Structural design of concrete.

Guidance on the use of concrete in building and civil engineering structures is given in BS8110
‘Structural use of concrete’ Part 1,2,3.

The object of structural design

The object of structural design is to achieve a structure which fulfills the requirements of the client
at reasonable cost.

These requirements may include any or all of the following:

(a) the structure shall not collapse.
(b) it shall not be so flexible that the appearance of the structure or the motion of the structure
causes alarm or discomfort to the users.
(c) it shall not require excessive repair due to accidental overload nor because of the action of the
weather.
(d) In the case of a building the structure shall be sufficiently fire resistance to allow the occupants
to escape in the case of fire.

Through out the design process the designer should be conscious of the costs involved. These
include :
(a) the initial cost – site preparation, cost of materials, and construction.
(b) Maintenance costs – decoration, structural repair.
(c) Insurance – chiefly against fire damage.
(d) Cost of the eventual demolition of the structure.

The object of limit state design

The object of structural design is to achieve an acceptable probability that a structure will not
become unserviceable in its lifetime. It, therefore, sets out to examine all the ways in which a
structure may become unfit for use.

The condition of a structure when it becomes unserviceable is called a limit state The most
important of these limit states which must be examined in design are:-
(a) the ultimate limit state - neither the whole structure nor any part of the structure should
collapse under forseeable overload.
(b) the serviceability limit state of deflection - the deflection of the structure should not adversely
affect the appearance of the structure.
(c) the serviceability limit state of cracking – the cracking of the concrete should
not adversely affect the appearance of the structure or the durability of the
structure e.g. excessive cracks allow ingress of water with subsequent
corrosion and frost damage.
(d) the serviceability limit state of vibration– vibration should not be such as to
cause alarm or discomfort.
Design philosophy

The design analysis for concrete is based on limit state philosophy. It’s object is to achieve an
acceptable probability that the structure being designed will not become unfit for its intended
purpose during its expected life.
The condition of a structure when it becomes unfit for use or unserviceable is called a limit state.

2 categories:
i) Ultimate limit state (ULS) ii) Serviceability limit state (SLS)

Some of the ULS to be considered are:

a) ULS due to bending
b) ULS due to shear
c) ULS due to direct compression or tension
d) ULS due to overturning

Some of the SLS to be considered are:

a) SLS due to deflection
b) SLS due to cracking
c) SLS due to vibration

When designing a particular concrete element it is usual to first ensure that the ULS is not exceeded
and then to check that the relevant SLS are also satisfied.

Characteristic loads

Characteristic dead load Gk - All permanent loads acting on the structure including self- weight of
the structure complete with finishes, fixtures and partitions.
Characteristic imposed load Qk – sometimes referred to as live load represents the load due to the
proposed occupancy and includes the weights of the occupants, furniture and roof loads including
snow.
Characteristic wind load W k - Wind pressure can either add to the other gravitational forces acting
on the structure or, equally well, exert suction or negative pressure on the structure.

Ultimate design load

The ultimate design load acting on a member will be the summation of the relative characteristic
load combination multiplied by their respective partial safety factors.

Ultimate design load F dead + imposed = f Gk + f Qk = 1.4 Gk + 1.6 Qk

Ultimate design strength of materials

The ultimate design strength of a material is obtained by dividing its characteristic strength by an
appropriate partial safety factor.

Ultimate design strength of concrete = fcu /1.5 = 0.67 fcu

Ultimate design strength of reinforcement = fy /1.05 = 0.95 fy

Bending ULS

Simply supported rectangular beams are designed so that concrete above the Neutral Axis is
capable of resisting the induced compression, and tensile reinforcement capable of resisting the
induced tension is introduced below the Neutral Axis.
 concrete in
b 0.67fcu/m
compression
0.0035
0.9x/2
x 0.9x C

h NA
d
Z=d-0.9x/2

T
b
fy/m
As area of tension
Strain diagram
reinforcement

Simplified stress diagram

Beam cross-section at failure (i.e. at ULS)
Figure. Singly reinforced concrete beam diagrams

Ultimate moment of resistance, Mu .

The force in the concrete must equal the force in the reinforcement : C = T

These two forces are separated by a distance z, the moment of which forms a couple (M u) which
opposes the design moment.

For structural stability Mu > M where Mu = Cz = Tz

From the stress block shown in the figure C = stress x area = (0.67fcu/m)0.9xb and z =d – 0.9x/2

In order to ensure that the section is under-reinforced , BS8110 limits the depth of the neutral axis
(x) to a maximum of 0.5d, where d is the effective depth. Hence x ≤ 0.5d.

By combining equations Mu ,C and z and putting m = 1.5 it can be shown that the ultimate moment
of resistance is given by Mu = 0.156fcubd2

Area of tension reinforcement, As .

At the limiting condition Mu = M , M = Tz = (fyAs/m)z

Rearranging and putting m = 1.05 gives As =M/0.95fyz

Lever arm, z.

