INTERNET USE AND ITS IMPACT ON SECONDARY

SCHOOL STUDENTS IN CHIANG MAI, THAILAND

Kesaraporn Wanajak BNS MSc (Pharmacology)

This thesis is presented in fulfilment of the requirements for

the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Computing, Health and Science Edith Cowan

University

June 2011
 ABSTRACT

Internet addiction (IA) is a relatively new field of academic inquiry. Empirical studies suggest that IA,
like other well researched addictive behaviours, has an effect on many aspects of a person‟s life,
including academic/work performance, relationships, and physical and mental health (Goldberg, 1996;
Young, 1996, 1998). Evidence of IA has been suggested by the findings that some Internet users spend
increasingly longer periods of time online and experience withdrawal symptoms when offline. Those
preoccupied with Internet-related activities may neglect exercise, family and social activities (Kim et
al., 2010; Nalwa & Anand, 2003; Seo, Kang, & Yom, 2009; S. Yang & Tung, 2007; Young, 1998,
2004). Problems arising from excessive Internet use have been documented worldwide, including in
Thailand where the use of the Internet has increased noticeably (National Statistical Office, 2008a,
2008b, 2010). It is a particularly common problem among students, as demonstrated in several
international studies (Ko, Yen, Yen, Lin, & Yang, 2007; Konstantinos, Evaggelia, Dimitrios, Odysseas,
& Nikiforos, 2008; Lam, Peng, Mai, & Ing 2009; Lee et al., 2007; Niemz, Griffiths, & Banyard, 2005;
Thomas & Martin, 2010; Zboralski et al., 2009). However, few researchers have investigated IA and its
impacts on Thai secondary school students. This thesis fills a gap in the international IA literature by
developing a consensus definition and diagnostic criteria of IA, investigating the prevalence of IA
among Thai secondary school students, as well as conducting an exploration of the impacts of IA on
these students and their prevalence. A mixed methods research design was employed. This study was
conducted in three stages. The first stage of this study employed a modified Delphi Technique among
22 Thai addiction experts („the Delphi panel‟) to develop a consensus definition of IA, to identify
diagnostic criteria for classifying those affected, and to suggest potential strategies for harm-
minimisation. The second stage consisted of an online survey of 952 Thai secondary school students in
Chiang Mai, Thailand, conducted in order to assess the prevalence of IA among Thai secondary school
students and identify its impacts from the point of view of these students. The last stage of this study
employed structured in-depth interviews with 30 randomly chosen students who agreed to be iv
interviewed from among those who participated in the online survey, to gain a better understanding of
IA. Ten diagnostic criteria for classifying IA were identified from the Delphi panel: 1) Neglecting other
activities to spend time on the Internet; 2) Having relationship problems with family members, friends,
or others; 3) Having academic problems, such as school absences, poor grades, or low performance due
to Internet use; 4) Being unable to control, decrease or stop use of the Internet; 5) Emerging negative
behaviours, such as acting aggressively, yelling, swearing and unprovoked bad temper, isolation, sleep
deprivation, skipping meals and exercise; 6) Lying about or hiding the amount of time spent on the
Internet, or other online activities; 7) Exhibiting psychological symptoms, such as restlessness, anxiety,
short attention span, depression, or agitation; 8) Exhibiting physical health problems, such as back pain,
eye strain, hand corns, weight gain, weight loss, or dehydration; 9) Increasing the time of Internet use;
and 10) Making Internet use a priority in the user‟s life. Utilising an IA scale developed from the ten
criteria suggested by the Delphi panel, this study found that 3.7% were classified as addictive Internet
users using the scale cut off point recommended by the Delphi panel of experts. Internet addictive users
spent significantly longer on the Internet than students who were classified as normal users (Mdn =
29.00 and Mdn = 16.00, respectively, p < 0.01). School problems, physical and mental health problems,
and relationship problems were reported as being negative impacts of Internet use. This study has
contributed to the international literature on IA by generating a consensus definition and diagnostic
criteria of IA, testing this definition and criteria in a sample of Thai secondary school students to
identify a cohort of students fitting the criteria of IA, as well as indentifying intervention strategies
recommended by the Delphi panel and students that may help minimise harm caused by IA.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Chapter Overview This opening chapter introduces the study by exploring the background
and historical perspective of the development of the Internet and its prevalence and use
worldwide and in Thailand. The emergence of the phenomenon of Internet addiction (IA) is
introduced, and then brought into focus as it is beginning to affect Internet users around the
world, including Thailand. Next, the aims of the study and the research questions are
identified. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the significance and limitations of the
study. Background of the Study The Internet is a global linking of computers that allows
information transfer. The Internet was established in the early 1960s by the U.S. Department
of Defence (Schneider, Evans, & Pinard, 2006), primarily for military purposes. Since then,
the continual improvement of the Internet technology has provided an extraordinary level of
public accessibility to a wide range of forms of communication, e.g. intra-organisational and
inter-organisational email; data storage, management and transfer; social websites like
Facebook; text messaging such as Twitter, and so forth. Due to the development and spread
of cheaper and more user-friendly computer technology and software (e.g., portable
computers, Microsoft Word etc), the use of the Internet has increased dramatically. In 2010,
the world‟s Internet use was 28.7% of the population. While this may not seem like a very
large portion of the world‟s population, the growth in the use of the Internet has been
dramatic. For example, between 2000 and 2010, the rate of growth of Internet use was
444.8% (Internet World Stats, 2010b). Likewise in Thailand, while 26.3% of the Thai
population were Internet users in 2010, the growth rate in Internet use was even larger than
for the world as a whole, growing 660.3% from 2000 to 2010 (Internet World Stats, 2010a,
2010b). There are many benefits associated with Internet use, such as access to needed
information, worldwide access to news and events, and interpersonal communication through
email. However, along with the phenomenal growth of the Internet and its use, there has been a
growing concern worldwide regarding the risks associated with Internet over-use (Buchholz, 2009; Daily
News, 2008, 2009; Fackler, 2008; Janta, 2008; Khaosod, 2007; The Associated Press, 2009). It is now
believed that there could be widespread „addiction‟ to it, in particular amongst college and university
students (Chou & Hsiao, 2000; Fortson, Scotti, Chen, Malone, & Del Ben, 2007; Kim, et al., 2010; Kubey,
Lavin, & Barrows, 2001; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Scherer, 1997; H. Yan, Liu, Ni, & Chen,
2009; M. Yang et al., 2009). There is an ongoing debate about the appropriateness of applying the concept
of addiction to Internet use. This debate centres on disagreements about the definitions of the terms used for
IA in the literature, controversy around suggested diagnostic criteria, and whether IA truly exists as a
diagnosable addiction in a similar vein to other types of addictions. Indeed, most IA theorists have based
their definitions of IA on established addiction conceptual frameworks, such as substance dependence
(Anderson, 2001; Black & Shaw, 2008; Griffiths, 1998; Ng & Wiemer-Hastings, 2005; Scherer, 1997),
pathological gambling (Greenfield, 1999; Kaltiala-Heino, Lintonen, & Rimpela, 2004; Kubey, et al., 2001;
Milani, Di Blasio, & Osualdella, 2009; Niemz, et al., 2005; Thomas & Martin, 2010; Young, 1998;
Zboralski, et al., 2009), and technology addiction (e.g., television addiction) (Griffiths, 1995; Schimmenti &
Vincenzo, 2010). For example, some studies purporting to explain the prevalence and consequences of IA
have been undertaken, most of them adopting the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th
edition (DSM-IV) criteria for both substance dependence and pathological gambling to classify IA
(American Psychiatric Association, 1994). One of the more consistent findings from the literature is that
students have been identified as more likely to be the most vulnerable group for IA (Lam, et al., 2009;
Milani, et al., 2009; Thomas & Martin, 2010; Zboralski, et al., 2009). However, few studies have been
conducted evaluating the appropriateness and effectiveness of treatments or solutions for this phenomenon.
To date, both the terminology and definition of this phenomenon are still ambiguous. For example, even if
 Internet use is harmful to an individual it is unclear whether IA can be verified as symptoms of a mental
health disorder, and confusion exists within the literature as to what constitutes IA (Zboralski, et al., 2009).
Irrespective of the conceptual debate surrounding IA, many academics and researchers believe that
excessive use of the Internet has the potential to become an addiction (Griffiths, 1995, 2000), and some
