Revision guide

for
Psychology
EXAM 2019

TOPICS IN EXAM:

Intro to psych

Altered States of Awareness

Learning

Personality

Social Cognition

Healthy Minds

Lay out :

Provided by the SACE board. It will include both short answer and 2 x Extended Response
Question. Conducted online using a lock down browser.
What can I do????
Go over statements of outcomes- in revision booklets or each topic.

Highlight in different colours

i.e. green - I know this, pink – needs some work, yellow – ummm what?? ????

Go over Text Book / Notes in your book / the photocopied notes you have.

Re-read and write out notes.

Re-do tests

Look at past exams (SACE website) https://www.sace.sa.edu.au/web/psychology/stage-2/support-materials/chief-

assessors-report-exams

Other things you could do!

i.e. contacted notes in shower / back of toilet door

flash cards to take with you when you go out or are on the bus or a passenger in the car ( I
don’t advise you use them if you are driving!).

App for flash cards so you can use your phone

Mind maps- these are great as you can use them as consolidating tools and act as a retrieval
cue.

Quiz yourself / friends / get parents to quiz you

I’m Stuck what next????????

Read text…..

Ask friend…..

Email teacher or daymap message! …… anthea.pakos164@schools.sa.edu.au

Below you will find revision sheets

and summaries
 REVISION: Introduction to psychology

1. Describe the following 3 investigation designs used in psychology:

a. Experimental,
b. Quantitative observational,
c. Qualitative.

2. State at least 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of the above investigation designs.

3. Describe and illustrate with at least two examples, the following 3 methods of assessing psychological
responses:
a. Objective quantitative measures,
b. Subjective Quantitative measures,
c. Qualitative assessment.

4. State at least 2 advantages and disadvantages of both quantitative and qualitative investigations.

5. Describe how Focus groups and the Delphi technique are used to gain qualitative data in research programs.

6. What are the differences between experimental investigations and quantitative observational investigations?

7. Determine the mean and median of the following set of IQ scores:

98 , 102 , 87 , 115 , 132 , 92 , 140 , 87 , 113 , 88

8. How can the standard deviation be used to describe the spread of data around the mean?
a. If data is normally distributed, describe how the standard deviation can be used to discuss the spread
of the data about the mean.

9. Describe the ethical issues associated with research investigations.

10. Behaviour can be explained in terms of the following levels of explanation:

a. Biological level
b. Basic Processes level
c. Person Level
d. Socio-Cultural level
Provide a brief explanation of how each of these levels can be used to explain behaviour.
 REVISION: Introduction to psychology – Suggested Answers

1. Describe the following 3 investigation designs used in psychology:

a. Experimental:

Uses quantitative (numerical) data.

Focus on identifying causal explanations for behaviours or events.

Aim is to identify causal links between variables.

Allow psychologists to test possible explanations for behaviours or events.

Manipulate and control the independent variable and observe the effect it has on the dependent variable.

All other variables must be kept constant between groups (control and experimental groups).

Presence of a control group.

Random allocation of participants to groups.

Pre-testing before and Post-testing following the treatment given to the experimental group.

Control over extraneous variables.

Hypothesis testing to see whether the treatment had an effect.

b. Quantitative Observational (correlational):

Uses quantitative (numerical) data.

Non experimental.

Used to work out the degree and direction of of relationship between two variables.

A positive correlation means that two variables increase or decrease together.

A negative correlation means that two variables move in different directions: when one increases the other decreases.

With this method psychologists can figure out if there is a relationship between two variables without having to
manipulate one.

Can be used where it is impractical or unethical to use an experiment.

Correlation is not the same as causation.

A correlation is not enough to make a conclusion of causation - it may be a coincidence.

c. Qualitative:

Uses qualitative (non-numerical) data.

Not concerned with testing theories identifying causal processes, but with getting an in-depth understanding of
individuals' experiences within their natural environment.
Researchers observe and describe the experiences and the behaviour of individuals within the context of their
environment.

Useful when there is little known about a phenomena.

Naturalistic observation. Researcher observes behaviour without having and preconceived ideas. Behaviours are often
defined prior to the observation. Animal research is often done in this way as they are more likely to exhibit normal
behaviour in their natural habitat than in a laboratory.

Case study. A single case or a number of closely related cases are studied in depth and detail.

Survey. Use interviews or questionnaires to ask people about their opinions, attitudes, beliefs, behaviour or intention.

Focus group. Informal interviews of small groups of people (6 - 12). They have a specific set of questions that are asked
to direct the discussion. The researcher or expert facilitator leads the discussion. An observer takes notes.

Delphi technique. Small group of participants, though they do not need to be together and responses are made in
written form. Used for complex problem solving where the aim is to obtain the consensus of a group. Commonly a
series of questionnaires are used to obtain the participants' opinions.

2. State at least 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of the above investigation designs:

a. Experimental:

Advantages - allows researchers to infer causal explanations for the relationship between the variables; it is possible to
replicate the study; maximises the control of extraneous variables; allows results to be generalised.

Disadvantages - may not apply to the real world; a sample may not be truly representational of the entire population
of interest; may involve ethical concerns; many variables cannot be controlled or manipulated; extraneous variables
may prevent valid conclusions.

b. Quantitative observational (correlational):

Advantages - may be more convenient than experimental; makes research possible when there are ethical concerns;
can give evidence for causal explanations; can be carried out in a naturalistic setting; may clarify relationships between
variables; possible to study an entire population.

