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Early Child Development and Care

Volume 187, 2017 - Issue 3-4: Research in Young Children’s Literacy and Language
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Editorial

Literacy and language: new developments

in research, theory, and practice
Olivia N. Saracho
Pages 299-304 | Published online: 02 Mar 2017
 Download citation

 https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1282235

In this article

 Theoretical frameworks transformations

 Conclusion
 References



Click to increase image size
The importance of the early years in the young children’s lives and the rigid literacy achievement
inequality among all children (e.g. different economic levels, ages, abilities, disabilities, cultures)
that presently exist provide both a stimulating and amazing time for Early Child Development
and Care to publish a special issue on research in young children’s language and literacy and
development. The present period of accountability in the early childhood classrooms with the No
Child Left Behind Act (2001No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, Title I, Part
B, Subpart 1, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002) [Google Scholar]) places a perplexing amount of demands
on early childhood education teachers and a transformation in disseminating information, using
computers, and social media technologies that have gained access to all segments of society
makes this issue essential. Many perceive that the early childhood classroom is a weak substitute
for the world of games, chat rooms, virtual worlds, and other electronic media. Social and
sociological energies persist to rise from contemporary types of media, diverse cultures and
languages, concerns about security, instabilities in the global ecology, unreliable economies, and
conflicts. Research motivates early childhood education and other disciplines (e.g. child
development, psychology, educational psychology, other related fields) to continue changing.
These disciplines need to sustain their scientific reliability in the constant challenges of the
modern time. It is essential that these disciplines examine, improve, and refine theories related to
research in young children’s language and literacy development. Early childhood education
settings are complex, which require them to have an easy stability between the methodological
rigour in the research designs and studying children in natural, acceptable, and valid learning
settings. Some interdisciplinary teams conduct early childhood education studies that deviate in
methodological procedures among disciplines. Nevertheless, each scientific undertaking has both
a resilient empirical groundwork and a persuasive analytical rationalization for research and
practical applications.

Throughout the evolution of the special issue of Early Child Development and Care, all of these
principles were kept in mind. The manuscripts reported new data and empirical analyses that
advanced theory of language and literacy. Researchers used different methodologies in
conducting their study, but they had both a sound empirical underpinning and a captivating
analytical rationalization of the results. Researchers used several methodological methods (e.g.
quantitative, qualitative) that fully described format (1) ‘the complete concept of the study, (2)
the achievement of the study, and (3) the description of the study’ (Jalongo &
Saracho, 2016Jalongo, M. R., & Saracho, O. N. (2016). Writing for publication: Transitions and
tools that support scholars’ success. New York, NY: Springer.[Crossref], , [Google Scholar],
p. 134) in an appropriate manner based on the study’s methodology. The manuscripts included a
range of topics such as dual language learners, second language learners, Latino immigrant
children, children who have hearing disabilities, parents’ and teachers’ beliefs about language
development, early literacy skills of toddlers, shared book reading, language and literacy
interventions, multimodalities in early literacies, writing and early literacy development, Reggio
Emilia, family literacy, and many others. Studies were conducted in various early childhood
settings such as child care, nursery school, Head Start, kindergarten, and primary grades. The
subjects in the studies represented the pluralism of the globe – it is a pluralism of language,
backgrounds, ethnicity, abilities, and disabilities.
Gathered in this volume are results of studies and researchers’ ideas that describe how (1) the
children acquire language and literacy and (2) their knowledge in language and literacy progress
from infancy through the preschool years and to the early years of school. Based on the results of
the studies, all authors offer research and practical applications in early childhood education.
Researchers can use the studies in the special issue to conduct future studies that contribute to
theory, while practitioners can use the studies’ results to promote and support the children’s
language and literacy in their classrooms.

This special issue of Early Child Development and Care was a joint effort of an editorial team
working together to develop a high quality special volume on research in language and literacy.
The team consisted of the journal’s (Early Child Development and Care) editor, Roy Evans;
Guest Editor, Olivia N. Saracho; and reviewers. Both the editor and guest editor supervised the
manuscript review and revision process to ensure that the studies were based on a sound
theoretical framework.