empirical research suggests that some students have already become addicted (Kaltiala-Heino, et al., 2004;
Ko, et al., 2007; Konstantinos, et al., 2008; Kraut et al., 1998; Lam, et al., 2009; Lee, et al., 2007; Milani, et
al., 2009; Nalwa & Anand, 2003; Niemz, et al., 2005; Pallanti, Bernardi, & Quercioli, 2006; Thomas &
Martin, 2010; Young, 1998, 2004; Zboralski, et al., 2009). For example, epidemiological studies among
school students in various countries have found that the prevalence rates of IA cover a wide range, from a
low of 1% in Greece (Tsitsika et al., 2009) to a high of 36.7% in Italy (Milani, et al., 2009). It should be
noted that the percentage of IA identified in various studies will vary depending on the time the study was
conducted, the instruments used for classifying addictive users, and the sampling strategy used in the
collection of the data. IA has also drawn attention from health professionals, educators and the public as this
phenomenon has been found to result in negative consequences for IA sufferers, including academic and
professional performance impairments (Kim, et al., 2010; Lin & Tsai, 1999; Nalwa & Anand, 2003; S. Yang
& Tung, 2007; Young, 1998, 2004); relationship difficulties and interpersonal problems (Lin & Tsai, 1999;
Nalwa & Anand, 2003; Seo, et al., 2009; S. Yang & Tung, 2007; Young, 1998, 2004); financial problems
(S. Yang & Tung, 2007; Young, 1998, 2004); and physical and mental health problems (Kim, et al., 2010; S.
Yang & Tung, 2007; Young, 1998, 2004). For example, the psychological literature has demonstrated that
individuals who are Internet addicted often suffer from other psychiatric disorders (Yen, Yen, Ko, Wu, &
Yang, 2007). On the other hand , Lin and Tsai (1999) reported IA having only a slightly negative influence
on peer relationships by providing opportunities to meet new online friends. In Thailand, the number of
Internet users has increased dramatically in recent years, especially among adolescents. In 2008 about 28.2%
of the Thai population had access to the Internet and of those, 68.2% were young people aged 6 to 24-years-
old (National Statistical Office, 2008a). By 2009, about 43.9% of Thai households were reported as having
access to the Internet and over 16.99 million Thai people use the Internet as an integral part of their
personal, social and occupational lives (Internet World Stats, 2009; National Electronics and Computer
Technology Center, 2009). Moreover, 93.7% of Thai Educational Institutes have Internet access (National
Statistical Office, 2010), thus providing students with daily access to high speed Internet. The Thai public
has been very apprehensive about the possible negative impacts of this new technology and the spread of IA,
in particular among adolescents, due to recent government reports highlighting Internet and game addiction
in Thai youth that have been exploited by the Thai media (CAMHRI, 2006, 2007; Kalivas & Volkow, 2005;
Khaosod, 2004, 2007; Thailand life, 2006). For example, the Thai Ministry of Public Health and the Child
and Adolescent Mental Health Rajanarinda Institute (CAMHRI) established an anti-IA centre to prevent IA
and solve social problems associated with Internet use (CAMHRI, 2006). The Centre provides
questionnaires to Internet users and parents to self-diagnose IA. Moreover, the Centre established
counselling clinics for addicts and offers anti-IA camps for children and families who are at risk from
Internet over-use or having difficulties caused by IA (CAMHRI, 2006). In 2007, Nakornthap and
Masateianwong (2007) examined Internet use in 3,000 Thai people and found that young (6 to 24-years-old)
Thai people spent one-third of their lives (or eight hours/day) using information and communication
technology, such as watching television, playing on the Internet, talking on mobile phones, and sending text
messages. While this study was an important initial step in documenting Internet use in Thailand, the wide
age range of respondents and the combination of communications technologies that were the focus of the
survey confounded the findings from this 2007 research regarding IA. That is, this study did not identify the
definition of IA or any diagnostic criteria used to classify the respondents as addicted or not. This limits the
applicability and generalisability of these findings to the specific topic of IA. The Thai Health Foundation,
acting on public concerns about Internet use among young people, requested that the Ministry of Culture
conduct a survey focusing on the negative impacts of Internet use, particularly in relation to online gaming.
The Ministry of Culture survey, which did not report any of the research design components 5 of the study,
was conducted among Thai young people and found that a significant proportion reported having problems
with their eyesight (78.3%), wasting money and time (70.8%), having no time for homework (62.4%),
having insufficient rest (51.6%), and exhibiting more violent behaviours than previously (37.5%)
(Nakornthap & Masateianwong, 2007). The Thai Health Foundation concluded from this study that youth
who become addicted to the new technologies and who lack parental guidance are at risk for crime and
immorality propagated through the Internet and mobile telephones. They recommended that parents teach
their children about using these technologies appropriately (Nakornthap & Masateianwong, 2007). As a
consequence of the negative media attention directed at the use of the Internet, the Thai Webmaster
Association offered practical suggestions that the Thai government should adopt to minimise the problems
associated with Internet use. For example, the Association suggested that the National Legislative Assembly
push through anti-cyber crime legislation and that the Ministry of Information and Communication
Technology should shut down „dangerous‟ Internet sites as quickly as possible. The Thai government has
attempted to address some of the social problems associated with the use of these new technologies,
particularly the Internet, by initiating a social marketing campaign advising parents to use computer
programs that block children from viewing inappropriate websites. In addition, in 2007, anti-cyber crime
legislation was passed by the National Legislative Assembly that criminalised pornography and some online
„dating‟ sites and allowed the government to block entry into the Thai Internet network. In addition, media
campaigns were launched designed to prevent IA and related problems, such as the Child Watch and
Internet Shops program, the Safe and Creative Internet Fair, and the Network on Students‟ Behaviours
Development (Theeratith, Pruekchaikul, & Gold, 2011). However, while the Thai government views IA as a
major social problem, little rigorous, systematic research has been conducted in Thailand to accurately
document the extent of IA in Thai students. Systematic research about the incidence and prevalence of IA is
required in order to explore the possible positive and negative impacts of Internet use, and to identify
potential intervention strategies to minimise the harm caused by IA. 6 Ideological Paradigms This study
reflects two ideological approaches. Both the harm minimisation approach and the action areas of the
Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (WHO, 1986) served to guide this research. The harm minimisation
approach refers to a range of pragmatic and evidencebased public health policies that aim to reduce the
harmful effects associated with risk taking behaviour (International Harm Reduction Association, 2009).
With respect to IA, the defining features are a focus on the prevention of harm resulting from Internet use,
rather than on the control of Internet use, and a focus on people who continue to use the Internet. Harm
reduction complements other approaches that also seek to reduce the potential impacts of Internet use. Harm
reduction accepts that many people who use the Internet are unable or unwilling to stop using the Internet at
any given time. There is a need to provide Internet users with options that help to minimise risks from over-
use of the Internet that causes harm to themselves or others. It is therefore essential that harm reduction
information, services and other interventions exist to provide support and assistance to those at risk of, or
experiencing, Internet addiction. Harm reduction is a targeted approach that focuses on specific risks and
harms. Based on the work of the International Harm Reduction Association (International Harm Reduction
Association, 2009), politicians, policymakers, communities, researchers, frontline workers and Internet users
should ascertain: What are the specific risks and harms associated with over-use of the Internet? What
causes those risks and harms? What can be done to reduce these risks and harms caused by Internet over-
use? The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (WHO, 1986) serves as a useful reference for structuring and
informing the recommendations resulting from this study. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion is a
global strategic policy framework established by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1986. The
Charter which aims to achieve Health for All by the year 2000 and beyond, has five action areas (WHO,
1986): 7 1. Build Healthy Public Policy This action area is aimed at all public policy decision makers on the
premise that health promotion extends beyond health care. The Charter suggests coordinated action across
government portfolios including complementary approaches in respect to legislation, fiscal measures,
