3.

ALTERNATING CURRENT
Main things to learn • Generation of alternating EMF
• Waveform and parameters
• Average and root-mean-square values
• Phase and phase difference
• Power in a.c. circuits

Source of alternating EMF

e = E m sin ω t
e ~ ω - angular frequency (see later)
e - instantaneous value of the EMF
e is a function of time e(t)
Em - amplitude of alternating EMF
General rule about notations
Instantaneous values are denoted by lowercase letters: e, u, i
Amplitudes are denoted by uppercase letters: E, U, I
Question:
Why sinω t, not any other periodic function?
 GENERATION OF ALTERNATING EMF
Rotation Principle of a generator
axis
A frame of area S is rotated
with angular speed ω
B in magnetic field of induction B

θ - angle between the induction and the

normal to the plane
θ =ωt
Magnetic field Φ flux through the frame is
Φ = BS cos θ = BS cos ω t
Top view
B EMF of the electromagnetic induction
dΦ
θ ei = − = ω BS sin ω t = E m sin ω t
dt
Alternating EMF is directly related to
Normal to the circular motion
the frame
 e WAVEFORM
T Definitions
Em Waveform - varying voltage or
current as a function of time
Cycle - each repetition recurring
t at equal intervals
Period T - duration of one cycle
Frequency f -- number of cycles
in one second (hertz - Hz)

ω t = 2π ω t = 4π f =1
T
The circular motion and periodic processes are described by the same function
e = E m sin ω t
ω - angular speed for the circular motion or f =ω
2π
angular frequency for a periodic process
(radian / sec) T = 2π
ω
 PARAMETERS OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
e
e = E m sin ω t Parameters used to describe
alternating quantities:
Em
EMF, voltage, current
Ep-p
t Em - amplitude (maximum
value)

Ep-p - peak-to-peak value

Ep-p = 2Em

Also, some average values are required to describe alternating current

However
Average value of e = Em sinω t equals zero!
Average of the absolute value of e (average over a half-period) is useless
The effective (root-mean-square - r.m.s.) value of voltage or current
is typically used
 ROOT-MEAN-SQUARE VALUES
Root-mean-square (r.m.s.), or effective value of alternating current or voltage:
equivalent value of direct current or voltage which would produce
the same heating effect in the same resistor
A e = E m sin ω t ; u AB = U m sin ω t

e ~ R i=
Um
R
sin ω t = I m sin ω t

B Heating power
2 2  1 cos 2ω t 
P = i ⋅ u = I mU m sin ω t = I m R  − 
2 2 
2
Average value of power: Pav = 1 I m R = I rms R
2
2
Im Um
∴ I = I rms = = 0.707 ⋅ I m ; U = U rms = = 0.707 ⋅ U m
2 2
If not said otherwise, values of current or voltage are implied to be
root-mean-square (effective) values.
Notations of amplitudes without subscripts are reserved
for root-mean-square values
 PHASE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE
Two alternating quantities can have the same frequency,
e but their cycles may start at different moments of time
u = U m sin ω t
t i = I m sin(ω t + ϕ )
The argument of the sine function
(ω t+ ϕ ) is called phase.
i It is equivalent to the full rotation
angle for the circular motion.
t The difference ϕ between the
phases of two alternating
quantities - phase difference

If the current cycle starts before the voltage cycle (ϕ > 0) -

ϕ current leads voltage, or voltage lags current
ω If the current cycle starts after the voltage cycle (ϕ < 0) -
current lags voltage, or voltage leads current
Phase is a function of time while phase difference is constant
 POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS
If current and voltage in a circuit are in phase,
2  1 cos 2ω t 
P = i ⋅ u = I mU m sin ω t = I mU m  − 
2 2 
I mU m
Pav = = I ⋅ U (r.m.s. values)
2
If they are not in phase,
cosϕ - cos(2ω t + ϕ )
P = i ⋅ u = I mU m sin ω t ⋅ sin(ω t + ϕ ) = I mU m
2
I mU m cos ϕ
Pav = = I ⋅ U ⋅ cos ϕ - active power [watt]
2
S = I ⋅ U - apparent (maximum possible) power [volt ampere]

The active power may be much smaller than the apparent power

active power
cos ϕ = - power factor ≤1
apparent power
 IMPORTANCE OF THE PHASE DIFFERENCE
A major problem in the analysis of a.c. circuits is
due to the effect of capacitors and inductors
which results in phase differences
For example, we need to add two voltages u1 and u2
If the voltages u1 = U1sinω t and u2 = U2sinω t are in phase
(their phase difference ϕ is zero), we need to add amplitudes
If they are not in phase (ϕ ≠ 0), we need to add both amplitudes and phases
u1 = U1 sin ω t ; u 2 = U 2 sin(ω t + ϕ )
u1 + u 2 = U1 sin ω t + U 2 sin(ω t + ϕ ) =
= (U1 + U 2 cos ϕ ) ⋅ sin ω t + U 2 sin ϕ ⋅ cos ω t =
= (U1 + U 2 cos ϕ ) 2 + (U 2 sin ϕ ) 2 sin(ω t + β )

-1 U 2 sin ϕ 
β = tan  
 U1 + U 2 cos ϕ 
New methods of analysis are required