Theoretical frameworks
transformations

This special issue is grounded on the profound transformations that have occurred in the fields of
early childhood education, child development, psychology, language arts, emergent literacy, and
literacy education. Initially, the conservative understanding of the field was that children under
six years of age should not be provided with formal reading instruction. Currently, as suggested
in this special issue, research and theory propose that from the beginning, young children need to
actively be involved in language development experiences that will ultimately guide these
children to become proficient readers. Instead of delaying instruction until young children
mature, they can be provided with developmentally appropriate instruction that corresponds to
the children’s developmental level that helps them acquire new proficiency in both oral and
written language.

Reforms in the sources of early childhood practice have modified the field of early childhood
education. They involve transformations in (1) developmental theories associated with language,
literacy, and cognition, (2) children in early childhood settings, and (3) the nature of language
and literacy instruction. Each of these is briefly described in the following sections to provide a
perspective for the contents in this special issue.

Developmental theory
Initially, early childhood education teachers were frequently forbidden to offer any print material
in the classroom, because it was assumed that this material would only pressure children to start
reading prematurely or frustrate the children who were not yet ‘ready’ to read. The traditional
knowledge of that period was that children would only be prepared to learn how to read when
they reached the mental age of six- and one half years. This was based on a classic study of the
1930s by Morpell and Washburne (1931Morpell, M. V., & Washburne, C. (1931). When should
children begin to read?Elementary School Journal, 31, 496–503.
doi: 10.1086/456609[Crossref], , [Google Scholar]) and Arnold Gesell’s
(1940Gesell, A. (1940). The first five years of life. New York, NY: Harper & Bros. [Google
Scholar]) theories on a maturationist view of development. Throughout his professional life,
Gesell (1940Gesell, A. (1940). The first five years of life. New York, NY: Harper &
Bros. [Google Scholar]) searched for the children’s progressive norms that would explain the
progression of their development. His theory indicated that development depends on maturation.
Effective instruction should follow this developmental sequence. Any type of instruction that is
introduced prematurely would cause the children to be disillusioned and frustrated. The
children’s readiness for learning needs to be identified prior to presenting instruction. Based on
the results of these studies, before beginning formal reading instruction, the children’s readiness
was assessed through several reading readiness tests and direct observations.

Prior to the 1960’s, limited studies had examined pre-first grade literacy. Then in the 1960s
studies started to surface addressing the reading readiness paradigm and the outdated belief that
literacy development occurred through formal reading instruction in school. Later, Durkin’s
(1966Durkin, D. (1966). Children who read early: Two longitudinal
studies. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. [Google Scholar]) study showed that children
were reading earlier than first grade and that the reading readiness paradigm was theoretically
and rationally inappropriate. Other researchers supported Durkin’s results. Clay (1975Clay, M.
M. (1975). What did I write? Aukland: Heinemann. [Google Scholar]) was one of the researchers
who supported these results and proposed that the term ‘emergent literacy’ be used rather than
‘reading readiness’ (Clay, 1966Clay, M. M. (1966). Emergent reading behaviour(Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). University of Auckland, New Zealand. [Google Scholar]). She stated that
no result ‘suggests that contact with printed language forms should be withheld from a five-year-
old child on the ground that he is immature’ (Clay, 1975Clay, M. M. (1975). What did I
write? Aukland: Heinemann. [Google Scholar], p. 24).

