CHAPTER 9

Control surface design

9.1. Introduction

Proper design of control surfaces requires

calculation of the dynamic stability of the
airplane. This is an involved task. In the
preliminary design, as part of this course, we rely
on the assumption that if an airplane is statically
stable, it would have reasonable dynamic
stability. This is valid only for conventional
airplanes. We follow the approach given by
Ref.1.3, chapter 1-9. His approach can be
summarized as follows.
(I) For longitudinal stability and control

(a) At the rear-most location of c.g., the airplane

should be at least neutrally stable, for stick-free
condition.

(b) At the foremost c.g. location , the elevator must

be able to provide control (i.e. trim), at
CLmax in landing configuration.

(c) Adequate control for nose wheel lift-off at

V = 0.85 Vt.o.
(II) Directional stability:

(a) The vertical tail should provide desirable

level of directional stability.

(b) Rudder should be powerful enough to

provide directional control in cross wind
take-off and landing, one engine
inoperative condition, adverse yaw
during roll and spin recovery.

(III) Dihedral:

The dihedral angle should be such as to

give adequate level of lateral stability.
Remarks:

i) Before obtaining the tail parameters it is

desirable to decide the configuration of the
tail. Section 6.5 describes various
configurations and their merits and
demerits.

ii) It is assumed that the student has already

undergone the course in airplane stability
and control. Reference 1.16 and chapter 15
of Ref.1.11 may be consulted to revise the
background.
 9.2. Estimation of horizontal tail and
elevator areas
Following Ref.1.3, chapter 1-9, the expression for
(dCm/dCL)free , with standard notations, is as
follows.

(dCm/dCL)free = (xc.g/ c ) – (xa.c/ c ) + (dCm/dCL)fus,nac

⎛ dε ⎞⎛ C hα t ⎞ (9.1)
+ (dCm/dCL)power – (at/aw) V η t ⎜ 1 − ⎟⎜1 −τ C ⎟
⎝ dα ⎠⎝ hδ e ⎠

If (dCm/dCL)free is zero at the rear most c.g location

then, equating L.H.S of Eq.(9.1) to zero gives:
( X c .g . ) a ft X a .c . ⎛ d C m ⎞ at dε
= −⎜ ⎟ + V η t (1 − )
c c ⎝ d C L ⎠ fu s n a c a w dα w
C hα t dC m
(1 − )+ ( ) pow er
C hδ d C Lδ
The expression for Cmcg in landing configuration is:
Cmcg = (xcg/ c – xac/ c ) CL + Cmflap + Cmfuse, nac +

Cmpower - Cmδ [δe max + (αw - ε - iw +it)/τ].

For Cmcg = 0 at CL equal to CLmax near ground and
c.g. at the most forward position with δe = (δe)max.
We get :

x c.g. x ac Cmo δ e max + α w − ε G − i w + i t

( )forward = − [ ]
c c CL max τ
Cmacflaps + Cmfusnac + Cmpower
+ (9.2)
Cmδ
Reference 1.3, p. 1-9:4 suggests that the size of
horizontal tail can be obtained by equating the
difference between (xc.g) aft and (xc.g) forward ,as
given by Eqs. (9.1) & (9.2), to ∆xcg which is the
difference between the most aft and most forward
c.g locations for the airplane under consideration
i.e.,
∆xc.g. = (xc.g.)aft – (xc.g.)forward (9.3)

∆xcg is known from calculation of c.g. shift done

in chapter 8. Substituting from Eqs.(9.1) and
(9.2) on the right hand side of Eq.(9.3) we get:
∆x cg
x ac x acf dCm at dε Chα
= − −( )fus,nac + Vηt (1 − )(1 − τ)
c c c dCL aw dα w Chδ
⎛ α WG − ε G − i w + i t ⎞
⎜ δ e max + ( ) ⎟
dCm Cmδ G ⎜ τ
−( )power + ⎟(9.4)
dCL CL max ⎜ Cmacflaps + Cmfus,nac + Cmpower ⎟
⎜ + ⎟
⎝ C mδ ⎠
In the Eq. (9.4) we know ∆xcg .We also know
(i) For wing xac, xacflap, aw, αw, εG, dε/dα, iw,
Cmac flap.
(ii) For fuselage: Cmfuse, nac, (dCm/dCL)fuse, nac
(iii) For engine: (Cm)power, (dCm/dCL)power
As regards the horizontal tail, we proceed as follows .
a) From data collection choose the location of tail on
fuselage. Knowing the location , lt, dε/dα, ηt can be
estimated from Ref.1.3, chapter 1-9.
b) From data collection choose aspect ratio (AR) ,
taper ratio (λ) , Sweep ( Λ ), Selevator/ St and type
of aerodynamic balance. Knowing these parameters
estimate at , τ , Chδ , Chα and Cmδ . It may be
added that Cmδ is given by (- V at ηt τ). At this
stage V is taken based on the data collection.
This value will be refined subsequently.

(c) The tail setting ( it) can be determined from

trim at CLcr without elevator deflection.

