Antenna

Parameters
Radiation Pattern
A graphical representation of the radiation properties of the
antenna as a function of space co-ordinates

A trace of the received power at a constant radius is called the

power pattern

A graph of the spatial variation of the electric (or magnetic)

field along a constant radius is called an amplitude field pattern
 z

Er
Elevation plane
Eφ
θ r Eθ

L y
φ

x Azimuth plane
Isotropic Radiation Pattern

• Characteristics
– Completely non-directional antenna
– Radiates and receives equally well in all directions
- Radiation pattern is spherical

• Exists only as a mathematical concept

• Used as a reference
Omnidirectional Radiation Pattern
Directional Radiation Pattern
Radiation Pattern Lobes
Main lobe
maximum direction

1.0
Half-power
Main lobe Beamwidth
(HPBW)
Main lobe
0 dB

0.5 Beamwidth - 3 dB
between
first nulls
(BWFN)
- 10 dB

Minor
lobes

(b)
(a)
Field Regions
Field Regions

0.62 D 3 λ 2D 2 λ

Reactive Radiating
region region

Near field region Far field region

Radian and Steradian

Steradian = a measure of solid angle

r
r
Area= r2

α
1 sr

dA = r 2 sinθ dθ dφ (m 2)
dA
dΩ = 2 = sinθ dθ dφ in (sr)
r
 Radiation Power Density
The power associated with an EM wave is defined by the
instantaneous Poynting vector as:
  
W = E ×H W/m2

E = instantaneous electric field intensity (V/m)

H = instantaneous magnetic field intensity (A/m)

The total power crossing a closed surface is:

   
P = ∫∫ W • dS = ∫∫W • n dS
S S
Instantaneous fields can be written in terms of complex fields as:

  j ωt
E ( x, y , z , t ) = Re[ E ( x, y , z )e ]
 
H ( x, y , z , t ) = Re[ H ( x, y , z )e jωt ]

Recall  j ωt 1  j ωt  * − j ωt
Re[ Ee ] = [ Ee + E e ]
2
Using the above equations, it can be shown that
   1
[
 * 1
] [
  j 2ω t
W = E × H = Re E × H + Re E × He
2 2
]
a function of time
Time average Poynting Vector (Average Power Density)

 1   *
[ ]
T
1
Wav ( x, y, z ) = ∫ W ( x,y,z,t ) dt = Re E × H (W/m2)
T0 2

E and H are the peak values. For RMS values delete the (1/2).

Since H = E/η, where η is the wave impedance and

e − jkr o
Eθ (r , θ , φ ) ≈ Eθ (r , θ , φ )
r

e − jkr o
Eφ (r , θ , φ ) ≈ Eφ (r , θ , φ )
r
we can show that

Wav =
1
2η
[
Re Eθ (r , θ , φ ) + Eφ (r , θ , φ )
2 2
]
1  o 
( ) ( )
2 2
≈ E θ θ , φ + E o
φ θ , φ
2ηr 2  

Why care about the real part only ?

(We will prove later that in the far field region the power density
is predominately real)
Average Power
   
Prad = Pav = ∫∫Wrad • dS = ∫∫Wav • dS =
1  * 
= ∫∫ Re[ E × H ] • dS
2
Example:
 A sin θ
If Wrad = aˆ rWr = aˆ r ( o 2 ) find Prad.
r

  2π π
Ao sin θ
⇒ Prad = ∫∫ Wrad • dS = ∫ ∫0 r r 2
ˆ
a ( ) • (aˆ r r 2
sin θdθdφ )
0
2π π
⇒ Prad = Ao ∫ dφ ∫ sin θdθ = π 2 Ao
0 0
Power Pattern is related to the average power as a function of
direction.

Radiation intensity is the power radiated in a given direction per

unit solid angle and has units of Watts per steradian (W/sr).

Thus, the antenna power pattern, as a function of angle, can be

expressed in terms of its radiation intensity as:

U (θ , φ ) = Wrad r 2

where

r = distance from antenna to point of measurement (m)

 Also, U = r 2Wav =

=
r2
2η
[
Re Eθ (r , θ , φ ) + Eφ (r , θ , φ )
2 2
]
1  o
E θ (θ , φ ) + E φ (θ , φ ) 
2 2
≈ o

2η  

Pav Prad
For an isotropic source: U o = Wrad r = = 2

4π 4π
2π π
Prad = ∫∫ U (θ , φ )dΩ = ∫ ∫ U (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ
Ω 0 0

since dΩ = dA/r2 = sinθ dθ dφ (sr)

Thus, the total power can be obtained by integrating the radiation

intensity, over the entire solid angle of 4π.
Directivity and Gain

This parameter indicates how well an antenna

concentrates power into a limited solid angle.

The directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of

the maximum radiation intensity to the radiation
intensity averaged over all directions. The average
radiation intensity is calculated by dividing the total
power radiated by 4π sr.
Directivity:

U max (θ ,φ ) U max (θ ,φ ) 4π U max (θ ,φ )

Do = = = (dimensionless)
U av Prad 4π Prad

Uo

Umax = Do Uo
Example:
Assume an antenna with
 Ao sin 2 θ
Wav = aˆ r ( 2
) (W/m2)
r
where A0 is the peak power. Find its directivity.

Solution: We know that

4π U max (θ , φ )
Do =
Prad

U (θ , φ ) = Wav r 2 = Ao sin 2 θ (W/sr)

The max value of U (θ, φ)|max occurs at θ = 900 ⇒

U (θ , φ ) max = Ao sin 2 (90 o ) = Ao ⇒ U max = Ao

We have to find Prad :

Prad = ∫∫ U (θ , φ )dΩ =
Ω
2π π 8π
= Ao ∫ ∫ sin θ (sin θ dθ dφ ) = Ao ( )
2
0 0 3
U max 4π Ao 3
⇒ Do = = =
U av 8π 2
Ao
3
i.e. the directivity of this antenna is 3/2 times above the isotropic
antenna in the θ = 90 degrees direction.

NOTE:
The Directivity of an isotropic source is 1
The Directivity of any other antenna > 1
 z

x y

(a)
y z

θ
sin θ

φ
HPBW = 900
x

(b) (c)
In general, U is a function of θ and φ.

If we let, U (θ , φ ) = B0 F (θ , φ )

with F(θ , φ) being any function of theta and phi, then we can
show that:
4πF (θ , φ )
Dg = 2π π
∫ ∫ 0 0
F (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ

4πFmax
Do = 2π π
∫ ∫
0 0
F (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ
Approximations:
In some cases it is convenient to use simpler expressions for
directivity estimation, instead of the exact ones.
Beam solid angle Ω A
Antenna
For antennas characterized by a pattern

radiation pattern consisting of one

narrow main lobe and negligible minor
lobes, the beam solid angle can be
approximated by the product of the half- Half-power
Beamwidth
power beamwidths in two perpendicular (HPBW)

planes, and the directivity can be given

by the expression: (Krauss’expression)
4π 4π 41,253
Do = ≈ =
Ω A Θ1r Θ 2 r Θ1d Θ 2 d

where Θ1r, Θ2r and Θ1d, Θ2d are the half-power beamwidths in
two perpendicular planes in rad and degrees, respectively.
Tai-PereiraApproximation:

22.181
Do = 2
Θ 1r + Θ 2 2 r

For most practical antennas, radiation patterns are

complex and numerical techniques are needed to solve
for Do.