taxation and organisational change, as well as intersectoral collaboration in education, housing, industry,
social welfare and environment planning to achieve healthier communities. 2. Create Supportive
Environments This action area embodies the socioecological approach to health. The Charter promotes the
importance of protecting the natural and built environments and the conservation of natural resources as
germane to any health promotion strategy. The development of supportive psychosocial environments such
as building a positive ethos within schools is relevant to this study. 3. Strengthen Community Actions This
action area sees health promotion strategies articulated through pragmatic and effective community action in
setting priorities, making decisions, planning and implementing strategies to achieve better health. The
Charter acknowledges information and learning opportunities as key for empowerment of communities to
improve their health. 4. Develop Personal Skills This action area focuses on the strategies that can guide and
support individuals and communities achieve greater health literacy. Health promotion is applied to support
personal and social development, particularly through the provision of adequate and appropriate
information, education, and enhancing life skills opportunities. 5. Reorient Health Services This action area
calls for a collaborative approach to achieving health care systems that focus on health, not simply illness
and disease. The Charter calls for health systems to embrace an expanded mandate; one that is sensitive and
respectful of cultural needs and focuses on the individual as a whole person, and that moves increasingly in
a health promotion direction and beyond models concentrated on the provision of clinical and curative
services. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (1986) provided the catalyst and framework for the
World Health Organization‟s Global School Health initiative, 8 launched in 1995. The Global School Health
initiative “ ... seeks to mobilise and strengthen health promotion activities at the local, national, regional and
global levels” (WHO, n.d.-b). Correspondingly, the global school based student health survey (GSHS), a
collaborative surveillance project, was designed and launched “ ... to assist countries to measure and assess
the behavioural risk factors and protective factors in 10 key areas among young people aged 13 to 15 years”
(WHO, n.d.-a, Chronic disease and health promotion). “The GSHS is a relatively low-cost school-based
survey which uses a self-administered questionnaire to obtain data on young people‟s health behaviour and
protective factors related to the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among children and adults
worldwide” (WHO, n.d.-a, Chronic disease and health promotion). Aims of the Study Due to the lack of a
common definition of IA and universally accepted diagnostic criteria for use in determining addiction rates,
more precise measurement tools for the accurate assessment of IA are needed. In addition, while there is
substantial controversy surrounding the topic of IA in Thailand, there is little hard evidence of actual
addiction rates and the positive or negative impacts of Internet use by Thai students. Similarly, there is no
evidence-based strategy of interventions to address or minimise the negative impacts that IA may cause.
This study sought to bridge these gaps by first conducting a literature review to develop a preliminary
definition of IA, then performing a modified Delphi Technique data collection process to develop a
consensus definition and agreed upon diagnostic criteria of IA. This study then conducted an online survey
of a sample of Thai secondary school students between the ages of 11and 19-years-old in Chiang Mai,
Thailand. The survey applied the consensus definition and diagnostic criteria of IA to investigate the
prevalence of Internet use and its impacts among this cohort of students. Finally, this study employed semi-
structured, in-depth interviews with 30 secondary school students from the survey cohort who agreed to be
interviewed to explore the information relating to survey responses. In addition, intervention strategies for
the minimisation of harm from IA were sought from the Delphi panel and the secondary school respondents
for use to address IA. This study differentiated between normal everyday Internet use behaviours and
Internet addictive behaviours as well as exploring the impacts of those behaviours that may signify
maladaptive use. Overall, the aims of this study were to: 9 1. Generate a consensus definition and diagnostic
criteria of IA from the literature and the Delphi panel; 2. Identify the prevalence of IA among secondary
school students between aged from 11 to 19-years-old in Chiang Mai, Thailand; 3. Identify significant
factors that may influence Internet use among secondary school students in Chiang Mai, Thailand; 4.
Explore the impacts of IA among secondary school students between aged from 11 to 19-years-old in
Chiang Mai, Thailand; and 5. Identify potential intervention strategies that may help to minimise harm of
IA, particularly in the Thai context. Research Questions This study aimed to provide an understanding of IA
and its impacts, as well as to identify potential intervention strategies to ameliorate IA in secondary school
students in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Therefore, the specific research questions follow directly from the
previously stated aims: 1. What are the diagnostic criteria of IA to be used to measure IA in Thai secondary
school students? 2. What is the current prevalence of IA among secondary school students aged from 11 to
19-years-old in Chiang Mai, Thailand? 3. What are the important factors that may influence IA among
secondary school students aged from 11 to 19-years-old in Chiang Mai, Thailand? 4. What are the impacts
of IA among secondary school students aged from 11 to 19-years-old in Chiang Mai, Thailand? 5. What
intervention strategies are required to minimise the potentially harmful effects of IA in the Thai context?
Significance of the Study IA and associated problems among young people have been highlighted in the
Thai media (Khaosod, 2004, 2007; Thailand life, 2006; The Associated Press, 2009). The Thai government
has viewed IA among young people as a significant social 10 problem (Kanchanachitra et al., 2007) that has
required legislative as well as public health education interventions. However, the prevalence of IA in
Thailand has not been accurately documented due to the confusion in the literature as to what constitutes IA
and how to diagnose the problem, as well as a lack of systematic research on this issue. This study
developed a consensus definition and diagnostic criteria for IA; identified its prevalence in secondary school
students in one province in Thailand; and explored the physical, psychological and sociological impacts of
Internet use among secondary school students. In addition, the study identified potential intervention
strategies proposed by the Delphi panel and survey respondents to help minimise the potential harm caused
by IA. These findings have significance for government policy makers, particularly in education, public
health, law and order, and information and technology departments. The strength of this study lies in its
methodology (that is, the high response rate to the student survey supporting the representativeness of the
survey population from one entire provincial school district in Thailand) and the contribution to the IA field
of inquiry through the construction of a consensus definition of IA along with the specification of ten
diagnostic criteria that will allow for a more appropriate classification of addiction. The findings will also
help inform new initiatives that the government, secondary schools, and individual families can implement
to address the potential negative impacts of IA. Limitations This research used a mixed methods approach
including consensus development using a modified Delphi Technique, an online survey of secondary school
students and in-depth interviews to investigate Internet use and its impact among students in secondary
schools in Chiang Mai, Thailand. There are limitations to this study that may reduce the generalisability of
any conclusions reached: 1. The research examined the nature of participants in a particular area of
Thailand. It might be difficult to generalise the study‟s findings further than the country in which the
research was conducted because each society and culture has its own demographic profile and social norms
that may influence student behaviour with regard to Internet use. 2. The survey format limited the
researcher‟s ability to be certain about what may have been meant by any individual respondent when
answering close-ended and semi-structured open-ended questions. However, the in-depth interviews with 30
survey 11 cohort students were designed to strengthen the researcher‟s understanding of the overall survey
responses. Summary This chapter presented a background of the Internet and how this has expanded in use,
but has led to the existence of IA. The focus of the study on secondary school students in Chiang Mai,
Thailand defined the target population and location of the study. The aims of the study were delineated and
operationalised as five research questions. The chapter concluded with a statement on the significance of the
study and its limitations.
INTERNET USE AND ITS EFFECT ON SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN WA
MUNICIPALITY OF GHANA
Franklina Adjoa Yebowaah, The Library, University for Development Studies, Tamale
ayeboaah@yahoo.com

