composed of only those bit locations that are
truncated.
DDS Primer - May 2002 30
Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs
B
T= 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
Accumulator Angle
20 8 to
T
Amplitude
DAC
20 Converter
Ideal Synthesizer
Accumulator Angle
20 20 to
T
Amplitude
DAC
20
Converter
Noise Source
Accumulator Angle
12 12 to
B
Amplitude
Scaler DAC
12
Converter
DDS Primer - May 2002 31
Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs
• The “noise” source is what generates the phase truncation
spurs.
• The behavior of the “noise” accumulator is analogous to that
of the ideal accumulator, but with its own tuning word.
• The phase error accumulates up to the CAPACITY of the
noise accumulator. At which point it “rolls over” and the
accumulating process resumes.
DDS Primer - May 2002 32
Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs
Phase Error “Sawtooth” for an Arbitrary Tuning Word
"Noise"
Accumulator Period of
Value Sawtooth
2B
Repetition begins here
0 Clock "Tics"
0
Grand Repitition Rate (GRR)
DDS Primer - May 2002 33
Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs
• Not to worry...
• A properly designed DDS forces the magnitude of the
largest truncation error spur to be less than the 1/2 LSB
error of the DAC.
• Truncation spur energy is comparable to the energy
contained in the integrated DAC noise floor.
DDS Primer - May 2002 34
Spectral Characteristics
DAC Nonlinearity
• An “ideal” DAC translates the digital codes at the input to
output levels along a straight line.
Normalized
Output
Level
0.5
0 Input Code
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
DDS Primer - May 2002 35
Spectral Characteristics
DAC Nonlinearity
• A “typical” DAC tends to deviate from a straight line.
• This nonlinearity leads to harmonic distortion.
Normalized Output Level
0.5
Output levels deviate from straight line
0 Input Code
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
DDS Primer - May 2002 36
Spectral Characteristics
DAC Nonlinearity
• The nonlinear transfer function produces harmonics of the
fundamental which are aliased into the first Nyquist zone.
• First, consider the UNSAMPLED spectrum, below.
Magnitude
Fundamental
2nd harmonic
3rd harmonic
etc...
f
Fo Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs
Harmonic Distortion (unsampled system)
DDS Primer - May 2002 37
Spectral Characteristics
DAC Nonlinearity
• Since the DAC is a sampled system, the harmonics must be
mapped into the Nyquist region.
Magnitude
-Nyquist Nyquist
Negative Fundamental
image
of fund. 2nd harmonic is in-band and NOT aliased in this example
and 2nd
harmonic mapped harmonics (aliases)
unmapped harmonics
f
Fs 2Fs 3Fs
0 Sampling Maps Harmonics Into the Nyquist Region
DDS Primer - May 2002 38
Spectral Characteristics
DAC Nonlinearity
• Sampling causes images of the Nyquist region to appear at
multiples of Fs.
(Attenuation due to the SINC envelope is not shown)
Magnitude
-Nyquist Nyquist
f
0 Fs 2Fs 3Fs
Nyquist Region is Imaged at Multiples of Fs
DDS Primer - May 2002 39
Spectral Characteristics
DAC Switching Noise
• High slew rate of digital signals internal to the DAC leads to
noise transients being coupled to the DAC output pin(s).
• Other high speed signals in close proximity to the DAC from
digital circuits on the same silicon die can also couple into
the DAC.
• This results in high speed switching transients appearing at
the DAC output as a source of noise and further degrades
overall performance.
DDS Primer - May 2002 40
DDS as a Building Block
The fact that a DDS internally generates a digital
sinusoidal wave can be used to great advantage.
Combining the digital DDS core with additional signal
processing blocks makes possible:
Frequency “agile” clock generators
Frequency and/or Phase “agile” modulators
• FSK, PSK, QPSK, n-QAM, OFDM
Frequency swept (chirp) modulators
DDS Primer - May 2002 41
DDS as a Building Block
Clock Generator
A DDS-based Clock Generator
Frequency Clock IN (f) PLL SINEWAVE:
Reference (M) - High frequency resolution
- Programmable
Mxf
CLOCK:
- Precise frequency
COMPARATOR - Low jitter
COS Reconst
DDS Core DAC Clock OUT
Filter
Tuning Word
SIN
(digital) DC Reference
DDS Primer - May 2002 42
DDS as a Building Block
Digital Modulator
A DDS-based modulator requires some additional digital
signal processing blocks:
• Digital multipliers
• Digital adders
• Input logic to accept digital modulation data
• Data rate translator (optional)
DDS Primer - May 2002 43
DDS as a Building Block
Digital Modulator
FSK Modulator
Frequency Clock IN (f) PLL
Reference (M)
Mxf
COS
Tuning Word #1 0 DDS Core DAC FSK Out
(f1)
MUX
SIN
Tuning Word #2 1 (digital)
(f2)
FSK Data
(0,1)
f2
f1
DDS Primer - May 2002 44
DDS as a Building Block
Digital Modulator
PSK Modulator
Frequency Clock IN (f) PLL
Reference (M)
0 0 Mxf
Phase Offset
MUX
Phase Word 1
COS
DAC PSK Out
Accum AAC
SIN
PSK Data
(0,1)
Shifted Phase
DDS Core
Normal Phase
Tuning Word
DDS Primer - May 2002 45
DDS as a Building Block
Digital Modulator
Quadrature Modulator
Frequency Clock IN PLL
Reference (f) (M)
Mxf
DDS Core
Tuning Word
(carrier=ωc)
(digital)
SIN(ωc) COS(ωc)
"I" Signal
Modulated
DAC Output
"Q" Signal
Sampler
Digital Modulator
DDS Primer - May 2002 46
DDS as a Building Block
Quadrature Modulation Rule
The modulation signal (I/Q) must be sampled at the
same rate as the DDS clock.
• If the modulation signal is sampled at a rate lower than the
DDS clock, then rate up-conversion (interpolation) is
required to synchronize the sampled modulation data with
the sampled carrier (the DDS output).
• Furthermore, the DDS and modulation data sample rates
should have, at the very least, a rational ratio (i.e., P/Q
where P and Q are integers).
• An integer ratio offers better hardware efficiency than a
rational ratio.
• A power-of-2 ratio is the most hardware efficient of all.
DDS Primer - May 2002 47
DDS as a Building Block
Digital Modulator
Quadrature Up-Converter
Frequency Clock IN PLL
Reference (f) (M)
Mxf
DDS Core
P/Q Tuning Word
(carrier=ωc) (digital)
Input Output
SIN(ωc) COS(ωc)
Clock Clock
Digitized "I" Data
Modulated
DAC Output
Digitized "Q" Data
Interpolator Digital Modulator
DDS Primer - May 2002 48
DDS as a Building Block
Chirp Modulator
Chirp Modulator:
• A form of FM (frequency modulation)
• Requires the output signal to start at one frequency and
gradually “sweep” to another.
• For a DDS, this means repeatedly changing the tuning word
value from a value of T1 to T2 with a step size (∆T) such that
the “sweep” time requirement is met.
• A dual-accumulator DDS effectively accomplishes the
“frequency sweep” function.
DDS Primer - May 2002 49
DDS as a Building Block
Chirp Modulator
Frequency Clock IN (Fs) PLL
Reference (M)
STOP
STOP
Frequency M x Fs
Tuning Word Logic
∆f COS CHIRP
DELTA
Tuning DAC Out
Accum Word Accum
Frequency AAC
Tuning Word #2 #1 SIN
DDS Core
START
STEP RATE Frequency
Clock Tuning Word
DDS Primer - May 2002 50