Disadvantages - does not allow causal inferences about the treatment variables.

c. Qualitative:

Advantages - allows for the study of complex phenomena that cannot be studied in a lab; data may be used to
formulate hypotheses; allows for qualification of attitudes; random sampling allows for generalisation; may be more
convenient; large pool of expertise to be tapped; can obtain information from illiterate communities.

Disadvantages - studies cannot be replicated; observer may distort results; does not allow generalisation; self-report
data cannot be verified; cannot establish causation.

3. Describe and illustrate with at least 2 examples, the following 3 methods of assessing psychological
responses:

a. Objective Quantitative Measures:

These measures are usually standardised tests, such as IQ tests.

They are designed to be used in exactly the same way on every occasion. Therefore there is uniformity in the content,
the format, the instructions to participants and the method of scoring.

This means the same score has the same meaning regardless of where and when the test is taken.

This allows for greater reliability of the measure.

e.g. 1 - physiological measures such as those used for the detection of emotion, like the Galvanic Skin Response,
measure psychological states that are accompanied by physiological changes.

Cannot differentiate between emotional states.

e.g. 2 - behaviour counts.

b. Subjective Quantitative Measures:

Participants in a research program fill out such things as rating scales (Epworth Sleepiness Scales, or opinion scales) on
a numeric scale.

Require people to choose from a limited number of response alternatives.

Assign a numerical value to each alternative.

c. Qualitative Assessment:

Are always subjective.

Include open ended questionnaires.

Go through a process of content analysis to make sense of underlying meanings. Allows for data to be summarised.

4. State at least 2 advantages and disadvantages of both quantitative and qualitative investigation:

a. Quantitative:

Advantages - easy to analyse; tests are standardised.

Disadvantages - only limited amount of answers so people may not be able to express themselves to the full;

b. Qualitative:

Advantages - allows participants to express their full opinions; can gain large amounts of information.

Disadvantages - people may go off on tangents and not actually answer the question; may be time consuming to
collect.

5. Describe how focus groups and the Delphi technique are used to gain qualitative data in research programs:

a. Focus groups:

An open ended discussion led by a trained facilitator with a small group of 6-12 people.

A system for complex problem solving where the aim is to obtain the consensus of opinions of the group.

b. Delphi technique:
Small group of participants, though they do not need to be together and responses are made in written form.

Used for complex problem solving where the aim is to obtain the consensus of a group.

Commonly a series of questionnaires are used to obtain the participants' opinions.

6. What are the differences between experimental investigations and quantitative observational investigations

a. Experimental investigations: investigations that are undertaken in an experimental way. The researcher manipulates
one of the variables (independent) and observes the effect it has on the other variables (dependent).

b. Quantitative observational- no manipulation of variables, non random selection

7. Determine the mean, median, and standard deviation of the following set of IQ scores: 98, 102, 87, 115, 132,
92, 140, 87, 113, 88

a. Mean: 105.4

b. Median: 100

8. How can the standard deviation be used to describe the spread of data around the mean?

The standard deviation shows the spread of a set of scores around the mean of the
sample.

The average distance between the scores in a distribution and the mean of that
distribution.

a. If data is normally distributed, describe how the standard deviation can be used to discuss the spread of data about
the mean.

When there is normal distribution the majority of the scores fall in the middle, and the mean, median and mode have
the same value.

Thus the standard deviation can describe how any score compares to the rest of the distribution.

68% of pop. will be between -1 and +1, 95% between -2 and +2, 99.7% between -3 and +3

9. Describe the ethical issues associated with research investigations:

a. Predicting and monitoring the potential for harm:

Researchers must weigh up the benefits against the potential for harm .

Harm may be physical, psychological, financial, legal or social.

May be difficult to predict whether or not there will be negative consequences for participants.

Greater risk if the research is in a new area or if the researcher is inexperienced.

Inexperienced researchers may benefit from consulting with experienced researchers.

If some unforeseen harm or distress occurs it is important to review whether or not it is ethical to proceed.

b. Informed consent:

The participants must freely consent to participate on the basis of full information about such things as the aim and
nature of the research, any risks they may face, and affirmation of their right to withdraw from the study.

It is important that the (usually written) information does not contain statements that may be a subtle form of
coercion.

Participants should be given time to consider the information and make a decision about whether to participate or
not.

c. Vulnerable groups:

Those not old enough to understand.

Those who do not have to mental capacity to understand.

Those not legally allowed to give consent.

Language barriers must be taken into account.

Regardless of whether somebody (parent or guardian) gives consent, participants may still be vulnerable.

d. Deception and Debriefing:

Some topics cannot be researched without a certain degree of deception.

Deception is often at the level of withholding some details of the study so as not to influence the participants'
responses.

Deception is never used unless there is no other way of achieving the aims of the research.

Deception is only acceptable if the use of the deceptive techniques is justified by the study's potential benefits to the
community; if the aims of the research could not be achieved by alternative methods; or if the risk to participants is
low.

Debriefing is a process whereby the participants are told the aim of the study and the deceptive processes used.

Participants are given the opportunity to discuss their feelings about being deceived, and raise any questions or
concerns they may have.

e. Voluntary participation:

Researchers must take care to see that no real or perceived coercion to participate takes place and that there are no
negative consequences for participants refusing to participate or withdrawing part way through the study.