Abstract

The internet is a technology that has become an enormous part of people’s daily lives. Over the last decades,
internet connectivity has improved tremendously and is available everywhere such as homes, offices, travels
and schools. Today, empirical studies report that access to information can influence the academic
performance of students. However, studies on internet use among Senior High School Students are limited
in the Wa Municipality making it uncertain whether Senior High School Students in the Wa Municipality
use internet and the impact it makes in their academic performance. Hence, this study investigates the
internet use and its impact on Senior High School students in the Wa Municipality. Primary data were
obtained from a random selection of 314 Senior High School Students who are in their third year. The data
were collected using a questionnaire and then analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square and ANOVA.
The results indicate that sources of internet to Senior High School Students include the School Information
Communication Laboratory, mobile phones, household internet facilities, and public internet cafes. Besides,
students’ access to internet was found to have a positive influence on their academic performance. However,
different uses of the internet among students do not influence their academic performance. The study
concludes that availability of different internet sources to students does not grant all of them immediate
access. It is therefore, recommended that Heads of Senior High School should liaise with policy makers and
management of Ghana Education Service to provide internet infrastructure in schools. This is relevant
because provision of internet infrastructure in schools is a key strategy to promoting academic performance.
Keywords: Internet use, Academic performance, Senior High School Students

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The internet is the key information and communication technology that led to a worldwide
revolutionary change in the information scenario (Siraj, et al., 2015). The internet is a pool of knowledge
and any country that fails to provide her youth access to the internet is unseating the country from her
throne of dignity among other dignitaries (Olatokun, 2008). It is developed to serve as a platform for
various activities for all age groups in society (Akin-Adaeamola, 2014). The internet is a technology that
has become an enormous part of people’s daily lives. Through its ability to act as a support medium in
different functions for which people use it, the internet was introduced to academic institutions as a tool
to enhance student’s academic experience in the mid-1990s (Ngoumandjoka, 2012). Over the last
decades, internet connectivity has improved tremendously and is available everywhere such as homes,
offices, travels and schools (Ellore et al., 2014). Today, empirical studies (e.g Adedotun, 2015; Akende
& Bamise, 2017) report that access to information can influence the academic performance of students.
The use of credible internet resources is of greater importance for academic study, especially in high
class courses which require an academic review of literature (Sahin et al., 2010). Internet use for
educational purpose is found by Kim (2011) to be the heart of adolescent academic achievement. The
availability of internet is almost everywhere, most students have had access to internet on their
cellphones (Ellore et al. 2014). This helps students to broaden their academic knowledge, research and
assignments by accessing information worldwide and also enhances easy communication to the
academic community (Siraj, et al., 2015). 3 Yesilyurt et al. (2014) argued that access to a home
computer and internet connection contributes to students’ academic performance as well as self-learning
skills. Taking into account access and usage of internet by secondary school students in Nigeria,
Olatokun (2008) indicated that most students believed the internet to be far better and convenient than
their school libraries. They saw it as a source for general knowledge, and hence it has helped them
improve their reading habits and their academic performance. The internet is sometimes used as a
supplementary learning material and has led to an improvement in students’ academic performance
(Siraj et al., 2015). In Ghana, graduate students see the library as a favorable environment for studies,
and a source of relevant and realistic information for research. However, they prefer using the internet to
the library because of the fact that the latter provides readily information at all times, faster access to
information and large amount of information (Kumah, 2015). Access to internet services is of great
significance to a developing country like Ghana (Ameyaw and Asante, 2016). Updated and current
information is well organized on the internet for easy search, and has contributed significantly to
students’ academic laurels (Kumah, 2015). The use of the internet creates awareness of the importance
of the world around students (Ogedebe, 2012). Despite the significance of internet usage to students’
academic performance, its negative impacts are various. Some students use the internet for non-
academic purposes such as gaming and social networking, thus culminating in loss of study schedules
(Singh et al., 2013). Besides, students use the internet for leisure rather than educational purposes
(Olatokun, 2008; Ngoumandjoka, 2012) and this can lead to fallen academic standards. The topmost
uses of the 4 internet by secondary students is charting, downloading, watching videos online, playing
online games, and online shopping (Akin-Adramola, 2014). This suggests that some secondary students
do not receive proper guidance in the use of the internet in studying. The internet can be a bad tool for
higher academic achievement if only its usage is not controlled (Mami and Hatami-Zad, 2014). Recent
studies (e.g. Mami and Hatami-Zad, 2014; Torres-Diaz et al., 2016; Carter, 2016) have found that a
balance use of the internet leads to greater academic success among students. University students have
control over the use of internet which has greatly reflected in their academic performance (Sahin et al.,
2010). However, studies on internet use among Senior High School Students are limited in the Wa
Municipality. This study is therefore on internet use and its effect on the performance of Senior High
School Students in the Wa Municipality of Ghana.

Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to analyse the internet use and its effect on the performance of Senior
High School students in the Wa Municipality of Ghana. The specific objectives include: 1. To identify
the sources of internet use among Senior High School Students 2. To examine the effect of internet use
on academic performance of Senior High School Students