At the limiting conditions Mu = M ,

M = Cz = (0.67fcu/m)0.9xbz =0.4fcubxz ( putting m = 1.5)

M = 0.4fcubz2 (d – z)/0.9 = (8/9) fcubz( d – z )

Dividing both sides by fcubd2 gives

 𝑀 8
= (z/d)(1- z/d)
𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓𝑐𝑢 9

𝑀
Substituting K = and putting zo = z/d gives 0 = 𝑧 2 o – zo + 9K/8
𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓𝑐𝑢

This is a quadratic equation and can be solved to give zo = z/d = 0.5 +√(0.25 - K/0.9)

This equation is usually expressed in the following form z = 𝑑(0.5 +√(0.25 - K/0.9))
The formula for simply supported singly reinforced beam are as follows:

𝑀
K= where for singly reinforced beams K  K’ = 0.156
𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓𝑐𝑢

d−z 𝑀
z = d [ 0.5 +  (0.25 – k/0.9) ] ≯ 0.95d , x= and As =
0.45 0.95𝑓y 𝑧
where

As = area of tension reinforcement M = design ultimate moment

b = compression width of section Mu = design ultimate resistance moment
d = effective depth of tension reinforcement x = depth to neutral axis
fcu = characteristic strength of concrete z = lever arm
fy = characteristic strength of steel
by limiting K’ to 0.156 BS8110 implies that the NA depth does not exceed 0.5d and hence that the
steel in tension will reach its ultimate stress before the concrete fails in compression to avoid
sudden failure.
If M > Mu or the value K for a particular beam was found to be greater then the K’ limit of 0.156
then beam proportions would have to be increased in size particularly its overall depth. If this is not
possible due to limitations on the headroom in the structure then compressive reinforcement would
have to be introduced above the NA i.e. doubly reinforced

0.45fcu
b
0.0035
d’ Cs
d’ 0.9x/2
x=d/2 0.9x
As’ Cc
h NA
d
sc z = d 0.9x/2
As b
T
st b
fy/m
Beam cross-section Strain diagram Simplified stress diagram
at failure (i.e. at ULS)

Figure. Doubly reinforced concrete beam diagrams

The formula for simply supported doubly reinforced beam are as follows:

M > Mu or K > K’ = 0.156 where K = M/ bd2fcu and K’ = Mu/bd2 fcu

𝑀−𝑀𝑢 𝑀𝑢
As’ = As = + As’
0.95𝑓 (𝑑−𝑑′ ) 0.95𝑓𝑦𝑧
𝑦

d’ 𝑑−𝑧
z = d [ 0.5 +  (0.25 – K’/0.9) ], < 0.37 where 𝑥=
𝑥 0.45

where

As = area of tension reinforcement As’ = area of compression reinforcement

b = compression width of section M = design ultimate moment
d = effective depth of tension reinforcement Mu = design ultimate resistance moment
d’ = depth of compression reinforcement x = depth to neutral axis
fcu = characteristic strength of concrete z = lever arm
𝑓𝑦 = characteristic strength of steel
Shear ULS

Another way in which failure of a beam may arise is due to its shear capacity being exceeded.
Shear failure may arise in several ways, but the two principal failure mechanisms are shown in the
figure below.

Diagonal shear failure – Fig.(a) as the loading increases an inclined crack rapidly develops between
the edge of the support and the load point resulting in splitting of the beam into two pieces . This
is normally termed diagonal tension failure and can be prevented by providing shear reinforcement.
Diagonal compression failure – Fig. (b) the second failure mode termed diagonal compression
failure occurs under the action of large shear forces acting near the support resulting in crushing of
the concrete. This type of failure is avoided by limiting the maximum shear stress to 5 N/mm 2 or
0.8√𝑓𝑐𝑢 whichever is the lesser.

The design shear stress , v, at any cross-section can be calculated from : v = V/bd
where V = design shear force due to ultimate loads
b = breadth of section
d = effective depth of section
In order to determine whether shear reinforcement is required, it is necessary to calculate the shear
resistance or the design concrete shear stress, vs, at critical sections along the beam.
Generally, where the design shear stress exceeds the design concrete shear stress , shear
reinforcement is needed. This is normally done by providing :
1. vertical shear reinforcement commonly referred to as ‘links’ and /or
2. inclined (or bent-up) bars.
Ex.1. A reinforced concrete beam which is 300 mm wide and 600 mm deep is required to span
6.0m . The beam carries dead and imposed loads of 25 kN/m and 20 kN/m respectively. Assuming
fcu = 30 N/mm2, fy = 460 N/mm2 , fyv = 250 N/mm2 and the exposure condition is mild, design the
bending and shear reinforcement. (CA)

qk = 20kN/m

gk = 25kN/m
h = 600mm

6m
b = 300mm

Self weight of beam = 0.6x0.3 x24 = 4.32 kN/m

Total dead load gk = 25 + 4.32 = 29.32 kN/m

Total imposed load qk = 20 kN/m d

 The total ultimate load(w) = 1.4 gk +1.6 qk

= 1.4 x 29.32 +1.6 x 20 = 73.048 kN/m
/2
hence maximum design moment(M) = wl2/8 ’
c
= 73.048 x 62/8 = 328.716 kNm

Assume diameter of main bars() = 25mm

Assume diameter of links (’) = 10mm
Cover for mild conditions of exposure(c) = 25mm

d = h  c  ’  /2
= 600  25  10  25/2 = 552mm

Mu = 0.156fcubd2 = 0.156 x 30 x 300 x 5522 = 427.8 kNm > M

Since Mu > M no compression reinforcement is required.

Design as singly reinforced concrete beam.

Using BS 8110 formula :

𝑀 328.72 𝑥 106
K = = = 0.1199 < 0.156
𝑓𝑐𝑢 bd² 30 𝑥 300 𝑥 5522

z = d [ 0.5 + √(0.25 𝐾/0.9) ]

= d [0.5 + √(0.25 0.1199/0.9) ] = 0.842d ≤ 0.95d

𝑀 328.72 𝑥 106
As = = = 1618.43 mm2
0.95𝑓𝑦 z 0.95 𝑥 460 𝑥 0.842 𝑥 552

From Table1 provide 4T 25 ( As = 1960 mm2 )

Shear reinforcement
( Refer Table2 )
73.05kN/m

RA RB 100As Effective depth (mm)

bd 300  400
6m
N/mm2 N/mm2
V
1.00 0.68 0.63
1.18 0.66
V 1.50 0.78 0.72
Extract from Table3