Participants may feel a greater obligation if the researcher is in an unequal power relationship with them.

Participants may be inclined to volunteer if there is payment involved. This has the potential to undermine free
consent.

There is always the potential to abuse the power a researcher has as a part of their credentials as an expert. This
potential is greater when there is a pre-existing relationship of power and trust between researcher and participant.

One way to address concerns over dependency relationships is to ensure that the study is completely anonymous.

In many cases this is not possible and researchers need to take special care not to disadvantage potential participants.
f. Confidentiality:

Researchers may not disclose any personal information about participants without their written consent.

This applies to the storage of data, access of the data by others and publication of the research.

Participant records are de-identified.

Publications of the research either report group data or de-identified individual data.

g. Right to withdraw:

Participants have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without explanation.

Participants need to be informed of this and researchers need to ensure that there are no negative consequences
from dropping out of the study.

h. Accurate reporting of research:

Knowledge can only be advanced if others are made aware of the results.

In publishing researchers need to be sure they give as complete information as possible without infringing participants'
rights to privacy.

It is unethical to fabricate their data or to misrepresent the results of their research.

i. Research with animals:

Researchers must consider the welfare of animals; ensure that the use of animals is justified; avoid pain and distress;
be knowledgeable in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species being used.

10. Behaviour can be explained in terms of the following levels of explanation:

a. Biological level

• The biological and chemical processes underlying behaviour.

b. Basic Processes level

• The physiological processes that are universal across the human species.

c. Person level

• Individual differences in behaviour.

d. Socio-Cultural level

• The influence that other people exert on behaviour, by studying behaviour in socio-cultural contexts.

Provide a brief explanation of how each of these levels can be used to explain behaviour.

Biological - chemical, neurological, hormonal, genetics

Basic - psychological processes - learning, perception

Person - age, gender, personality

Sociocultural - cultures, groups

 REVISION: Altered States of Awareness

1. What is a circadian rhythm?

2. What is sleep deprivation
3. What are sleep needs?
4. Describe the common sleep disorders
5. Describe the difference between psychological and physiological arousal.
6. Explain the relationship between arousal and task performance
7. Describe stress and its effect on health.
8. How may the psychological principles of altered states of awareness be applied to everyday experiences such
as shift work.
9. Describe psychological interventions used for sleep and stress.
a. Stimulus control therapy
b. Sleep restriction therapy

1.

1. Describe 2 features of the sleep that is illustrated by the shaded region on the graph.
2. Explain one effective Psychological Intervention for insomnia
3. Research has shown that much is happening in our brains and bodies during sleep.

(a) Describe what happens in the brain and body during Stage 2 of sleep.

(b) Describe two differences between REM sleep and stage 1 sleep.

4. Daily routines and environmental factors eg airline travel across time zones, shifting rosters at
work or longer periods of darkness during the winter months can disrupt the sleep/wake cycle.

(a) Choose one of the above examples and describe how the sleep/wake cycle is
disrupted.
5. In Australia 20 – 30 % of serious motor vehicle accidents are caused by fatigue.
(a) Explain 2 common symptoms of fatigue.

(b) Describe one thing that drivers should do to prevent fatigue and the possibility of road
accidents.

6. Research has shown that much is happening in our brains and bodies during sleep. Stages 3 and 4 are known as deep
sleep.
7.
(b) Describe what happens in the brain and body during the deep stages of sleep.

(b) Describe two differences between REM sleep and stage 1 sleep.

8. Describe one example of a Circadian rhythm.

SECTION B: EXTENDED-RESPONSE QUESTION

(20 marks)
Answer the following question in this section on the pages provided. You should spend 5 minutes planning and 20 minutes writing.

Learning to manage stress effectively has been described as an important part of personal growth.

 Describe one physiological and one psychological response to stress

 Describe two strategies that people could use to improve their ability to manage stress.
 Describe some of the long term effects of heightened arousal on different individuals with reference to
General Adaptation Syndrome.
 What are two ethical principles that researchers need to be aware of when using vulnerable groups of
participants under stress?
 REVISION: Learning

1. What is Classical Conditioning?

2. What is Operant Conditioning?
3. Describe the significant differences between the above types of conditioning.
4. Provide a brief interpretation of the following classical conditioning components:
a. Neutral Stimulus,
b. Unconditioned Stimulus,
c. Unconditioned Response,
d. Conditioned Response
e. Conditioned Stimulus.
5. Describe (using an illustration) what is meant by:
a. Stimulus Contiguity,
b. Stimulus Contingency,
c. Preparedness
6. Provide a brief interpretation of the following terms as they relate to Operant Conditioning:
a. Reinforcement,
b. Punishment.
7. Explain the difference between positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.
8. Describe the following terms:
a. Stimulus Discrimination,
b. Stimulus Generalization,
c. Extinction.
9. Reinforcement schedules influence the effect of reinforcement and punishment on behaviour. Describe
briefly(using an example) how the following reinforcement schedules influence behaviour:
a. Fixed Interval Schedule
b. Variable Interval Schedule
c. Fixed Ratio Schedule
d. Variable Ratio Schedule
e. Continuous reinforcement schedule
f. Partial reinforcement schedule
10. What is observational learning?
11. What are the factors that influence learning through observation?
12. Discuss the ethical issues associated with animal research on learning both in the field and in controlled
settings (eg laboratories)
13. Discuss (using an example) the ethical issues associated with research in learning.
14. Explain the distinction between acquisition and performance.
a. Is:
i. Reinforcement necessary in the acquisition of a learned response?
ii. Reinforcement necessary in the performance of a learned response?
15. Describe an intervention program that utilizes classical/operant conditioning.
16. The principles of learning via (classical /operant /observation) apply to many of our everyday experiences.
Describe an example of how each of these learning principles is utilized in our every day experiences and
events.
17. Describe an application of how the psychological principles of learning are utilized in addressing social issues.
 REVISION: Learning – Suggested Answers

1. A procedure (pavlovian) in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through pairing with an
unconditioned stimulus.