The 1970s and early 1980s groundbreaking studies were conducted to examine the children’s
early language and literacy development as well as the reassessment of the concept of reading
readiness. Language and literacy researchers proposed a reconceptualization of the process that
children experience from birth to the time when they are able to read and write, which addresses
Clay’s (1966Clay, M. M. (1966). Emergent reading behaviour(Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). University of Auckland, New Zealand. [Google Scholar]) proposed term ‘emergent
literacy.’ The emergent literacy concept extended throughout the 1980s and 1990s as part of
developmentally appropriate practice (DAP; Copple & Bredekamp, 2009Copple, C.,
& Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs
serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children. [Google Scholar]) that focused on providing young children with
developmentally appropriate experiences for their literacy learning [International Reading
Association (now called the International Literacy Association (ILA) & The National
Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998International Reading Association [IRA]
& National Association of the Education of Young Children [NAEYC]. (1998). Learning to read
and write: Developmentally appropriate practices for young children. The Reading
Teacher, 52, 193–216. Also in Young Children, July 1998, 53(4), 30–46[Web of Science
®], , [Google Scholar]].

Later developmental theories had a drastic change when researchers began to use Jean Piaget’s
(1947Piaget, J. (1947). The psychology of
intelligence. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield.[Crossref], , [Google Scholar], 1951Piaget, J. (1951). Play,
dreams, and imitation in childhood. New York, NY: Norton. [Google Scholar]) research for their
theoretical framework. He found that children used their experiences to construct their
knowledge based on several developmental levels, which were greatly influenced by
maturational factors. Instead of offering experiences that would help children progress to
advanced levels of development, it was better to match the children’s experiences to their
existing levels of development. The children’s educational experiences need to be
‘developmentally appropriate’ (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009Copple, C.,
& Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs
serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children. [Google Scholar]); they should not be ‘hurried’
(Elkind, 1981Elkind, D. (1981). The hurried child. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. [Google
Scholar]). Even when the proposed instructional approaches for young children might vary,
Piagetian theory continued to recommend that instruction should correspond to the children’s
levels of development. Intriguingly, Piagetian theory drastically influenced early childhood
methods in mathematics and science, but it moderately affected language and literacy instruction.
Hence, the ‘reading readiness’ method of the earlier period continued, but it was later modified
with new theories.

During the 1960s and 1970s developmental theories continue to change based on
L. S. Vygotsky’s (1962Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.[Crossref], , [Google Scholar], 1978Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The
development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press. [Google Scholar]) social development theory. The main concept of the theory is that how
individuals interact with others and their culture affects their mental abilities. Vygotsky’s work
was mainly unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. He distinguishes between
‘natural’ and ‘cultural’ development. Cultural development permits individuals to learn systems
of cultural behaviour, including means of reasoning. Language and literacy development is a
structure of cultural development, which is part of a socio-historic framework. The forms of
knowledge that are generated within the culture contribute to the children’s learning. They are
also transmitted from those who are more refined to those who are less refined in a culture, such
as adults transmit knowledge to older children who then transmit it to younger children.

The ‘zone of proximal development (ZPD)’ is a fundamental concept in Vygotsky’s theory. It is

the region outside of the children’s achievement abilities where children need assistance. This
type of assistance is considered to be providing ‘scaffolding’ or helping children to progress
forward. Since this type of learning is beyond the children’s developmental levels, it expands
their development. Therefore, Vygotsky’s theory improves the children’s development instead of
following it. His work contributed to early childhood education, especially in the area of
language and literacy. This understanding of development has profoundly guided contemporary
interpretations of language and literacy education, as observed in the articles in this special issue.
The children’s language and literacy emerge early in their lives and continue to develop for an
extended period of time. Their early literacy experiences before formal reading instruction can
affect their later reading achievement.

This literacy concept is an evolving practice that is promoted through language and literacy
experiences such as literacy-related play, shared story reading, and other related literacy
experiences. Reading, writing, speaking, and listening need to be effectively merged into the
children’s language and literacy programme.

Populations in school settings

The children in the schools experience an ethnic turmoil as growing quantities of cultural and
linguistic diverse children are in the schools. Such children are considered to be ‘at-risk.’ The at-
risk term refers to the children’s problems in practical language competency rather than their
lack of ability to learn linguistic practices. Unfortunately, outdated methods in teaching language
and literacy continue to keep these children at risk of later school failure.