Ultimate design load, W = 73.05 x 6 = 438.3 kN

RA = RB = W/ 2 = 438.3/ 2 = 219.15 kN

Ultimate shear force (V) = 219.15 kN

Design shear stress, v = V = 219.15 x 103 3m 3m

bd 300 x 552
= 1.323 N/mm2
v < permissible = 0.830 = 4.38 N/mm2

100As = 100 x 1960 = 1.18 N/mm2 X = 3 = 2.5 m

1.10 1.32
bd 300 x 552

[vc = ³√( fcu/25 )] From Table3,

vc = ³√ ( 30/25 ) x 0.66 N/mm2 = 0.70 N/mm2

where v < ( vc + 0.4 ) = 0.7 + 0.4 = 1.10 N/mm 2 , 1.10 N/mm2

0.5m
nominal links are required v = 1.32
according to Asv = 0.4b = 0.4 x 300 = 0.505 N/mm2 2.5m
sv 0.95fyv 0.95 x 250
x v
From Table4 1.10 N/mm2
provide 10 mm links at 300 mm centers
( Asv/sv = 0.523 ) where v < 1.10 N/mm 2
i.e. 2.558 m either side of mid-span of beam.
2T12 (hanger bars)

where v > ( vc + 0.4 ) = 1.10 N/mm2 ,

design links are required
according to Asv = b( v  vc ) = 300 ( 1.32 0.7) = 0.783
sv 0.95f yv 0.95 x 250 552 mm

Maximum spacing of links is 0.75d = 0.75 x 552 = 414 mm

R10 links
From Table4
provide 10 mm links at 200 mm centers
( Asv/sv = 0.785 ) where v > 1.10 N/mm2
i.e. 0.5 m from both supports either side of mid-span of beam. 48 mm
4T25

300 mm
Effective span

The effective span is the lesser of (1) centre-to-centre distance between support, i.e. 6m and (2)
clear distance between the supports plus the effective depth, i.e. 5700 + 552 = 6252 mm. There
assumed span length of 6 m is correct.

Deflection

Actual span/effective depth ratio = 6000/552 = 10.8

𝑀 328 𝑥 106
= = 3.588
bd² 300 𝑥 5522

And from equation 8 (Table 3.13)

2 𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞 2 1618
fs = x fy x = x 460 x = 253.156 N/mm2
3 𝐴𝑠,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 3 1960

From table 3.11 basic span/effective depth ratio for a simply supported beam is 20
And from Table 3.13, modification factor ≈ 0.869
Hence permissible span/effective depth ratio = 20 x 0.869 = 17.38 > actual (=10.8)
And the beam satisfies the deflection criteria in BS8110.

Table1 Cross- section areas of bars (mm2)

Bar Number of bars
size 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(mm)
6 28.3 56.6 84.9 113 142 170 198 226 255 283
8 50.3 101 151 201 252 302 352 402 453 503
10 78.5 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785
12 113 226 339 452 566 679 792 905 1020 1130
16 201 402 603 804 1010 1210 1410 1610 1810 2010
20 314 628 943 1260 1570 1890 2200 2510 2830 3140
25 491 982 1470 1960 2450 2950 3440 3930 4420 4910
32 804 1610 2410 3220 4020 4830 5630 6430 7240 8040
40 1260 2510 3770 5030 6280 7540 8800 10100 11300 12600

Table2 Form, area and spacing of

links
Values of v (N/mm2) Area of shear reinforcement to be provided
v<0.5vc throughout the beam No links required but normal practice to provide
nominal links in members of structural importance
0.5vc < v <( vc + 0.4 ) Nominal (or minimum) links for whole length of beam
0.4 𝑏𝑠𝑣
Asv 
0.95𝑓𝑦𝑣
( vc + 0.4 )<v<0.8fcu Design links
Or 5 N/mm2 𝑏𝑠 (𝑣𝑣𝑐)
Asv  𝑣
0.95𝑓𝑦𝑣
 Table3 Value of design concrete shear stress, Vc (N/mm2)
100As Effective depth (d) mm
bd 125 150 175 200 225 250 300  400
0.15 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.36 0.34
0.25 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.40
0.50 0.67 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.50
0.75 0.77 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.62 0.57
1.00 0.84 0.81 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.63
1.50 0.97 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.72
2.00 1.06 1.02 0.98 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.80
3.00 1.22 1.16 1.12 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.98 0.91

Table4 Values of Asv /sv

Diameter Spacing of links (mm)
Of links 85 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
(mm)
8 1.183 1.118 1.006 0.805 0.671 0.575 0.503 0.447 0.402 0.336 0.335
10 1.847 1.744 1.57 1.256 1.047 0.897 0.785 0.698 0.628 0.571 0.523
12 2.659 2.511 2.26 1.808 1.507 1.291 1.13 1.004 0.904 0.822 0.753
16 4.729 4.467 4.02 3.216 2.68 2.297 2.01 1.787 1.608 1.462 1.34

Table5 Span/effective depth ratios for initial design

Support condition Span/depth
Cantilever 7
Simply supported 20
Continous 26

Ex.2. A 180 mm wide singly reinforced concrete beam is required to transmit an ultimate bending
moment of 150 kNm inclusive of its own weight. The beam is composed of grade 30 concrete with
high yield reinforcement Using the simplified stress block formula given in BS 8110 Part 1,
i) Determine the depth of beam required
ii) Determine the amount of steel needed
iii) Sketch the cross-section of the beam and show the dimension details of the bars.