2. The reinforcement of emitted responses by their consequences.

3. Unlike classical conditioning where the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned behaviour, in operant
conditioning the behaviour is not elicited by a given stimulus but is said to be emitted by the organism. The
behavioural affects of reinforcement can be observed in everyday life.

4. Neutral Stimulus - a stimulus that doesn't evoke a particular response.

Unconditioned Stimulus - produces a reflex or unlearned response.

Unconditioned Response - a reflexive or unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response - a reflex like response to a conditioned stimulus which has been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus - a previously neutral stimulus which has aquired the property of eliciting a reflex like
response by pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.

5. Stimulus Contiguity is the closeness in time between a neutral stimulus(the stimulus to be conditioned) and an
unconditioned stimulus. For conditioning to occur, this gap should be minimal and in fact
should be presented at the same time (ie be contiguous). During maximal conditioning, the
CS begins just before the UCS and stops at the same time as the UCS. Theory states that this
should be no more than 0.5 second.
Stimulus Contingency - For a neutral stimulus to become a conditioned stimulus it must come before the
unconditioned stimulus.

Preparedness is an organism’s biological readiness to learn associations. Some associations are learned more
readily than others. Humans are more prepared to fear spiders, snakes etc (even though they are
unlikely to encounter one), and yet are not prepared to fear vehicle accidents (a much more likely
occurrence that will cause harm)

6. Reinforcement - any event or stimulus which occurs as a consequence of a response and increases the rate of
response (how many per minute)

Punishment - involves the use of unpleasant or aversive stimuli and is aimed at reducing the frequency of a
behaviour.

7. Positive Reinforcement - a pleasant stimuli after a response which will increase the rate of response.

Negative Reinforcement - An unpleasant stimuli removed from the environment by a behaviour and as a
result increases the frequency of the desired behaviour (taking aspirin for a headache is a -ve reinforcer by
removal of the headache).

Punishment - involves the use of unpleasant or aversive stimuli and is aimed at reducing the frequency of a
behaviour.

8. Stimulus Discrimination - learning a conditioned response only to a specific conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalisation - A conditioned response can occur in response to a stimulus that has never been
conditioned but is similar to the conditioned stimulus (different sounding bells)

Extinction - the process of eliminating a conditioned response by removal of the unconditioned stimulus.
9. Fixed Interval Schedule - tends to produce pauses after reinforcement - receiving payment after a weeks
work.

Variable Interval Schedule - produce steady state of responding - response is reinforced on the average after
the passage of a specified mean period of time - catching a fish on a fishing expedition.

Fixed ratio Schedule - response is reinforced after a specified number of responses - salesperson receives a
bonus after a specific number of items have been sold. Will create a slow down after achieving objective

Variable Ratio Schedule - Response is reinforced on the average after a specified mean number of responses -
payouts from poker machines. A consistent response rate as payout is unknown.

Continuous reinforcement schedule - receiving reinforcement for every correct response to a stimulus

Partial reinforcement schedule – Some, but not all correct responses are reinforced.

10. Learning through observing the reinforcement of others - modeling

11. Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation, Reinforcement

12. Ethical issues in animal research :-

All experimental manipulations are potentially disruptive or stressful.

Laboratory - conditions of housing, pain, social or individual animal, usefulness of research to humans, animal
use minimized, minimal suffering, ethics committees for zoos and aquaria.

Field - Possible disruption or stressful effects must be anticipated, playback of alarm calls, food provisioning,
removal or displacement of individuals, habituation of humans - may increase risk of poachers.

13. Discuss ethics of Little Albert, Bobo doll, Learned Helplessness

14. Acquisition - means that some form of learning has taken place but may not be evident in the current
behaviour.

Performance - behaviour which shows that the acquisition of some learning has taken place.

Reinforcement is necessary in the performance of a learned response. We may have acquired a skill but do not
have the desire or need to perform it.

15. Behaviour modification - using basic learning principles of reinforcement/punishment to change behaviour.

Behaviour Therapy - using systematic desensitization to get rid of phobias.

16. Operant - coin deposit incentives to return shopping trolleys, customer loyalty programs,

Classical - advertising

Observational - from TV violence, aggression played out in general society.

17. Behaviour Modification - reducing litter, reducing illegal driving habits, reducing criminal behaviour.
 REVISION: Personality

1. What is personality?
2. What is a personality trait?
3. Describe in detail each of the following conceptions of personality:
a. Psychodynamic (Freud, Jung)
b. Humanistic ( Rogers, Maslow)
c. Trait (Eysenck, Big 5)
4. Personality can be assessed via
a. Standardised self report inventories
b. Behaviour Observation
c. Clinical Interviews
Describe (and illustrate where possible) how each of these different types are used to measure one’s
personality.