Several of these young children who first attend school may discover that their language and
culture at home vary from the one that is used by the teachers, schools, and books. This
dissimilarity may cause young children to respond to the instructional situation based on their
cultural level

 Level 1. (Lowest level): Students become confused when they experience a drastic
difference between the two languages and cultures.

 Level 2. Students deny their language and culture, pretending that their language and
culture is the same as the school’s.

 Level 3. Students adapt to those new or different customs in the culture in which
they perceive to have more advance patterns. Therefore, children will assess each
language and culture to adapt only the best patterns or customs to make them their
own.

 Level 4. (Highest level): Students are able to make the transition back and forth
from one language and culture to another language and culture
(Saracho, 1986Saracho, O. N. (1986). Teaching second language literacy with
computers. In D.Hainline (Ed.), New developments in language CAI (pp. 53–
68). Kent: Croom Helm. [Google Scholar], pp. 53–54).

Young children whose culture and language differ from the ones in the school encounter
functional language difficulties, such as differences in using language to communicate for
various purposes. Language and literacy methods of instruction need to reflect the children’s
language proficiency to assist them in becoming bilingual and biliterate. Therefore, language and
literacy approaches need to be modified to make them appropriate for these young children when
necessary.
Literacy instruction
Practically from the beginning of formal schooling in America, disagreement has existed on
ways to teach reading. Different reading methods have been used for each time period. Several
practitioners preferred whole word methodology, where children memorized the words and then
looked at the words and identified them. Others preferred the phonics methods where children
learned to sound out each letter in a word to identify the word. Each method had its advocates
and its proportion of successes and failures. When some children continued to fail in learning to
read, practitioners and criticizers persisted in asking, ‘Why Johnny can’t read’
(Flesch, 1955Flesch, R. (1955). Why Johnny can’t read. New York, NY: Harpers. [Google
Scholar], 1988Flesch, R. (1988). Why Johnny still can’t read. New York, NY: Harpers &
Row. [Google Scholar]).

The concern for improving the success of school children in learning to read has led increasingly
in the last decade to suggestions that formal reading instruction should begin earlier, moving that
instruction from the primary grades down into the kindergarten and preprimary grades, which is
not considered to be developmentally appropriate. The uneasiness for developing the success of
school children in learning how to read has been directed more and more to watering down initial
formal reading instruction to kindergarten and the preprimary grades. This major curriculum
position attracted the attention of various professional organizations such as the International
Reading Association (now International Literacy Association, LRA) and National Association of
the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). These organizations believe that learning to read
and write is essential to the children’s success in school and future years. The greatest indicator
of their ability to achieve in school is the degree to which the children develop in language,
reading, and writing. While reading and writing capabilities develop throughout the young
children’s life span, the period from birth through eight years of age is the furthermost significant
period for their literacy development. This is the reason that IRA and NAEYC joined forces to
develop a position statement in relation to the young children’s acquisition of literacy using
‘developmentally appropriate practices’ when teaching young children to read and write. In
1998, IRA and NAEYC (1998International Reading Association [IRA] & National Association
of the Education of Young Children [NAEYC]. (1998). Learning to read and write:
Developmentally appropriate practices for young children. The Reading Teacher, 52, 193–216.
Also in Young Children, July 1998, 53(4), 30–46[Web of Science ®], , [Google Scholar])
approved a position statement on young children’s literacy development that supported that
literacy be taught according to a progression of the children’s literacy development irrespective
of age. Developmentally appropriate practice utilizes child development theory to encourage
teaching that emphasizes the young children’s individual progress and learning based on their
developmental areas in a way that speaks to ‘the social and cultural contexts’ in which they live
(Copple & Bredekamp, 2009Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate
practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age
8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. [Google
Scholar], p. 10).
The development of current theories on acquisition of language and literacy guides the present
transformation of reading instruction. Emergent literacy has been replaced for the concept of
reading readiness. The recognition that all language abilities must be balanced has helped merge
children’s literacy-related play, literature, and shared storybook reading within literacy
instruction. Cultivating competent, literate children during their early childhood years is essential
before introducing them to formal reading instruction. This component has guided the family
literacy movement. Families and early childhood education teachers need to be sensitive to the
way they teach language and literacy. They need to know developmentally appropriate literacy
strategies and activities that integrate literacy-related play, writing, story reading, creative
dramatics, art, and any content area. Teachers need to know the children’s cultural and linguistic
knowledge, their child rearing styles, and how to set up effective physical and social classroom
environments. They need to be active in their professional development to keep up to date with
current professional knowledge.