Mu = 0.156fcubd2 = 0.156 x 30 x 180 x d2 = 150kNm

150 𝑥 10
6 150 𝑥 106
∴ d2 = ⟶ d= √ = 421.975 ≈ 425mm
0.156 𝑥 30 𝑥 180 0.156 𝑥 30 𝑥 180
Using BS 8110 formula :
2T12 (hanger bars)
𝑀 150 𝑥 106
K = = = 0.1538
𝑓𝑐𝑢 bd² 30 𝑥 180 𝑥 4252

z = d [ 0.5 + √(0.25 𝐾/0.9) ]

425 mm
= d [0.5 + √(0.25 0.1538/0.9) ]
= 0.78d <0.95d
R10 links
= 332.04mm

𝑀 150 𝑥 106
As = =
0.95𝑓𝑦 z 0.95 𝑥 460 𝑥 332.04 45 mm
= 1033.76mm2 4T20

From Table1 provide 4T20 ( As = 1260mm2 ) 180 mm

Diameter of main bars () = 20mm
Assume diameter of links (’) = 10mm
Cover for mild conditions of exposure(c) = 25mm
h = d + c + ’ + /2 = 425 + 25 + 10 +20/2 = 470mm

Table 1. Concrete compressive strength

Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days
Concrete grade
(N/mm2 = Mpa)
C7.5 7.5
C10 10.0
C12.5 12.5
C15 15.0
C20 20.0
C25 25.0
C30 30.0
C35 35.0
C40 40.0
C45 45.0
C50 50.0
C55 55.0
C60 60.0

Table 2. Strength of reinforcement

Specified characteristic strength fy
Designation
(N/mm2)
Hot rolled mild steel 250
High yield steel
460
(hot rolled or cold worked)

Table 3. Nominal cover to all reinforcements(including links) to meet durability requirements

Conditions of exposure Nominal cover(mm)
Mild 25 20 20 20 20
Moderate 35 30 25 20
Severe 40 30 25
Very severe 50 40 30
Extreme 60 50
Maximum free water/cement ratio 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45
Minimum cement content 275 300 325 350 400
Lowest grade of concrete C30 C35 C40 C45 C50

Reinforcement Area (for beams) :

0.24% bh ≤ As ≤ 4% bh when fy=250 N/mm2
0.13% bh ≤ As ≤ 4% bh when fy=460 N/mm2

Reinforcement Area (for columns) :

0.4% Acol ≤ Asc ≤ 6% Acol in vertically cast column
0.4% Acol ≤ Asc ≤ 8% Acol in horizontally cast column

For singly reinforced simply supported beams the clear horizontal distance between tension
bars, sb ,should lie within the following limits :
hagg + 5 mm or bar size ≤ sb ≤ 300 when fy=250 N/mm2
hagg + 5 mm or bar size ≤ sb ≤ 160 when fy=460 N/mm2
where hagg is the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
Short braced column design
Columns may fail due to:
1. compression failure of the concrete/steel reinforcement.
2. buckling
3. combination of buckling and compression failure.
Failure mode (1) is most likely to occur with columns which are short and stocky, while failure
mode (2) will occur to columns which are long and slender
Clause 3.8.1.3 classifies a column as short if lex/h <15 and ley/b <15 when braced, and lex/h <10
and ley/b <10 when unbraced. Otherwise it should be considered as slender.

A column may be considered braced if the lateral loads, due to wind are resisted by shear walls or
other forms of bracing. The columns in the reinforced concrete frame shown below are braced in
the x and y direction.
columns Shear walls

Shear walls

columns
The effective height (le) of a column in a given plane is obtained by multiplying the clear height
between lateral restraints (lo) by a coefficient () which is a function of the fixity at the column ends
and is obtained from the table below.
i.e. le =  lo
Values of  for braced columns
End condition at top End condition at bottom
1 2 3
1 0.75 0.80 0.90
2 0.80 0.85 0.95
3 0.90 0.95 1.00
End condition 1 signifies that the column end is fully restrained.
End condition 2 signifies that the column end is partially restrained.
End condition 3 signifies that the column end is normally restrained.

Depth of Depth of Nominal restraint

beams > lo beams or between beams
lo Depth of slabs < and column, e.g.
column Depth of lo beam designed
column and detailed as if
simply supported

Base designed to resist moment Base not designed to resist moment

condition 2 condition 2

End condition 1 End condition 2 End condition 3

For design purposes BS 8110 divides short braced columns into three categories:

(a) Short braced axially loaded columns.

(b) Short braced columns supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams.
(c) Short braced columns supporting vertical loads and subjected to either uniaxial or biaxial
bending.

L2


L2


Ⓐ Ⓑ  Ⓓ
L1 L2 L2
Referring to the floor plan above:

Short braced axially loaded column.

Column C2 supports beams which are equal in length and symmetrically arranged. Provided the
floor is uniformly loaded column C2 will resist an axial load only .The ultimate compressive load is
obtained from the following expression:
N = 0.4fcuAc + 0.8Ascfy
where Ac = net cross-sectional area of concrete in a column (excluding area of reinforcement)
Asc = area of longitudinal reinforcement
fcu = characteristic strength of concrete
fy = characteristic strength of reinforcement
N = design ultimate axial load on column

Short braced columns supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams.

Column B2 support a symmetrical arrangement of beams but which are unequal in length. The
column will resist an axial load and moment. Provided the floor is uniformly loaded and the beam
spans do not differ by more than 15% of the longer, the moment will be small. The column may be
designed as axially loaded using the following modified expression:
N = 0.35fcuAc + 0.7Ascfy

Short braced columns supporting vertical loads and subjected to either uniaxial or biaxial
bending.
Column A2, B1, B3, C1, C3 and D2 supports beams which are not symmetrically arranged in one
direction and could be considered symmetrically arranged in the other direction provided the spans
do not differ by 15%. . The columns will resist an axial load and uni-axial bending.
Column A1, A3, D1 and D3 supports beams which are not symmetrically arranged in both
directions. The columns will have to resist an axial load and bi-axial bending
Ex 1. A short braced column is required to support an ultimate axial load of 2000 kN using grade
30 concrete and mild steel reinforcement. Assume the percentage of main steel provided is 2 %.
a) calculate the size of column if the cross-section is square and choose the appropriate diameter
of main reinforcement required.
b) Determine the maximum effective height of the column.