5. Describe a psychological program that can be used to intervene in an area of personality development. (eg
personality disorders)
6. Describe how the notion of personality can impact on our personal lives (eg character depictions in movies)
7. How may the psychological principles of personality be applied to social issues/personal growth (eg anger,
crime, mental health)
8. Discuss the ethical issues associated with personality testing. (Include in your discussion the validity and
reliability of such tests)
9. Describe the psychology principles that apply to assertiveness training.
 REVISION: Personality - Answers

1. Personality is a socially constructed concept of how and why people differ in their behaviour, emotions,
feelings and thinking.

2. Personality trait - An enduring psychological characteristic of the person, that influences their behaviour in a
particular situation.

3. Concepts of personality

Psychodynamic(Freud- psychoanalysis)) - Based on the whole individuals personality acting in the real
world. Importance of the unconscious mind - is much larger than the conscious mind

Personality structure described in terms of the ID (the primitive ,instinctive component that operates
according to the pleasure principle. EGO - the decision making component that operates according to
the reality principle - looks for appropriate time to implement id requests. Superego - moral
component - tells us what is right and wrong.

Conflicts centred on sex and aggression are likely to lead to anxiety. Guilt and other unpleasant
emotions are warded off by the defense mechanism.

Freud describes a series of 5 stages of development - oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Certain
experiences during these stages can have lasting effects on adult personality.

JUNG Collective unconscious - our spiritual heritage common to all mankind - these are not memories.

Jung first described introverts and extroverts. The shadow or alter ego are Jung's means of explaining
the normally suppressed parts of our psyche.

Psychodynamic - looks at the unconscious, the role of internal conflict and the importance of
childhood experiences in personality development.

Humanistic - Phenomenological approach (appreciate subjective experiences to understand

behaviour) Take an optimistic view of human potential, Rogers focused on the self concept as the
critical part of personality.

Maslow - hierarchy of needs basic levels fulfilled first. Self actualization important

Lack a firm base of research.

Trait - A durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations.

Honest, dependable, moody, impulsive, suspicious, anxious, excitable, domineering, and friendly are
personality traits. Some traits are more basic than others. Five factor model is common(Big five)

4. Measures of Personality.

Standardized Self Report – Checklists, rating scales, questionnaires. (16PF, MMPI). Other examples
can include Likert scales, Thurstone scales, semantic differential scales, responses in interviews where
standardized questions are asked and responses recorded. Qualitative reports can be included
provided the comments can be scored in a manner that is subjected to some “normalization”. Self
reports such as projective tests are not standardized and hence cannot be classified as a standardized
self report inventory.

Behavioral observation - measures specific behaviours in a more direct way. You must know the
behavioral acts that make up a trait. This is a more accurate approach as it removes subjectivity.
 Interviews - method of gathering information about an individual. A skilled task to get appropriate
responses. Give history with information about the onset of problems.

5. Personality disorders

Originally thought that personality could not be changed - slowly changing view.

CBT - changes underlying beliefs and assumptions and coping behaviour.

e.g. social anxiety - fear of social performance - on a regular basis and at high intensity.

6. Personality is depicted in different ways in different media.

Movies will show different types of personality eg. Heroes, villains, compassionate, ruthless, single
minded, dithering, introverted, extroverted - trait approach

Shadow-alter ego, an evil force (Jung)

7. There are many personality traits associated with anger. Aggressiveness has been broken down into sub traits.
Intense experiences of anger may be linked to violent crime.

Is there a criminal personality - No

Personal Growth - Helps us address mental health issues.

Humanistic - talked about personal growth

Most personality tests tell us what is normal mental health.

Different psychological theories will have different approaches.

Positive psychology is on the increase.

8. Ethical issues associated with personality testing:

Much controversy based on how personality is measured. Many tests are neither valid nor reliable.

Valid - does it test what it purports to test?

Reliability - Are results consistent from different testers.

Test could be biased against - gender, social class, nationality, or racial group.

Information gained may be misused.

Who can administer personality tests? - Only registered psychologists can administer many recognized
tests.

Misuse of assessments,

Confidentiality is important

9. Learning to be assertive-

 HELPS YOU BECOME SELF-CONFIDENT

 INCREASES SELF-ESTEEM
 GAIN RESPECT OF OTHERS
 IMPROVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS
 IMPROVE DECISION-MAKING ABILITY
 BE HONEST AND DIRECT ABOUT YOUR FEELINGS, NEEDS, BELIEFS.
 EXPRESS YOURSELF FIRMLY AND DIRECTLY TO SPECIFIC INDIVIDUALS.
 BE REASONABLE IN YOUR REQUESTS
 STATE YOUR VIEWPOINT WITHOUT BEING HESITANT OR APOLOGETIC.
 BE HONEST WHEN GIVING OR RECEIVING FEEDBACK.
 LEARN TO SAY “NO” TO UNREASONABLE EXPECTATIONS.
 PARAPHRASE WHAT OTHERS HAVE STATED TO YOU
 REGOGNIZE AND RESPECT THE RIGHTS OF THOSE AROUND YOU.
 USE APPROPRIATE TONE OF VOICE.
 BE AWARE OF BODY POSTURE/LANGUAGE
 MAINTAIN EYE CONTACT.
 USE “I” STATEMENTS TO EXPRESS SELF
 DON’T LET OTHERS IMPOSE THEIR VALUES/IDEAS ON YOU
 ENCOURAGE OTHERS TO BE CLEAR AND DIRECT
 TAKE OWNERSHIP
 Social Cognition

Question 1

Jenny was a bit of a rebellious teenager, and found herself with a drink driving criminal charge as a 19
year old. She now works as a counsellor for troubled teens and actively encourages them to make wise
decisions when driving to and from parties.

a) Attitudes are said to serve four functions.