With the above information, solve

Eq.(9.4) for V . Since lt/ c is known, St can be
calculated. If the value of V assumed to get
Cmδ in step (b) is too different from the value
obtained now, then iteration will be needed till
the assumed value and the calculated value
are almost the same.
9.2.1 Check for nose wheel lift off
During take-off, with a nose wheel landing gear,
all the three landing gears are in contact with
ground initially. When the speed approaches
85% of the take-off speed, the pilot applies the
elevator, the airplane rotates and achieves angle
of attack corresponding to take-off. This
situation is called nose wheel lift off (NWLO).
The elevator must have sufficient area to enable
this.
From Ref.1.3, chapter 1-9, we get the following
equation for moment at NWLO.
 xa
(Cmcg ) NWLO = Cmcg + CmcgG = Cmacflaps + Cmpower + CL
c
L − W x G + µ yG
Cmfus,nac − a t V Gηt (α wG − ε G − i w + i t +τδ e ) + ( ) (9.5)
qS c

Equating (Cmcg)NWLO to zero, we solve Eq.(9.5) and

obtain V .
If this value of V is higher than that obtained earlier
then choose this value .
See example in Ref.1.3, article 1-9:7 and also section
7 of Appendix 10.2.
9.3. Estimation of vertical tail area

The requirement of directional stability

prescribes that dCn/dψ or (-dCn/dβ) be
negative at all speeds above 1.2 Vs.
Cnψ = (Cnψ)w + (Cnψ)fus, nac + (Cnψ)power + (Cnψ)vt (9.6)

Reference 1.3, section 1-9:5 gives formulae to

estimate contributions of various components.
It is recommended that :
(Cnψ)desirable = -0.00015 per degree.
Reference 1.11, chapter 16 gives (Cnβ)desirable
as function of Mach number. See Fig. 9.1 .
 Fig 9.1 Guidelines for Cnβ
(Adapted from Ref.1.11,chapter 16)
 Following steps could be followed to obtain the
area of the vertical tail :

a) Obtain (Cnψ)wing, ( Cnψ)fuselage, ( Cnψ)nac, (Cnψ)power.

The last three terms can be grouped as (Cnψ)f,n,p

( Cnψ )v. tail = (Cnψ)desirable – (Cnψ)wing-(Cnψ)f,n,p (9.7)

b) Now (Cnψ)v.tail = -av (Sv/S) (lv/b) ηv + Ki (9.8)
Ki = Interference factor which depends on wing
location.

c) Assume vertical tail configuration from data

collection and estimate av , ηv , lv and b.
Now solve Eq.(9.8) to get Sv.
9.3.1 Area of rudder
Rudder must provide adequate control during the
following situations.
a) Cross wind take-off and landing
b) One engine inoperative condition for multi-
engined airplane.
c) Spin recovery
1) Cross wind take-off and landing:
For an airplane, the critical case prescribed is
during take-off with cross wind equal to 20% of
Vt.o. This gives a yaw angle(ψcross) of 11.50 or 0.2
radian .The moment due to cross wind equals
Cnψ x ψcross.
This must be balanced by rudder deflection of
δrmax which is taken as 20o or 25o. Note that
 moment due to rudder is given by:
(Cn)rudder = - av τ ( Sv/S) (lv/b)ηv δ rmax (9.9)
Using equation(9.9) obtain τ . Since τ depends on
(Srudder / Sv), the rudder area can be calculated .
2) One engine inoperative case :
For a multi-engine airplane, when an engine is
inoperative, the other engine will cause a yawing
moment. This moment has to be balanced by the
rudder. The yawing moment due to engine will be
almost constant with the flight speed. However the
moment due to rudder is proportional to the square
of the flight velocity. Hence there is a speed
below which the maximum rudder deflection
(δ rmax) would not be able to balance the moment.
The requirement from this consideration is that the
rudder should be effective till V = 1.3Vs

3) Spin recovery :

Rudder is the only control available to start

recovery from a spin. During this flight a part of
rudder is blanketed by the horizontal tail. The
wake of the horizontal tail can be considered to be
along a line 450 degree from the leading edge of
the horizontal tail (Fig.9.2).

Reference 1.11, chapter 4 recommends that at

least 1/3rd of rudder must be left unblanketed for
spin recovery. This calls for appropriate relative
locations of horizontal tail and vertical tail.
Fig 9.2 Guidelines for relative locations of horizontal
tail and vertical tail from spin recovery consideration
(Adapted from Ref. 1.11, chapter 4 )
9.4 Dihedral angle:

When an airplane rolls it develops a side slip (β).

This side slip produces a restoring rolling moment
(Cl’). Hence a negative value of ( dCl’/ dβ ) or
C’lβ .is needed. Wing, fuselage, nacelle, power and
vertical tail contribute to C’lβ . The dihedral angle
(Γ) is chosen to provide for the difference between
desired value of C’lβ and the sum of contributions
due to wing, fuselage, nacelle, power and vertical
tail . The steps to obtain Γ are as follows.

Calculate C’lβ = (C’lβ)wing without dihedral angle

+ (C’lβ)f,n,p
(9.10)
 Ref.1.11, chapter 16 mentions that C’lβ should be
negative. Reference 5.2, chapter 9 suggests that:
(C’lβ) desirable = (-1/2 ) Cnψ (9.11)
The difference between C’lβ given by Eqs. (9.10)
and (9.11) is provided by the dihedral.
Reference 1.11, chapter 16 suggests that C’lβ
due to dihedral is approximately 0.0002 Γ
where Γ is in degrees. This would provide first
estimation of dihedral angle.
Remark:
Section 16.10, of Ref.1.11 deals with topics like
handling qualities, lateral control departure
parameter (LCDP) and spin recovery parameter.
These are suggested as topics for self-study.
EXERCISES

9.1 Briefly explain as to how the following angles

are chosen

(i) wing setting

(ii) wing twist

(iii) tail setting and

(iv) wing dihedral angle.