Using equation N = 0.4fcuAc + 0.8Ascfy

25mm
360mm

2000 x 1000 = 0.4 x 30 x 0.98Acol + 0.8 x 0.02Acol x 250

= 15.76 Acol

360mm
 Acol = 126903.55 mm2  b = 356.235mm  360mm R8-300

Asc = 0.02Acol =0.02 x 360 x 360 = 2592 mm2

Use 6R25 Asc = 2950 mm2

ley/b <15 for braced short column (a) Square column 6R25
 ley = 15 x 360 = 5400 mm  5.4 m

Reinforcement Details

a) Size and minimum number of bars

Columns with rectangular cross-sections should be reinforced with a minimum of four
longitudinal bars; columns with circular cross-sections should be reinforced with a minimum of
six longitudinal bars. Each of the bars should not be less than 12 mm in diameter.
b) Reinforcement areas
For columns with a gross-sectional area Acol, the area of longitudinal reinforcement (Asc) should
lie within the following limits:
0.4% Acol ≤ Asc ≤ 6% Acol in a vertically cast column and
0.4% Acol ≤ Asc ≤ 8% Acol in a horizontally cast column
At laps the maximum area of longitudinal reinforcement may be increased to 10% of the gross
cross-sectioal area of the column for both types of column.
c) Spacing of reinforcement.
The minimum distance between adjacent bars should not be less than the diameter of the bars
or hagg + 5 mm, where hagg is the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
d) Size and spacing of links.
Links should be at least one quarter of the size of the largest longitudinal bar or 6 mm, whichever
is the greater. However in practice 6 mm bars may not be freely available and a minimum size
of 8 mm is preferable.
Links should be provided by a maximum spacing of 12 times the size of the smallest longitudinal
bar or the smallest cross-sectional dimension of the column.
Ex2. A short braced column is required to support an ultimate axial load of 2000 kN using grade
30 concrete and mild steel reinforcement . Assume the percentage of main steel provided is 2 %.
Calculate the size of column if the cross-section is round and choose the appropriate diameter of
main reinforcement required. Sketch the cross-section of the column.

(a) Using equation N = 0.4fcuAc + 0.8Ascfy

R8-300
Asc = 0.02 Acol Ac = Acol - Asc = Acol - 0.02 Acol

2000 x 1000 = 0.4 x30 (Acol - 0.02Acol) + 0.8 x 0.02Acol x 250

2 x 106 = 12 x 0.98Acol + 200 x 0.02Acol = 15.76 Acol 6R25

 Acol = 126,903.553 mm2

𝜋𝑑2
For a circular column the area is
4 405mm
Circular column
𝜋𝑑2 4 𝑥 126903.553
∴ = 126903.553  d = √
4 𝜋
= 401.968 mm  405 mm

𝜋 𝑥 4052
Asc = 0.02Acol = 0.02 x = 2576.5 mm2 Use 6R25 Asc = 2950 mm2 ( refer Table 1 )
4

Ex. 3. A short braced axially loaded column 300 mm square in section is reinforced with four 25
mm diameter bars. Find the ultimate axial load that the column can carry and the pitch and diameter
of the links required. The materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement

Steel area Asc = 1963 mm2 Concrete area Ac = 3002 – 1963 = 88037 mm2

0.4 𝑥 30 𝑥 88037 0.8 𝑥1963 𝑥 460

N= +
103 103

= 1056.444 + 722.384 = 1778.828 kN

Provide 8 mm diameter links at 300 mm centres.

The column section is shown in the figure.
The cover for mild exposure is 25 mm.

Ex. 4. A short braced column has to carry an ultimate load of 1366 kN. The column is 250 mm x
250 mm. Find the steel area required for the longitudinal reinforcement and select suitable bars.
The materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.

N = 0.4fcuAc + 0.8Ascfy Acol = 250 x250

1366 x 1000 = 0.4 x30 (2502 - Asc) + 0.8 x Asc x 460

1366 x 1000 =750,000 - 12Asc + 368Asc = 750,000 + 356Asc

1366000−750000
 Asc = mm2 = 1730.337 mm2 Use 6T20 Asc = 1890 mm2 ( refer Table 1 )
356

alternative 4T25(1963mm 2),

Slabs
Slabs are plate elements forming floors and roofs in buildings which normally carry uniformly
distributed loads. Slabs may be simply supported or continuous over one or more supports and are
classified according to the method of support as follows:
• Spanning one way between beams or walls
• Spanning two ways between the support beams or walls
• Flat slabs carried on columns and edge beams or walls with no interior beams
.Slabs may be solid of uniform thickness or ribbed with ribs running in one or two directions .