Describe one function of Jenny’s attitude towards drink driving.

b) Using the example above, describe one model that explains the structure of attitudes
Describe one factor that affects the link between attitudes and behaviour.

The government is creating a new healthy eating campaign

(a) (i) Explain why the government might decide to target the central processing route to attitude change for
the campaign to be effective.

(ii) Explain why the government might decide to target the peripheral processing route to attitude change for
the campaign to be effective.

(b) Describe one ethical issue associated with healthy eating campaigns aimed at young children.

SECTION B: EXTENDED-RESPONSE QUESTION (10 marks)

John works for the government and has just been made responsible for alerting the South Australian people
to the increasing problem of water shortages. His latest project is an advertising campaign that targets
change in attitudes towards water usage during summer. His work involves meetings with organisations that
include media networks, schools, and politicians.

Describe:

 The bi-directional relationship between attitudes and behaviour towards conserving water during the
summer months.
 Two factors affecting attitude change that John would need to take into consideration when designing his
advertisements.
 Healthy Minds

Healthy Minds

Effective coping strategies

Five main strategies to help alleviate anxiety and depressive symptoms and to improve own mental health and
wellbeing.

o Physical exercise
o Nutrition
o Structured daily activities
o Planning and problem solving
o Challenging negative thoughts
o Social involvement

Other strategies:

o Assertiveness training – learning to say no!

o Relaxation or meditation
o Time management training

Factors that influence resilience, protective factors for mental health

Resilience

Is seen when in the presence of risk factors, protective factors appear to lead to adaptive or positive outcomes

How do people deal with difficult events that change their lives? The death of a loved one, loss of a job, serious
illness, terrorist attacks and other traumatic events: these are all examples of very challenging life experiences. Many
people react to such circumstances with a flood of strong emotions and a sense of uncertainty.
Resilience is the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or even significant
sources of stress -- such as family and relationship problems, serious health problems, or workplace and financial
stressors. It means "bouncing back" from difficult experiences.
Being resilient does not mean that a person doesn't experience difficulty or distress. Emotional pain and sadness are
common in people who have suffered major adversity or trauma in their lives. In fact, the road to resilience is likely to
involve considerable emotional distress.
Resilience is not a trait that people either have or do not have. It involves behaviors, thoughts, and actions that can be
learned and developed in anyone.

Risk factors

- Unemployment - poor peer relations

- Low family income - harsh or inconsistent discipline

- Violence in the family - alienation or early school leaving

- Lack of love and affection - drug / alcohol abuse

- low intelligence - pessimistic personality

Protective factors

- affectionate and valuing family environment - easy temperament

- non-violent and cohesive school environment - optimism
- sense of self-worth and social cohesiveness - family harmony
- beliefs in your own ability - school achievement
- experiences of achievement - economic security
- belief in control over life circumstances - empathy
- belonging to a positive peer group
- leading an active social life
- having a positive role model or mentor

Symptoms of, and effective treatments for, anxiety disorders and depression

Anxiety

Symptoms:

o Fear, anxiety and worry are normal emotions. To be considered an anxiety disorder, the level of worry anxiety
and fear is beyond normal and beyond the individuals control.
o Panic disorder: feelings of unreality, dizzy, accelerated heart, shortness of breath, nausea, fear of dying,
sweating, trembling or shaking, hot flushes or cold chills

ANXIETY DISORDERS

Psychologists have defined 6 main types of anxiety disorders:

-Generalised Anxiety Disorder -Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)

-Panic Disorder -Specific Phobias

-Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and -Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

GAD affects up to 12% of the population, mostly women. Sufferers experience persistent and excessive worrying about
everyday things. It can occur with other anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, or substance abuse. GAD is often
difficult to diagnose because it lacks some of the dramatic symptoms, such as unprovoked Panic Attacks.

Symptoms Include:

*Restlessness or edginess *Sweating

*Fatigue or disturbed sleep *Nausea

*Impaired concentration *Cold, clammy hands

*Irritability *Difficulty swallowing

*Muscle tension *Gastrointestinal discomfort or diarrhoea

Treatments Include:
Psychotherapy, which involves

 Informing and educating the sufferer about General Anxiety Disorder

 Relaxation and slow breathing training
 Hypnosis (occasionally)
 Prescribed drugs – diazepam (Valium) or lorazepam (Ativan) - used in conjunction with CBT

Panic Disorder
Some people with panic disorder experience recurrent, unexpected panic attacks. Others find that their attacks almost
always occur when confronting or anticipating particular things/events. Attacks strike suddenly and can last up to 10
mins.