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Internet Use

The use of internet grants its users great awareness of the importance of the world around them. The
internet is a platform for several types of information. It used by students including secondary students
(Akin-Adaeamola, 2014). Internet usage will continue to grow as long as its users are not denied easy
access (Olatokun, 2008). Recent statistics indicate that the internet gives people the option to access
information sites as well as other sites such as social media sites, internet games, and cyber-sex (Siraj et
al. 2015). A study by Ellore et al. (2014) on the influence of internet usage on academic performance
and face to face communication revealed that as a result of the availability of internet, most students
have had access to internet on their cellphones. This helps students to broaden their academic knowledge
(Siraj, et al., 2015). The use of computer and access to online resources according to Akende and Bamise
(2017) are comparatively important to students. Yesilyurt et al. (2014) showed that access to a home
computer and internet connection contributes to students’ academic performance as well as self-learning
skills. Considering access and usage of the internet by secondary school students in Nigeria, Olatokun
(2008) indicated that most students believed the internet to be far better and convenient than their school
libraries. The study pointed out that students see the internet as a source for general knowledge, and it
really helps them improve their reading habits leading to an improvement in their academic
performance. Siraj et al. (2015) affirmed that students perceived the internet as a supplement for learning
and thus contributes to higher academic feat. Ogedebe (2012) agreed that majority of students obtain
relevant information such as academic materials from the internet. This suggests 6 that students use the
internet to enhance their study. Sahin et al. (2010) examined the use of internet resources by university
students during their course projects study. They argued that the use of trustworthy internet resources is
of vital importance for academic study, especially in higher class courses which require an academic
review of literature. Internet use for educational purpose is found by Kim (2011) to be the habit of
adolescent academic achievement. A similar study conducted by Ruth and Adedotun (2015) posited that
the source and access to information can influence the academic performance of secondary school
students. Notwithstanding the importance attached to internet use and academic performance, Olatokun
(2008) in Nigeria maintains that secondary school students use the internet for leisure rather than
educational purposes. According to Olatokum(2008) the students usd the internet primarily for
communication, entertainment and leisure (reading and sending e-mails, online chatting, instant
messaging, playing games and downloading music videos, and reading newspapers). Similarly, Sahin et
al. (2010) noted that while university students frequently use email and forum/chat-line in their daily
life, they do not use them in their studies. Ngoumandjoka (2012) found that the internet is not mostly
used for academic purpose rather for recreational activities. A similar work by Singh et al. (2013), brings
to fore that students are more into the use of the internet but in reality they are using it mainly for non-
academic purposes like mailing, gaming and social networking. This led to losses in their study
schedules. This brings to the fore the controversy among empirical studies on the influence of internet
use on the academic performance of students. 7 The activities done by secondary school students on the
internet have been scaled by AkinAdaeamola (2014). The study revealed that the topmost activity done
by secondary school students is chatting, followed by downloading, watching videos online, surfing the
web, using the internet to study for school work, looking for other websites such as sports websites,
reading news online, games websites and lastly online shopping. Statistically 40% of students spend
most of their time chatting on social media daily while 14.4% of students use the internet for academic
purpose daily (Akin-Adaeamola, 2014). This agrees with the findings of Bragdon and Dowler (2016)
that there is a particular interest given that college administrators, faculty, parents, colleges’ students and
others support the advantage of using technology in higher education, but the reality is that this
technology is often being used for non-academic purposes. Students’ demographic variables are believed
to have an influence on internet use and hence academic performance. Demographic analysis revealed
that males had higher frequency of internet use in general than females (Akende and Bamise, 2017).
Subsequent comparative analysis revealed that male college students spend more time on the internet
compared to female college students (Ellore et al., 2014). Rabiu et al. (2016) identified the mobile phone
as one of the gadgets used in accessing the internet which impacts on academic performance. They
found that phone usage significantly influence academic performance among male and female senior
high school students. A case study on Labone Secondary Schools in Ghana shows that approximately
girls use the internet once a week whilst boys use the internet once a day on average or several times
daily (Akin-Adaramola, 2014). In contrast, Mami and Hatami-Zad (2014) found no significant
difference between boys and girls with regards to internet addiction. On the part of Aitokhuehi et al.
(2014), female computer literates tend to perform better than 8 male computer literate students. Kim
(2011) examines the effect of internet use on academic achievement and behavioral adjustment among
South Korean adolescents and found girls more likely to use the internet to watch online educational
classes and blog more frequently and longer than boys. The study reported that boys mostly use the
internet for playing games. A correlation analysis on students’ socio-economic background, access to
internet and performance found no significant relationship between student’s socio-economic
background and access to internet (Adegoke, 2013). The study found that students from low economic
background surf the net through their friends phone, their friends pay for them at cybercafés and at times
they could afford to pay at the cybercafé for themselves. According to Osunade (2003), students are
capable of paying for internet access. Adegoke’s (2013) study revealed that socioeconomic background
contributes significantly to student’s achievement while internet use has no significant contribution to
student’s achievement. Rather, when the two socio-economic background and internet use were
combined, they had a significant contribution to students’ achievement. Kim (2011) added that parent-
child relationship (closeness and conflict) were found to be vital to youth adjustment, and plays a
significant role in the association between adolescent internet use and academic and behavioral outcome.
Furthermore, controlled use of the internet can have positive influence on students’ academic
performance. Research has shown that the use of the internet has positive impact depending on the type
and how it is being used (Torres-Diaz et al., 2016). In exploring the influence of internet usage on
academic performance, Ellore et al. (2014) discovered that most university students have control over
the use of internet. Kakkar (2014) opined that internet usage can be beneficial 9 to students in their
academic set-ups and may not cause potential harm to their mental health if used in moderation. As the
internet has become an integral part of today’s life, Singh et al. (2013) observed that it should be used as
a tool for communication and acquiring of knowledge rather than habit forming addiction. Colleges and
universities are therefore urged to educate students about the possible negative impacts of high rate of
recreational internet use on academic success (Bragdon and Dowler, 2016).

2.2 Time Spent on the iInternet

 It has been recently reported that adolescents today spend a significant amount of their time on the
internet for multiple purposes (Olatokun, 2008; Krischne and Karpinski, 2009; Ogedebe, 2012; Singh et
al., 2013; Bragdon and Dowler, 2016). Evidence abound that excessive internet use has been associated
with problems of maintaining daily routines, school performance, and family relationships (Rickert,
2001). A study conducted by Bragdon and Dowler (2016) on college students’ technology use and
academic performance indicated that upperclassmen spent significantly more time using technology for
academic and work related purposes, whereas underclassmen spent more time using cell phones, online
chatting and social networking. According to Olatokun (2008), a large proportion of secondary school
students in Nigeria had been involved to some extent in using the internet in their everyday lives for
about four to five years now. Ogedebe (2012) observed that Nigeria tertiary students prefer browsing the
internet overnight to that of the day. Research shows that most students spent an average of 2570.6 (42.8
hours) per week engaging in some form of technology (Bragdon and Dowler, 2016). 10 Krischne and
Karpinski (2009) carried out a study on Facebook and academic performance. Facebook users and non-
users reported comparable average daily internet use and the highest category endorsed was between 1
and 2 hours pay day. However, Facebook users were recording lower GPA and spending fewer hours per
week studying on average than non-users. According to Singh et al. (2013), because of non-focused
approach (mailing, gaming and social networking) as well as diversity of knowledge on the internet on
particular topics, students tend to waste time on the internet. Similar activities (Chatting, e-mail and
browsing websites) have been identified by Samual (2010) in an attempt to evaluate internet usage
among secondary school students in public schools in Lagos State. Evidence from Denizli on the effects
of technological devices on student’s academic success suggested that most students have been late in
submitting their assignments because they spend more time on social media instead of doing their
homework (Yesilyurt et al., 2014). However, Singh et al. (2013) found that students with focused
approach go deep in subject and primarily use internet for academic purpose. These students do not
waste time because of proper management of time, focus of search areas and reducing the social
networking sites to minimum. Despite great concerns over excessive internet use, Siraj et al. (2015)
concluded that high internet usage brings better academic results as students get the opportunity to enter
the information world.