1-way slab

B D B
A

lx

D lx
C
ly Beam AB and CD
a) One-way slab ly/lx ≥ 2 w = nlx/2
 ly Wall A

Load on
wall A

Wall D
Wall B

wall B
Load on

Load on
lx

wall D
Load on
wall C

Wall C

Plan of two-way spanning slab. lx length of shorter side, ly length of longer side.
Provide ly/lx ≤ 2 slab will span in two directions as indicated

0ne-way spanning concrete floor

Ex.1. A reinforced concrete floor subject to an imposed load of 3.5 kN/m 2 spans between brick
walls as shown below. Design the floor for mild exposure conditions assuming the following material
strengths :
fcu = 35 N/mm2 fy = 460 N/mm2

150 mm h d

Φ c
4500 mm

Depth of slab and main steel area

Overall depth of slab, h
Minimum effective depth, dmin, is
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 4500
dmin = = = 161 mm
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 20 𝑥 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)1.4
Hence, assume effective depth of slab (d) = 165 mm. Assume diameter of main steel (Φ) =10mm.
From Table 3.5, cover to all steel for mild conditions of exposure (c) = 20 mm
Overall depth of slab (h) = d + Φ/2 + c = 165 + 10/2 + 20 = 190 mm

Loading
Dead Self-weight of slab (gk) = 0.19 x 24 kN/m 3 = 4.56 kN/m2
Imposed Total imposed load (qk) = 3.5 kN/m2
Ultimate load For 1 m width of slab total ultimate load is
( 1.4gk + 1.6qk )width of slab x span = ( 1.4 x 4.56 + 1.6 x 3.5 )1 x 4.5 = 53.93 kN
Design moment
𝑊𝑙 53.93 𝑥 4.5
M= = = 30.34 kNm
8 8
Ultimate moment
Mu = 0.156fcubd2 = 0.156 x 35 x 1000 x 1652 = 148.6 x 106 Nmm = 148.6 kNm
Since Mu > M, no compression reinforcement is required.
Main steel
𝑀 30.34 𝑥 106
K = = = 0.0318
𝑓𝑐𝑢 bd² 35 𝑥 1000 𝑥 1652

z = d [ 0.5 + √(0.25 𝐾/0.9) ]

= d [0.5 + √(0.25 0.0318/0.9) ]

= d x 0.963 < 0.95d = 157 mm
𝑀 30.34 𝑥 106
As = = = 443 mm2 /m width of slab
0.95𝑓𝑦 z 0.95 𝑥 460 𝑥 157

From Table provide T 10 at 160 mm centres ( As = 490 mm2/m )

Secondary steel
Minimum area of reinforcement, As min = 0.13% bh
= 0.13 % 1000 x 190 = 247 mm 2/m

Based on minimum steel area= 247 mm2/m , provide T8 at 200 mm centres (As = 252 mm2/m)
T8-200

165

T10-160
steel
Table for bar spacing
Diameter Area (mm2) for spacing
(mm)
S=80 100 120 140 150 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
6 350 282 235 201 188 176 157 141 128 117 113 100 94
8 628 502 418 359 335 314 279 251 228 209 201 179 167
10 981 785 654 560 523 490 436 392 356 327 314 280 261
12 1413 1130 942 807 753 706 628 565 514 471 452 403 376
16 2513 2010 1675 1436 1340 1256 1117 1005 913 837 804 718 670

Ex. 2. A concrete floor reinforced with 10 mm diameter mild steel bars ( f y = 250 N/mm2)
at 125 mm centres spans between brick walls as shown in the figure below. Calculate the
maximum uniformly distributed load the floor can carry. Assume the following material
strengths :
fcu = 35 N/mm2 𝛾c = 24 kN/m3
 150 mm h=150 mm d

10 mm bar Cover = 25 mm
3000 mm At 125 mm
Effective span c/c
Effective depth of slab, d = h – cover – Φ/2 = 150 – 25 -10/2 = 120 mm
Effective span is the lesser of :
a) centre to centre distance between bearings = 3000 mm
and b) clear distance between supports plus effective depth = 2850 + 120 = 2970 mm

Moment Capacity , M
Assume z = 0.95d = 0.95 x 120 = 114 mm
𝑀
As = 0.95𝑓𝑦 z
hence M = As x 0.95 fyz = 628 x 0.95 x 250 x114
= 17 x 106 Nmm = 17 kNm/ m width of slab

Loading
Dead Self-weight of slab (gk) = 0.15 x 24 kN/m3 = 3.6 kN/m2
Imposed Total imposed load (qk) = qk kN/m2
Ultimate load For 1 m width of slab total ultimate load W is
( 1.4gk + 1.6qk )width of slab x span = ( 1.4 x 3.6 + 1.6 x qk)1 x 2.97
= ( 5.04 + 1.6qk) 2.97
Design moment
𝑊𝑙
M= M = 17 kNm= ( 5.04 + 1.6qk) 2.972/8
8
Rearranging qk = (17 x8 / 2.972 – 5.04) / 1.6 = 6.4 kN/m2

Lever arm (z)

𝑀 17 𝑥 106
K = = = 0.0393
𝑓𝑐𝑢 bd² 35 𝑥 1000 𝑥 1202

z = d [ 0.5 + √(0.25 𝐾/0.9) ] ≤ 0.95d

= d( 0.5 + /0.25 – 0.031/0.9) = 0.954d
Therefore assumed value of z =0.95 is correct .
The maximum uniformly distributed load that the floor can carry is 6.4 kN/m2
EX..3 A reinforced concrete floor spans between brick walls as shown in Figure 1. Floor
finishes are 1.0 kN/m2 and the imposed load is 3.5 kN/m2 Design the floor given the
following data :
Characteristic strength of concrete (fcu) = 30 N/mm2
Characteristic strength of steel (fy) = 250 N/mm2
Diameter of main bars () = 10 mm
Cover for mild conditions of exposure(c) = 25 kN

150 mm h d

Φ c
3000 mm Figure 1

span 3000
dmin = = = 107.143mm
basic ratio×modification factor 20×1.4

Try d = 110mm
h = d + /2 + c = 110mm + 10mm/2 + 25mm = 140mm

Loading

Dead load slab = 0.140m x 24kN/m3 = 3.36kN/m2

Floor finishes = 1.0 kN/m2
Total dead load(Gk) = 4.36 kN/m2
Imposed load (Qk) = 3.5kN/m2

Ultimate load = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= (1.4 x 4.36) + (1.6 x 3.5) x 1.0 x 3.0
= 35.112 kN
Main steel

WL 35.112 ×3.0
M= = = 13.167 kNm
8 8

Mu = 0.156fcubd2 = 0.156 x 30 x 1000 x 1102

= 56,628,000 Nmm = 56.628 kNm

Since M < Mu , no compression reinforcement is required.