Teachers are encouraged to offer young children instruction that corresponds to their
developmental level, cultural level, and ability level in both oral and written language. Table
1 presents the levels in the children’s development.

Table 1. Levels in children’s development of reading and writing: from

infancy through third grade.

CSVDisplay Table

Such interpretations contributed to the transformations in developmental theories related to

literacy, language, and cognition. The teachers’ ability to understand diverse populaces that are
found in their classrooms can help them provide developmentally appropriate literacy instruction
to all children.

NAEYC promised to provide resources to early childhood education teachers that they can use to
assist young children to become literate and motivate them to read and write for enjoyment,
information, and communication. Teaching practices must be appropriate, effective, and focus on
the young children’s developmental attributes, culture, language, and specific learning needs.
They need to learn through different, research-based teaching techniques that will support the
young children’s language and literacy development. NAEYC and IRA (2009National
Association of the Education of Young Children [NAEYC] & International Reading Association
[IRA]. (2009). Where we STAND on learning to read and write. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/WWSSLearningToReadAndWriteEn
glish.pdf [Google Scholar]) report the following research outcomes that need to be considered:

 Children take their first critical steps toward learning to read and write very early in
life.

 Children do not become literate automatically; careful planning and instruction are
essential.
  Ongoing assessment of children’s knowledge and skills helps teachers plan effective
instruction.

 No one teaching method or approach is likely to be effective for all children, at all
times.

 As children move from preschool into kindergarten and the primary grades,
instruction focused on phonemic awareness, letter recognition, segmenting words
into sounds, and decoding printed text will support later reading competence.

 Children who are learning English as a second language will become literate more
easily if they have a strong foundation in their home language (NAEYC &
IRA, 2009National Association of the Education of Young Children [NAEYC] &
International Reading Association [IRA]. (2009). Where we STAND on learning to
read and write. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/WWSSLearningToRead
AndWriteEnglish.pdf [Google Scholar]).

Conclusion

Over the years, early childhood education has endured recurring curriculum transformation.
Major modifications have occurred in the area of language and literacy. Early childhood
researchers and practitioners need to be cognizant of these changes. They must improve the
knowledge and skills required to sustain an early childhood education programme that focuses
and addresses the young children’s needs in present society.

The development of theories in language learning modified how children were taught literacy.
The reading readiness paradigm was substituted with the concept of emergent literacy. The early
childhood years before introducing children to formal literacy instruction is viewed as critical in
developing competent and literate children. All early childhood education teachers, at all levels,
are considered to be literacy teachers, even before children participate in formal reading
instruction. Instead of forcing formal reading instruction on children who are not
developmentally ready for this instruction in the preprimary grades, teachers need to use
contemporary methods that focus on the young children’s language abilities to provide
experiences that will lead them to become more competent readers in their later years.

This special issue has studies related to the critical skills, environments, and adult interactions
that contribute to young children’s language and literacy development. The studies take into
account the contemporary theoretical reforms that have emerged in the language and literacy
education of young children.
References
1. Clay, M. M. (1966). Emergent reading
behaviour (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). University of Auckland, New Zealand.

[Google Scholar]
2. Clay, M. M. (1975). What did I
write? Aukland: Heinemann.

[Google Scholar]
3. Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally
appropriate practice in early childhood programs
serving children from birth through age
8. Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.

[Google Scholar]
4. Durkin, D. (1966). Children who read early: Two
longitudinal studies. New York, NY: Teachers College
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[Google Scholar]
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child. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

[Google Scholar]
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[Google Scholar]
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[Google Scholar]
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[Google Scholar]
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

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