2.3 Impact of Internet

Ngoumandjoka (2012) categorized internet users into heavy and light users. In his view, academic work
is the main reason students use the internet on campus. Students who were classified as heavy users were
found to use the internet more for recreational purpose than the light internet users. His study further
argued that the more the internet is used for academic work the more it is perceived to exert a positive
influence on academic grades. A number of authors 11 (e.g Torres-Diaz et al., 2016) equally agreed that
internet usage has a positive impact on academic performance. They opined that students who tend to
use the internet more on educational materials are less likely to fail their examinations. Therefore, the
disadvantages of lack of access to internet surpass the advantages. Also people who perform interactive
activities with peers and teachers or when they make a balance use of internet tools for their course work
tend to have greater academic performance (Torres-Diaz et al., 2016). In Nigeria, the impact of computer
literacy on students’ performance in secondary school has been explored by Aitokhuehi et al. (2014).
They found that computer literate students performed better than noncomputer literate students. Similar
results have been obtained by Samual (2010) when he evaluated the impact of internet usage among
secondary school students in Nigeria. His study found internet usage to be low among public schools in
Lagos compared to their counterparts in the developed world. Internet has become a daily commodity in
most people’s lives. However, the addictive-like features of the internet make any individual who
excessively use it a potential victim of its negative effects. Some of its negative effects include impaired
sleeping patterns, social relationships break-ups, job losses, mental and physical health as well as poor
academic performance (Ngoumandjoka, 2012). Psychological issues ranging from mood swings to
altered behavior, withdrawn attitude and loneliness have been reported by Singh et al. (2013) to be the
main effect of using the internet mainly for social networking and mailing. This is because they remain
in some sort of virtual world of the net. Turel and Toraman (2015) found in their study that as academic
performance of students deemed successfully increases, their internet addiction average decrease. This
implies that, internet addiction has an effect on the academic 12 performance of students. Aitokhuehi et
al. (2014) also noted that computer literate students who are not addicted to the use of computer facilities
perform better than those who are addicted to its usage. Kakkar (2015) established a significant effect of
internet addiction on students’ performance and mental health. Categorically, he revealed that students
who were in the server and profound group of internet addiction were found to have detrimental effect
on their academic performance and metal health rather than the students who use the internet
moderately. Similarly results have been obtained by Austin et al. (2011) in their study that categorized
internet users into light, moderate and intense users respectively. They discovered that students that use
the internet at school and at home (moderate use) produce higher grades than those that do not use the
internet. Also students that only use the internet at school (light users) obtained lower grades compared
to those that did not use the internet. Despite great concerns over excessive internet use, Siraj et al.
(2015) concluded that high internet usage brings better academic results as students get the opportunity
to enter the information world. It is reported that addiction to internet is a good protector for student’s
social skills and academic achievement (Mami and Hatami-Zad, 2014). A relationship between internet
addiction and academic performance showed that the average internet addiction level of male students,
vocational school students and verbal field students were determined to be higher than more
academically sacksful students (Turel and Toraman, 2015). This supports the idea that control use of
internet can have positive influence on student’s academic performance (TorresDiaz et al., 2016; Ellore
et al., 2014; Kakkar, 2014). Moreover, it is necessary that students are taught how to use computer
facilities to search for valid information relating to their academic work (Mami and Hatami-Zad, 2014;
Aitokhuehi et al., 2014). As a result, it is necessary that 13 government and stakeholders make available
computer sets with internet facilities to all secondary schools for students and teachers to use in the
teaching and learning process to enhance academic performance (Aitokhuehi et al., 2014).

2.4 Challenges in Accessing the Internet

Olatokun (2008) noted that the greatest obstacles to the full exploitation of the internet are inadequate
access, inherent risks and problems such as pornography, scams among others. Though evidence showed
that students have interest in internet resources than other sources, they have been challenged (Sahin et
al., 2010). Therefore, it is necessary that internet access is made available at all hours and instructors or
lectures should refer students to educational websites for more relevant information (Osunnade, 2003). It
has been found that internet access is low among senior high school students. Apart from access, it is
disheartening to note that some students cannot even operate a computer despite the number of years
spent in secondary school (Samual, 2010). According to Ruth and Adedotun (2015), information sources
that are mostly available to Nigerian students are their teachers and lesson notes while library and
internet facilities are the least available to them. Meanwhile, the internet can be used for knowledge
acquisition by serving as an alternative to outdated books (Osunade, 2003). However, access to a
computer and internet connection contributes to students’ academic performance (Yesilyurt et al. 2014).
There is a significant difference in the academic performance of students with internet access and those
without internet access. Taking into account the positive and negative impacts of the internet, Yesilyurt
et al. (2014) opined that the positive influence outweighs the negative impacts.
Negative and positive impact of internet addiction on
young adults: Empericial study in Malaysia

Syed Shah Alam1 , Nik Mohd. Hazrul Nik Hashim2 , Maisarah

Ahmad1
Che Aniza Che Wel1 , Sallehuddin Mohd Nor1 , Nor Asiah
Omar1

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (Malaysia)

The National University of Malaysia (Malaysia)

shahalam@ukm.my, nikhaz@ukm.my, sara@ukm.my,

aniza@ukm.my, smn@ukm.my, norasiah@ukm.my

Received July, 2013 Accepted February, 2014

 Abstract

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to explore and identify the impact of Internet addictions on young
adults in Malaysia. There are six impacts identified, of which five are negative impacts and one is a
positive impact. Design/methodology/approach: This study comprised a sample of 200 young adults in
Malaysia. A cross-sectional research design was used to examine the impact of Internet addiction. Data
were gathered based on personal administered questionnaires. Findings: Mann-Whitney U test results
show that the adults those are using Internet excessively were having some problems such as
interpersonal problem, behavioural problem, physical problem, psychological problem, and work
problem in their daily life. The young adults believed that the Internet usage can help them to improve
their skills for doing their work better. This study also reveals that males were likely having working
problems, psychological problems, behavioural problems and interpersonal -619- Intangible Capital –
http://dx.doi.org/10.3926/ic.452 problems than female. On the other hand, females were having their
physical problems while using Internet excessively. Research limitations/implications: The data for this
study are collected by selfadministered questionnaires, a method with well-known shortcomings.
Secondly, the sample size itself is relatively small. This study can be strengthened by increasing the
sample size and including participants in other geographical areas in Malaysia. Practical implications:
The present study reveals five negative impacts i.e. interpersonal problem, behavioural problem,
physical problem, psychological problem, and work problem for excessive Internet usage. Government
agencies like Health department of Malaysia and other government agencies should create better
awareness of the problem having while using Internet. It can be done by having seminars or introduction
sessions at all universities in Malaysia. Originality/value: The findings are original and unique and are
based on the literature from different western researches. The results are based on a sample of young
adults in Malaysia. The research findings are useful to academics and heavy Internet users who are
hooked with Internet to their everyday life. Keywords: Internet addiction, young adults, Malaysia Jel
Codes: M15, L86