𝑀 13.167×106
𝐾= = = 0.036
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 30 × 1000 × 1102

𝑧 = 𝑑 (0.5 + √0.25 − 0.036⁄0.9) = 0.958d < 0.95d

M 13.167×106
As = = = 579.31 mm2
0.87fy z 0.87×250×0.95×110
From Table, provide R10 at 120mm centers (As = 654 mm2)

Secondary steel
Minimum area of reinforcement, As min = 0.13% bh
0.13
= x 1000 x 140 = 182 mm2/m
100
Based on minimum steel area = 182mm2/m , provide R8 at 260 mm centres (As = 201mm2/m)

Pad Footing
The general procedure to be adopted for the design of pad footing is as follows :
1. Calculate the plan area of the footing using servicability loads.
2. Determine the reinforcement areas required for bending using ultimate loads.
3. Check for punching , face and transverse shear failures

Axially loaded base

Punching shear perimeter

Load on shaded area =column perimeter + 8 x 1.5d
to be used in design
Traverse shear

1.5d

1.0d 1.5d

(a) Critical section (b) Vertical Shear (c) Punching Shear

for bending

Ex.1. A column 400 mm x 400 mm carries a dead load of 800 kN and an imposed load of
300 kN. The safe bearing pressure is 200 kN/m2. Design a square base to resist the loads.
The concrete is grade 35 and the reinforcement grade 460. The condition of exposure is
moderate for non-aggresive soil. The nominal cover is 40 mm for concrete cast against
blinding.
(b) Size of base
Assume the weight is 80 kN Service load = 800 + 300 + 80 = 1180 kN
2
Area = 1180/200 = 5.9 m Make the base 2.5 m x 2.5 m
(c) Moment Steel
Ultimate load = (1.4 x 800) + (1.6 x 300) =1600 kN
Ultimate pressure = 1600/6.25 = 256kN/m2
The critical section YY at the column face is shown in fig. (a)
MYY = 256 x1.05 x 2.5 x 0.525 = 352.8 kNm
Try an overall depth of 500 mm with 20 mm bars. The effective depth of the top layer is
d = 500 ̶ 40 ̶ 20 ̶ 10 = 430 mm
𝑀 352.8 𝑥 106
K = = = 0.022 < 0.156
𝑓𝑐𝑢 bd² 35 𝑥 2500 𝑥 4302

z = d [ 0.5 + √(0.25 𝐾/0.9) ]

= d [0.5 + √(0.25 0.022/0.9) ]

= 0.975d > 0.95d
𝑀 352.8 𝑥 106
As = = = 1,976.31 mm2
0.95𝑓𝑦 z 0.95 𝑥 460 𝑥 0.95 𝑥 430

From Table1 provide 10T 16 ( As = 2010 mm2 )

2500 1690
430 620
1050 645
200
Y Y1

Y
Y1
(a) Moment (b) Vertical Shear (c) Punching Shear

The distribution of the reinforcement is determined:

3𝑐 9𝑑 3 𝑥 100 9 𝑥 430
+ = + = 1267.5 mm
4 4 4 4
Lc = 1250 mm <1267.5 mm
The bars can be spaced equally at 200 mm centres

(d)Vertical Shear
The critical section Y1Y1 at d = 430 mm from the face of the column is shown in fig. (b)
V = 256 x 0.62 x 2.5 = 396.9 kN
393.6 𝑥 103
v= = 0.37 N/mm2
2500 𝑥 430
The bars extend 565 mm i.e. more than d , beyond the critical section and so the steel is effective
in increasing the shear stress.
100𝐴𝑠 100 𝑥 2613
= = 0.24 0.187 (2010)
𝑏𝑑 2500 𝑥 430
Vc = 0.79 (0.24)1/3(35/25)1/3/1.25 = 0.44 N/mm2 0.79 x 0.572 x 1.119 / 1.25 = 0.4045

The shear stress is satisfactory and no shear reinforcement is required.

(e) Punching shear
Punching shear is checked on a perimeter 1.5d = 645 mm from the column face. The critical
perimeter is shown in fig. (c).
Perimeter = 1690 x 4 = 6760 mm
Shear = 256(2.52 1.692) = 868.8 kN
868.8 𝑥 103
v= = 0.3 N/mm2
6760 𝑥 430
The reinforcing bars extend 397.5 mm beyond the critical section. If the steel is discounted , v c=
0.34 N/mm2 from the table 3.9 of the code for 100 As/bd<1.5. The base is satisfactory and no
shear reinforcement is required. The bars will be anchored by providing a standard 90 0 bend at
the ends.
Check the maximum shear stress at the face of the column:
V = 256(2.52 0.42) = 1559 kN
1559 𝑥 103
v= = 2.27 N/mm 2 < 0.8 x 351/2 = 4.73 N/mm2
4 𝑥 400 𝑥 430
This is satisfactory
400 sq.

d=430 mm
h=500 mm

10T16@250 both ways

10T16-250 2.5m
2.5 m

10T16-250
Ex.2. The footing shown in the figure below is required to resist characteristic axial loads
of 1000 kN dead and 350 kN imposed from a 400 mm square column. The safe bearing
pressure on the soil is 200 kN/m2 and the characteristic material strengths are fcu = 35
N/mm2 and fy = 460 N/mm2. Assuming a footing weight of 150 kN so that the total load
is 1150 kN.