Symptoms Include:

*Palpitations and sweating *Feeling detached from oneself

*Fear of losing control or dying *Trembling or Shaking

*Shortness of breath *Chills or Hot flushes

*Choking sensations *Nausea and dizziness

*Chest pain or Discomfort *Numbness or Tingling

Treatments include:

 CBT
 Prescribed drugs – clonazepam (Klonopin, Rivotril) or alprazolam (Xanax) - used in conjunction with CBT
Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)

People with Social Phobia are worried that they will be negatively judged by others and are worried that they will
humiliate themselves when in social or performance situations. Social Anxiety Disorder affects approximately 2.7% of all
Australians.

Feared social situations include:

*Speaking to authority figures *Using public toilets

*Initiating & maintaining conversation *Public speaking

*Dating *Exams

*Attending parties/gatherings *Job interviews

*Eating or drinking in public *Performing

Symptoms Include:

*Sweating *Blushing

*Heart palpitations *Trembling or nausea

*Blurred vision *Dizziness

Treatments Include:

 CBT
 Prescribed drugs – imipramine, clomipramine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium) or diazepam (Valium) -
used in conjunction with psychotherapy

Specific Phobias

Specific Phobias strike more than 1 in 10 people, and is a little more common in women. They can stem from a personal
experience and tend to run in families.
Symptoms Include:

*Exposure to the feared object provokes an anxiety reaction

*The anxiety and discomfort is out of proportion to the real threat of the feared object

*Sweating

*Rapid heart rate

*The person comes to avoid situations in which contact with the feared object may occur

*The person may feel weak or cowardly and lose self-esteem when avoiding the object of the phobia

Treatments Include:

 CBT
-Systematic desensitisation

 Prescribed drugs – imipramine, clomipramine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium) or diazepam (Valium) - used in

conjunction with psychotherapy.

FOR MORE INFORMATION – www.anxietyaustralia.com.au

General Treatments:
o Cognitive Behaviour Therapy – clients are helped to understand how their thinking, and therefore symptoms
escalates out of control. They are then taught to challenge their unhelpful thinking and shown ways of
controlling their symptoms. Clients are taught to slow their breathing down

o Medication – prescribed medications such as benzodiazepines, sedatives to help them relax. Need to be
careful, short term use as they can become addictive.

o Systematic Desensitisation – for phobias. Gradually exposing person to their phobia through a hierarchy of
fears. Based on the theory of conditioning
Depression / mood (affective) disorders

Symptoms:

o Characterised by a disturbance of mood – producing either manic (elated and overactive) or depressive
behaviour
o Depressed mood most of the day, insomnia, reduced pleasure in normal activities, weight loss or weight gain,
lack of energy, feelings of worthlessness, guilt feelings, inability to make decisions, thoughts of death or suicide.

Causes of Depression
Treatments:

o Cognitive Behaviour Therapy – teaching people to restructure their way of thinking. Identifying irrational
thoughts and changing them into rational thoughts to reduce negative views of themselves.
o Planning activities – clients are formally assisted to schedule activities back in their lives
o Medication – antidepressant drugs are often required to help the brain function
o Electroconvulsive therapy – using an electrical current to induce an epileptic seizure in parts of the brain
involved in mood and emotions. Done under a general anaesthetic, highly effective for severe depression.
o Assertiveness Training – Assertiveness is something that can be learned. Some people become depressed
due to an inability to communicate without being dominated by others. The person is encouraged to practice
assertive communication until it becomes automatic.
o Coping Strategies – exercise, structured daily activities, education, social involvement, nutrition

The relationships between biological, basic processes, person and sociocultural level factors in the
psychology of healthy minds and mental health issues

Be able to look at depression, anxiety or resilience in terms of the 4 levels of explanation.

Eg)

Depression:

Imbalance in neurotransmitters (biological level)

Depressive thinking styles (basic processes level)

Vulnerability of particular personalities , gender, age groups (person level)

Cultural differences, family, friends influence (socio-cultural level)

Psychological principles concerning healthy minds in everyday experiences and events (eg cultural and
historical differences in concepts of mental health and mental illness)

Mental disorder as a sign or evil

In prehistoric and ancient societies abnormal behaviour was seen as a sign of evil sprits or possession by spirits or
devils.

Early healers used poison blood letting or exorcisms to remove evil influences.

Mental disorder as an illness

Evil disturbances were also seen as a punishment by God. Hippocrates and Plato researched and supported the idea of
mental illness, which meant they should be looked after by family, rather than punished for their condition.

Psychiatric hospitals

By 18th and 19th centuries the practice of hospitalising psych patients was growing. Some offered decent care, others
were more like prisons, putting people in chains or cages.

Modern Times

Not until mid 20th century that changes to mental health system have begun to take effect. Use of barbaric ECT and
lobotomies common, and keeping people institutionalised.

Last 40 years with the introduction of psychotropic drugs that the need to hospitalisation has changed.

Now accept that most people will be discharged from hospital and return back to the community after effective
combinations of medication and ongoing Cognitive Behaviour Therapy.

Cultural views of mental illness: the portrayal of mental illness in religious texts, literature and modern media often
reflect notions of mental illness at the time. Many medias present images that are stereotyped (Obsessive compulsive,
schizophrenia, multiple personality, bipolar, depression) Often these images are not true of the illness, and this can do
more harm than good.