2. Literature review

2.1. Concept of Internet addiction

Internet addiction, as an impulse control disorder that does not involve the use of an intoxicating drug
and is very similar to pathological gambling (B. Young, 2006). It is defined as a non-chemical or
behavioural addiction that involves human-machine interaction, that can be either passive, such as
viewing movies or active, such as playing computer games (Widyanto & Griffiths, 2006). Moreover,
Internet addiction is defined as a maladaptive use of the Internet that can lead to social and functional
impairment (Solomon, 2009). The concepts of Internet addiction can be viewed from different aspects
such as according to Davis, Flett and Besser (2002) and Shapira, Goldsmith, Keck, Khosla and Mcelroy
(2000) inability of individuals to control their use of the Internet, which then causes psychological,
social, school, and/or work difficulties. Commenting on the Psychological point of view, Kandell (1998)
argued that due to increasing tolerance to the effect of being online, increase number of investment of
sources on Internet related activities, unpleasant feelings when off-line, and denial of the problematic
behaviours are main reasons for dependent on the Internet. There are numerous models that have been
proposed to categorize various types of online activities. It can be concluded that, a similarity across
these models has been the differentiation between interactive and information gathering functions. Early
empirical studies -622- Intangible Capital – http://dx.doi.org/10.3926/ic.452 carried out by K.S. Young
(1998) categorised Internet addiction to five specific subtypes such as: • Cyber-sexual addiction (use of
adult chat rooms or cyber-porn); • Cyber-relationship addiction (over involvement in online
relationship); • Net compulsions (online gambling, online shopping, online trading); • Information
overload (compulsive web surfing or searches) and • Computer addiction (obsessive computer game).
Indeed, Young’s (2001) approach of five phases of Internet addiction process belongs toward the users
such as: • Discovery; • Experimentation, • Escalation; • Compulsion; and • Hopelessness. Now-a-days
individuals are getting hooked on the Internet such as on pornography, Internet gambling, online
shopping, searching for non-important information or chatting for a very long time. It could be happen
because, it is compulsory for the students to use Internet, working with the Internet is effective and
productive, and feeling comfortable with online friends than the real one, playing games online and also
easy Internet access to all mobile devices including smartphone, tablet or other mobile devices
(Solomon, 2009). In addition, when it is during online states the addicted young adults feels excited,
thrilled, uninhibited, attractive, supported, and more desirable. Whereas, offline situations make him
and/or her frustrated, worried, angry, anxious, and depressed. These strong positive emotions reinforce
the compulsive behaviour refers to that Internet addiction of young adults create a numbing effect
(Young, 1999). On the other hand, the Internet brings the world so close together today, by its positive
aspects such as conducting research, performing business transactions & communications, accessing
library journals, and communicating with social relations, etc. Unfortunately, the Internet is misused by
some groups of individuals. Some individuals tend to get obsessed in midst of getting exposed and
familiarised with the Internet (Sukunesan, 1999). There are also various opinions on Internet addiction.
As common saying, it is not an addiction if someone is -623- Intangible Capital –
http://dx.doi.org/10.3926/ic.452 addicted to anything and it is knowledge (Kim, 2008). However, Young
(1998) thinks that it could be hazardous to someone’s mental and physical health if Internet is being used
excessively.
2.2. Internet addiction in Asia-Malaysia
There have been dramatic increases in the use of Internet in Asia, herein particularly in Malaysia. The
year 1995 is considered as the beginning of the rising age of the Internet in Malaysia. Malaysia was rank
10th in Asian countries Internet usage perspective of which 177.23 million of Malaysian have Internet
(Internet World Stats, 2012). Total Internet users in China (538 million) followed by Japan (101
million), India (137 million), South Korea (40.3 million) Internet users. The Internet serves different
purposes depending on the user in Asia. According to Hechanova and Czincz (2009) Internet is being
used by the teenagers in Singapore to obtain information on sports, entertainment, science and
technology and hobbies. In a study done in Taiwan, it is found that Internet is being used by individuals
for games, information searching, entertainment and chatting (Jung et al., 2005). In Malaysia, people set
up profiles, upload photos and add friends on social networking sites to keep in touch and share events
with friends (Chandra, 2011). A wide range of Internet addiction from 2.4% to 12.90% (Hechanova &
Czincz, 2009) was measured using Young’s criteria of addiction, the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), in
China. According to the study it is found that the average addiction rate in China is 7.70% (standard
deviation 3.58). In Taiwan, it reveals a much higher average Internet addiction rate of 17.55% (standard
deviation 9.26) from 5 studies carried out. While in Hong Kong, studies carried out on a random sample
of 976 respondent aged 16 to 24, found that 37.9% can be classified as Internet addicts (Hechanova &
Czincz, 2009). In a nutshell, based on the studies done, the Internet addiction rate in Asia has a large
range, (between 2.4% to 37.9%).
2.3. Young adults
Literature written for people ranging from ten years up to the age of twenty is counting as young adults.
Young adults’ generally means the group of people who is aged between 20 and 40. The healthiest time
in life is during young adulthood and young adults are in good health without suffering from any
diseases. At the age between 20-35 years, the biological function and physical performances reach the
peak and start weaken after the age of 35. Flexibility of the body decreases with age throughout
adulthood (Erikson, 1950).
2.4. Effect of Internet addiction
There are numerous impacts of Internet addiction found from the previous research. The negative
impacts of Internet addiction includes, the impact on interpersonal relationship where the relationship of
an individual is getting further from surrounding (Morahan-Martin, 2005). Individual might face
behavioural problem due to over usage of Internet where they are reacting differently than the normal
behaviour (Kubey, Lavin & Barrows, 2001). Some other physical problem might occur due to long use
of the Internet. Some physical problems are migraine or headache, sleep pattern disrupt etc (Jeon, 2005;
You, 2007; an d Yang & Tung, 2004). Some other problems include psychological problems where an
individual are unable to control their emotions and the way of thinking due to long hour use of the
Internet. They tend to increase the net serving time and eliminate the set schedule. Moreover, the impact
of Internet addiction does not limit to affect an individual only but might also affect the work
performance of an individual (K.S. Young, 2008). The condition is getting worried when the work
problem has brought some impacts to the people working together and to the company that the
individual is working with. Putting aside the negative impacts, Internet addiction however brought some
positive impacts to the user. The Internet provides users with information, connecting worldwide,
promoting research, work with other people from overseas country effectively. Previous studies were
conducted in various countries like Taiwan, Italy and Pakistan to determine the impact of Internet
addictions for heavy users. Theories are developed throughout the researches to assess the negative and
positive impacts of Internet addictions. Those researches, researchers used different theories and
amended Theories are varies and based on the culture and environmental situation of the country. K.S.
Young’s (1998) version of Internet Addiction Test (IAT) was applied in Italy and French studies, but the
researchers for the respective countries amended some characteristics to the test to suit the culture of the
respondents. In a study conducted in Pakistan, Internet Effect Scale (IES) were constructed by the
researchers to test similar impact on the respondents. Hence, for this study, applied was the similar
version of IES but factor on Internet Abuse is eliminated in the investigation as the questions proposed
were considered sensitive to the Malaysian culture.
There are six effects of Internet addictions derived from the literature review. Those are taken as
measures for this study and are discussed below:
2.4.1. Interpersonal problem
Interpersonal problems are recurrent difficulties in relating to others (Loke, 2005). It could be argued
that interpersonal problems are the problem people react differently in a situation where other peoples in
that situation expecting other ways. The interpersonal aspect was important for the Internet users.
According to Li and Chung (2006) those who use the Internet for long time for social function purposes
might be having some problems such as the compulsive use of Internet, withdrawal from social