a) for the serviceability limit state

Total design axial load = 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk
= 1150 + 350 = 1500 kN
1500
Required base area = = 7.5 m2
200
Provide a base 2.8 m x 2.8 m, area = 7.84 m2
b) for the ultimate limit state
Column design axial load = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
= 1.4 x 1000 + 1.6 x 350 = 1960 kN
1960
Earth pressure = = 250 kN/m2
2.82

2800 1960
520 680
1200 780
200
Y Y1
2800

Y
Y1
a) Moment b) Vertical Shear c) Punching Shear

c) Assume a 600 mn thick footing and with the footing constructed on a blinding layer
of concrete the minimum cover is taken as 50 mm.
20
Therefore take mean effective depth d = 600 ̶ 50 ̶ 20 ̶ = 520 mm
2
At the column face
𝑁 1960 𝑥 103
Shear stress, vc = = = 2.36 N/mm2
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑑 1600 𝑥 520

vc = 2.36 N/mm2 < 0.8√35 = 4.73 N/mm2

d) Punching shear

Critical perimeter = column perimeter + 8 x 1.5d

= 4 x 400 + 8 x 1.5 x 520 = 7840 mm
Area within perimeter = (400 +3d)2 = 19602 = 3.84 x 106 mm2

Punching shear force , V = 250 (2.82 – 3.84) =1000 kN

𝑉 1000 𝑥 103
Punching shear stress, v = = = 0.25 N/mm2
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑑 7840 𝑥 520

e) Bending reinforcement

At the column face which is the critical section

1.2
M = (250 x 2.8 x 1.2 ) x = 504 kNm
2

For the concrete

Mu = 0.156 fcu bd2 = 0.156 x 35 x 2800 x 5202 x 10-6 = 4133 kNm

Mu > M no compression reinforcement required

𝑀 504 𝑥 106
K = = = 0.019 < 0.156
𝑓𝑐𝑢 bd² 35 𝑥 2800 𝑥 5202

z = d [ 0.5 + √(0.25 0.019/0.9) ]

= d [0.978 ] > 0.95d

𝑀 504 𝑥 106
As = = = 2549.3 mm2
0.87𝑓𝑦 z 0.87 𝑥 460 𝑥 0.95 𝑥 520

From Table1 provide 9T 20 at 330 mm centres ( As = 2830 mm2 )

100𝐴𝑠 100 𝑥 2830

= = 0.17 > 0.13 and maximum spacing is 750 mm
𝑏ℎ 2800 𝑥 600

f) Check for punching shear

100𝐴𝑠 100 𝑥 2830

For fcu = 35 and = = 0.194 N/mm2
𝑏𝑑 2800 𝑥 520
 Ultimate shear stress, vc = 0.4 N/mm2

Comparing Punching shear stress, v = 0.25 N/mm2

∴ a 600 mm thick pad is adequate

g) Shear stress

At the critical section for shear, 1.0d from the column face

V = 250 x 0.68 x 2.8 = 476 kN

𝑉 476 𝑥 103
v= = = 0.33 N/mm2 < 0.4 N/mm2
𝑏𝑑 2800 𝑥 520

Therefore the section is adequate in shear

2200 mm
400 sq.
937.5 mm

d=520 mm
h=600 mm

9T20@330 both ways

162.5mm
2.8m

Ex.3. A column 325 mm x 325 mm carries a dead load of 500 kN and an imposed load of
250 kN. The safe bearing pressure is 200 kN/m2. Design a square base to resist the loads.
Characteristic strength of concrete (fcu) = 35 N/mm2
Characteristic strength of steel (fy) = 460 N/mm2
Diameter of main bars () = 16 mm
Cover (c) = 40mm
Footing weight = 150 kN
Depth of footing (h) = 500 mm
Size of base
Assume footing weight (W) = 150 kN

Serviceability load (N) = 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk + 1.0W

= 1.0 (500 kN) + 1.0(250 kN) + 150 kN
= 900 kN

N 900
Size of base = = = 4.5m2 , 𝐵 = √4.5 = 2.121 m
bearing capacity of soil 200
Provide a 2.2 m x 2.2 m base (A = 4.84 m2)

Assume the overall depth of footing (h) = 500 mm

Self weight of footing = area x h x 24 kN/m3

= 4.84 x 0.5 m x 24
= 58.08 kN < 150 kN (assumed) OK!

Preliminary check for shear

N = 900 kN
d = 8 √900 = 240 m

Overall depth of 500 mm would appear satisfactory

Bending reinforcement

Ultimate load = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= 1.4(500kN) + 1.6(250kN)
= 1,100 kN

Ultimate load 1100

Ps = = = 227.273 kN/m2
Area of base 4.84

(lx −c) (lx −c)

Myy = Ps × ly × 2
× 4
(2.2−0.325) (2.2−0.325)
= 227.273 × 2.2 × 2
× 4
= 227.273 × 2.2 × 0.9375 × 0.46875
= 219.727 kN/m

Try an overall depth of 500 mm with 16 mm bars.

The effective depth of the top layer is

d = 500 ̶ 40 ̶ 16 ̶ 8 = 436 mm

𝑀 219.727 𝑥 106
K = = = 0.0150< 0.156
𝑓𝑐𝑢 bd² 35 𝑥 2200 𝑥 4362
z = d [0.5 + √(0.25 0.015/0.9) ] = 0.983d > 0.95d

𝑀 219.727 𝑥 106
As = = = 1,213.925 mm2
0.95𝑓𝑦 z 0.95 𝑥 460 𝑥 0.95 𝑥 436

From Table1 provide 7 T 16 ( As = 1410 mm2 ) @ 330/335 mm equal spacing.

7T16-330 2.2m
2.2 m

7T16-330