Psychological principles concerning healthy minds in psychological interventions, including cognitive-

behavioural therapy, behaviour modification, systematic desensitization of phobias, assertiveness training,
therapy for insomnia, and stress management therapy

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

o Teaching people to restructure their way of thinking. Identifying irrational thoughts and changing them into
rational thoughts to reduce negative views of themselves. Providing people with strategies and skills to replace
inappropriate behaviours with more appropriate ones.
o Use of a journal to document thoughts and feelings and behaviours, and noted changes

Behaviour Modification
 o Uses positive reinforcement and withdrawal of reinforcement in order to eliminate inappropriate behaviour or
teach new responses
o Primary school classrooms, sports fields, family homes

Desensitisation of phobias

o therapy that uses classical conditioning principles to get rid of an anxiety or fear response with a relaxation
response.
o Gets patient to associate the feeling of being relaxed with the stimulus that has been causing the fear or
anxiety.
o Over a series of steps from least fearful to most fearful – imagine self moving through steps in a relaxed manner

Assertiveness Training

o Assertiveness is something that can be learned. Some people become depressed due to an inability to
communicate without being dominated by others. The person is encouraged to practice assertive
communication until it becomes automatic.

Therapy for Insomnia

o Stimulus control therapy – only lie in bed when sleepy, don’t use bed to do other things, read, tv etc, get up at
the same time each morning, do not nap during the day, don’t stay in bed for more than 10 min if not getting to
sleep
o Sleep restriction therapy – record estimated amount of sleep in a diary, work out average sleep, try to sleep
average plus 15 mins, get up at the same time each day, no naps, once sleeping 75% of time supposed to stay
in bed, add 15 more minutes. Increase until sleeping 8 hours per night

Stress Management therapy

o CBT – equipping people with problem-solving strategies to better deal with stressful situations
o Coping strategies for stress – develop problems solving strategies, avoid stress – plan ahead, exercise,
nutrition, social support

Application of principles from the psychology of healthy minds to social issues (eg preventing the development
of mental disorders, reducing prejudice against people with a mental illness)

o Prevent mental disorder by developing a healthy mind.

o Current government policies promoting wellness

Helpful strategies for developing a healthy mind. Pages 204 - 205

o Planning and problem solving

o Dealing with distress
o Using social support networks
o Challenging thoughts
o Learning optimism
o Exercise

Prevention Programs

o National tobacco campaigns

o National alcohol campaigns
o Schoolies week education
o Wellness model – promoting wellness in workplaces
o Early Intervention programs – in schools, counselling, telephone counselling – youth hotline, beyond blue, black
dog institute etc.
I
Personal growth, including advantages and disadvantages of different psychological interventions

Advantages Disadvantages

Medication Many are able to resume normal lives Side effects

Considered reliable treatment – used as People may not take them as

standard procedure intended, may stop taking

Helps people to function day to day May become addicted

Electroconvulsive Effective for severe depression when Memory loss

Therapy medications have not worked
Requires general anaesthetic

Small risk of death

Cognitive Behaviour Most extensive research base Can be confronting

Therapy
Most psychologists are trained in CBT Severe cases may not be able to
change thought distortions
Most effective therapy for depression and anxiety

Valuable addition to medication

Provides the person with an understanding of

their issues as well as skills that can be used in
the long term

Improving wellbeing and quality of life

Investigation designs and methods of assessing psychological responses used to study healthy minds and
mental disorders. Investigation designs and methods used to evaluate psychological interventions

Assessing mental disorders

Research Designs

Experimental

o Surgery
o Experimental medication

Quantitative Observational

o PET MRI, fMRI scans – observing the behaving brain

o Family observations
o Clinical observations
o Rating scales – getting people to complete questionnaires about thoughts, feelings, experiences

Qualitative

o Interviews – used by Psychologists to gather rich data from clients

Assessment measures
Objective Quantitative

o Results from tests, comparison to DSM IV

Subjective Quantitative

o Subjective rating scales, self reports about behaviours, feelings

Qualitative

o Self report information from interviews, clinical sessions with a psychologist.

Evaluating research methods and designs – ethical issues – problems with reliability

o Costly and time consuming to randomly select participants in trials – limited to those already in therapy
o Some treatments can cause distress to patients
o Difficult to decide on criteria of success of a trial
o People may not persist with treatment
o Natural remission – how do you determine it was successful?
Ethical Issues associated with research and applications in the area of healthy minds and mental health issues

Diagnosis

o Only professional trained in psychiatric classification can make a formal diagnosis

o Diagnosis is based on the medical model in DSM V. Extensive training in the recognition of symptoms, causes,
signs, symptoms and treatments is needed before diagnosing mental health disorders.

Stigma

o Mental diagnosis can be both helpful and harmful

o May feel relieved to receive a diagnosis as it explains symptoms and gives hope for treatment
o May be harmful as it carries a stigma. The person being labelled may hide their illness and become ashamed of
who they are.
o May find it hard to get employment, make friends, once labelled.
o Prejudice against people with mental illness is widespread in society. Makes it difficult for people to feel like they
belong. May be target of discrimination or abuse.
o Media are guilty of labelling mentally ill people as ‘mad’ or ‘bad’ or ‘sad’. Ignorance breeds fear and this has
negative consequences fore people with a mental illness.

Treatment

o If a person is considered a danger to themselves or others – they can be detained – voluntary psychiatric wards
in hospitals must ensure no harm comes to patients.
o Historically institutions did not care for the wellbeing of people with mental illness.
o Society has an ethical responsibility to uphold the dignity of people with a mental illness. Historically this has not
occurred as people were often institutionalised much longer than necessary.