activities, decrease the tolerance, facing time management problem, interpersonal and health problems.
The researcher also argued that excessive Internet users exhibit more severe Internet addictive
behaviours. The extent of Internet use increases depression and decreases self- esteem (Jeon, 2005;
Young, 2006; Yang & Tung, 2004). Wellman and Gulia (1999) reported that online relationships can be
strong and could strengthen real world relationships but later it could be faded it. As such, 75.5% of
respondents prefer to use the Internet when they feel isolated; 50% of respondents reported complaints
from family members for being online for longer hours; less than 50% of respondents think that they
were more effective online than offline (Shuhail & Bergees, 2006). The relationships between excessive
Internet usage and interpersonal problem are increasing rapidly. Li and Chung (2006) stated that it is
very important to know how Internet users formed their relationship with their friends through online or
normal social life. According to them it is also necessary to check whether the people are missing their
social engagement, whether they more comfortable with online friend and reduce the contact with the
people in reality or not. In addition, the interpersonal problems are also identifiable based on the family
members’ complaints toward excessive Internet users’. Furthermore, isolated feeling that leads to
excessive Internet usage can also be used to determine interpersonal problems (Wellman & Gulia, 1999;
Shuhail & Bergees, 2006).
2.4.2. Behavioural problem
Bandura (1999) suggests that “Behaviour” is based on internal personal factors including cognitive,
affective and biological events and conditions of the external environment that influence each other bi-
directionally. A study conducted by Brenner (1997) and Scherer (1997) concluded that time
mismanagement effects are generally associated with heavy Internet use. Another study conducted by
Kubey et et al. (2001) suggested that heavy recreational use of the Internet among a group of 572 college
students was correlated with additional problems including; late evening use, social isolation and sleep
disturbances and a decline in academic performance. Half of the respondents in the Pakistan study had to
reschedule their activities to -626- Intangible Capital – http://dx.doi.org/10.3926/ic.452 compromise with
online hours, and they skipped meals for being online (Shuhail & Bergees, 2006). Kubey et et al. (2001)
study examined the behaviour problems and determined how the respondents behave differently
compared to usual. This research analysed whether the respondents always need to reschedule their time
due to heavy Internet usage. Other researchers also conducted researches on the time spent on the
Internet usage in behavioural perspective (Brenner, 1997; Scherer, 1997).
2.4.3. Physical problem
Heavy Internet users were much less likely to engage in the following health promoting behaviours than
the rest; attempting to eat a healthier diet, taking nutritional supplements, trying to increase physical
activity levels, and were shown to be significantly more likely to be overweight Body Mass Index (BMI
>25), have hypersomnia (>10 h of sleep/day) and have adverse effects on their studies (Jean, Lau,
 Cheuk, Kan, Hui & Griffiths, 2010). The adverse effect would be; migraine or headache, less sleep, and
backaches because of prolong hours of Internet usage (Shuhail & Bergees, 2006). Sleep patterns are
disrupted due to late night logins which resulted to excessive fatigue, impairing academic or decreasing
occupational performance, and may decrease the immune system, leaving the addict prone to disease.
Sitting at the computer for longer hours also means that addicts are at higher risk in developing carpal
tunnel syndrome (K.S. Young, 2004). The previous studies have found that excessive Internet use brings
several physical problems such as backache and other body aches after Internet users spent a long time
in the Internet (Young, 2004). The duration of sleeping time will be used to see the respondents’ passion
in surfing the Internet. On the other hand, the fatigue faced by the Internet users also will determine the
Internet addiction impact to the young working adults. Migraine or headache problems also will show
the correlation effects with excessive Internet usage (Shuhail & Bergees, 2006; Jean et al., 2010).
2.4.4. Psychological problem
Rotter (1966) originally described the psychological construct of locus of control as an element of
personality. Locus of control refers to the perception of the extent to which individuals can control
events in their lives. The research by Rotsztein (2003) suggested that the higher the (external) locus of
control score (i.e., those who feel that events in their lives are out of their hands) a student has, the more
likely they were to have reported problems due to Internet use. Internet addiction also appears to
frequently co-occur with psychological disorders such as; other compulsive behaviours and depression
(Young, 1998). Studied by Ferraro et al. (2007) in Italy argued that if anybody spent a lot of time using
the Internet are probably the most addicted, the addicted person felt the coercive need to be connected
again with Internet. Psychology is the science of mind and behaviour (Young, 1998). Therefore, to
evaluate its’ correlation with heavy Internet usage, this research asked the respondents whether they are
experiencing restlessness, irritability, anxiety, and low mood when they are staying for a long time on
the Internet. The mind of respondents whether in pleasure and satisfaction mood during online is also
used as an analysis of this research. The attempt to avoid stress and problems by using Internet is also
one of the psychological problems evaluated in this research (Rotter, 1966; Ferraro et al., 2007).
2.4.5. Work problem
Many employers have recognized that unlimited use of the Internet by employees has the potential to
reduce, rather to than enhance productivity (Young, 2010). A study conducted by Landers and Lounsbury
(2004) in testing personality traits with Internet usage suggested that the negative relationship between Work
Drive and Internet usage may simply reflect that Internet users who spend a lot of time on the Internet do so
at the expense of time that could be spent on studying hard and giving extra effort to get good grades.
Indeed, the significant negative correlation between Work Drive and percentage of Internet time classified
as Leisure supports the notion that Internet usage is motivated by non-work (i.e., leisure) pursuits. Also,
frequent Internet usage may not be functional for more hardworking students. Hence, employees who
engaged in non-essential Internet usage on their work have been considered as having a lower work ethic
(Ritterskamp, 2003). Employed Internet users were more at-risk for developing an Internet Addiction
Disorder (IAD) than unemployed ones; and they perceived their social and individual quality life more
compromised (Ferraro et al., 2007). Bakken, Wenzel, Götestam, Johansson and Oren (2009) studied on
Internet addiction among -628- Intangible Capital – http://dx.doi.org/10.3926/ic.452 Norwegian adults and
found that unsatisfactory financial situation is one of the factors that associated with Internet addiction. The
excessive Internet usage will cause the delay of work accomplished (K. Young, 2010). Due to the Internet
usage, some of the respondents maybe surfing Internet for personal purposes during working hours, and it
ends up the workers need to work overtime to finish their work. With that, this research also aims to find out
the work performances of the workers due to the excessive Internet usage (Landers & Lounsbury, 2004;
Bakken et al., 2009; Ferraro et al., 2007).
2.4.6. Positive effect
The Internet has positive aspects including informative, convenient, resourcefulness and fun, but for the
addicts, these benefits become detriments. There are some opinions on Internet addiction (Kim, 2008). A
great majority of the respondents in Pakistan study (84%) reported that Internet is helpful for worldwide
communication; 74% experienced improvement in their reading, writing and information processing skills
by using the Internet (Shuhail & Bergees, 2006). Kaye and Johnson (2004) stated that Internet users are
more actively involved and engaged in using the Internet because of its interactivity. Papacharissi and Rubin
(2000) used their Internet usage scale and identified five motivations for using the Internet namely;
interpersonal utility, pass time, information seeking, convenience, and entertainment. Roy (2009) found out
that Internet users experienced self- development, wide range of exposure, relaxation and leisure, and higher
global exchange of information and views. Besides that, Internet usage had helped the young working adults
also in their life (Roy, 2009). Essentially, the Internet has a lot of benefits to the users and for the young
working adults. It is significant to see whether Internet is a helpful tool in their work to improve work
performances by expending the respondents reading, writing and information processing skills. Finally, this
is required to identify whether the Internet has made the world wide communication possible to the
respondents and has helped them in working as well (Kim, 2008; Shuhail & Bergees, 2006).