Rapid-Prototyping Processes and Operations CHAPTER ‘© This chapter describes the technologies associated with rapid prototyping, sharing the characteristics of computer integration, production without the use of traditional tools and dies, and the ability to rapidly produce a single part on demand; they all have the basic characteristics of producing individual parts layer by layer ‘The chapter discusses the (nonmetallic and metallic) materials used in rapid prototyping and describes the commercially important rapid-peotoryping technologies. + These processes include fused-deposition modeling, stereolithography, multijet modeling, polyjet modeling, three-dimensional printing, and selective laser sintering, + The chapter ends with a description of the revolutionary practice of applying rapid-prototyping techniques to the production of tooling (rapid tooling) that can be used in other manufacturing processes. Typical parts made: A wide variety of metallic and nonmetallic parts for product design analysis, evaluation and finished products Alternative processes: Machining, casting, molding, and fabricating. 20.1 Introduction In the development of a new product, there is invariably a need to produce a single example, o prototype, of a designed part or system before allocating large amounts of capital to new production facilities or assembly lines. The main reasons for this rneed are that the capital cost is very high and production tooling takes considerable time to prepare. Consequently, a working prototype is needed for design evaluation and troubleshooting before a complex product or system is ready to be produced and marketed, A typical product development process was outlined in Fig, 13 in the General Introduction. An iterative process natutally occues when (a) errors are discovered or (b) more efficient or better design solutions are gleaned from the study of an earlier generation prototype. The main problem with this approach, however, is that the 20.1. introduction 525 202 Sobtractive Processes 528 20.3. Additive Processes 530 204 Viral Prototyping 541 205. Direc Manufacturing tnd Rapid Tooling 542 20.1 Functions Rapid Prototyping 526 202 Coffeemaker Design 524 203. Production of Second lies Avatars 537 204, Fuselage iting for 205 Fetes 547 20.1 Invisalign® Orthodontic Alignes 543, sas526 Chapter 20 @ Rapid-Prottyping Processes and Operations Cc) © a) selection of parts FIGURE 20.1 Examples of parts made by rapi-protoryping processes: from fused deposition modeling; (b)stereoithography model ofelular phone; and (c} selection fof parts from three-dimensional printing, Source: (a) Courtesy of Stratasys, Ine, (b) and (Courtesy of SD Systems, Inc production of a prototype can be extremely time consuming. Tooling can take several months to prepare, and the production of a single complicated part by conventional manufacturing operations can be very difficult. Furthermore, during the time that a prototype is being prepared, facilities and staf still generate costs. An even more important concern is the speed with which a product flows from concept to a markerable item. In a competitive marketplace, itis well known that products that are introduced before those of their competitors generally are more profitable and enjoy a larger share of the market. At the same time, there are important concerns regarding the production of high-quality products. For these reasons, there is a concerted effort to bring high-quality products to market quickly. ‘A technology that speeds up the iterative product-development process consid erably is the concept and practice of rapid prototyping (RP)—also called desktop manufacturing, digital manufacturing, ‘or solid free-form fabrication. Examples of apid-prototyped parts are shown in Fig. 20.1 EXAMPLE 20.1 Functional Rapid Prototyping, ‘Toys are examples of mass-produced products that have universal appeal. However, some toys are actu- ally quite complex, and the function of a computer aided design (CAD) cannot be ensured until prototypes are produced. Figure 20.2 shows a CAD ‘model and a rapid-prototyped version of a water squire gun (Super Soaker Power Pack Back Pack™* water gun), which was produced on a fused-deposition modeling machine. Bach component was produced separately and assembled into the squirt gun, and the prototype could actually hold and squirt water. The alternative would be to produce components on CNC milling machines or fabricate them in another fashion, but this ean be done only a much higher cos. By producing a prototype, interference issues and assembly problems can be assessed and corrected Af necessary. Further, from an aesthetie standpoint, the elaborate decorations on such a toy can be more effectively evaluated feom a protorype than on a CAD file and can be adjusted to improve the appeal of the toy: Each component, having its design verified, then has its associated tooling produced, with better certainty thae the tooling as ordered will produce the parts desired,Section 20.1 Intoduetion 527 = CO) FIGURE 20.2 Rapid protorping ofa SupeeSoaker™ squirt gun. (a) Fully functional toy produced through fased deposition modeling; (b) orginal CAD description. Source: Courtesy of Rapid Mode and Prototypes, Incy and Suratasys, Developments in rapid prototyping began in the mid-1980s, The advantages Of this technology include the following: ‘+ Physical models of parts produced from CAD data files can be manufactured in a matter of hours and! allow the rapid evaluation of manufacturability and design effectiveness. In this way, rapid prototyping serves as an important tool for visualization and for concept verification, * With suitable materials the prototype can be used in subsequent manufacturing ‘operations to produce the final parts. Sometimes called direct prototyping, this approach can serve as an important manufacturing technology. + Rapid-protoryping operations can be used in some applications to produce actu al tooling for manufacturing operations (rapid tooling, soe Section 20.5.1). Thus, fone can obrain cooling in a matter of a few days. Rapid-prototyping processes canbe classified into three major groups: subtractive, additive, and virtual. As the names imply, subteactive processes involve ‘material removal from a workpiece that is larger than the final part, Additive processes build up a part by adding material incrementally ro produce the part. Virtual processes use advanced computer-based visualization technologies. Almost all marerials ean be used through one or more rapid-prototyping oper: ations, as outlined in Table 20.1. However, because their properties are more suit- able for these operations, polymers are the workpiece material most commonly used today, followed by metals and ceramics. Sill, new processes are being intro. duced continually. The more common materials used in rapid-peototyping opera tions are summarized in Table 20.2. This chapter is intended to serve as a general introduction to the most common rapid-prorotyping operations, describe theie ad: vantages and limitations, and explore the present and future applications of these processes,528 Chapter 20. Rapid-Protetyping Processes and Operations ‘TABLE 20.1 (Characteristics of Additive Rapid-prototyping Technologies Layer creation ‘Type of Process Supply phase technique phase change Macerials Seercolithography Liquid Tiquid layer curing Photopolymerization — Phovopolymers acrylates, epoxies, colorable resins, and filled resins) Mulsijer/payiee Liquid Liquid layer curing Photopolymerization Photopolymers ‘modeling Fused-deposition Liquid Extrusion of melted Solidification by Polymers (such as ABS, modeling polymer cooling, polycarbonate, and polysulfone} Ballistic particle Liquid Droplet deposition Solidification by Polymers and wax. manufacturing cooling ‘Three-dimensional Powder Binder droplet No phase change Ceramic, polymer, printing, depositi onto ‘metal powder, and power layer sand Selective laser sintering Powder Layer of powder Sintering or melting Polymees, metals with binder, metals, ceramics and sand with hinder Electcon-heam melting Powder Layer of powder Melting Teanium and titanium alloys, cobalt chrome Laminated object Solid Deposition of sheet No phase change Paper and polymers material 20.2 Subtractive Processes Making a prototype traditionally has involved a series of processes using a variety of tooling and machines, and ic usually takes anywhere from weeks to months, depend ing on part complexity and size. This approach requires skilled operators using material removal by machining and finishing operations (as described in detail in Part IV)—one by one—until the prototype is completed. To speed the process, subtractive processes increasingly use computer-based cechnologies such as the following: + Computer-based drafting packages, which can produce three-dimensional rep resentations of parts. + Interpretation software, which can translate the CAD file into a format usable by manufacturing software. + Manufacturing software, which is capable of planning the operations required to produce the desired shape. + Computer-numerical-control (CNC) machinery withthe capabilites necessary to produce the parts. ‘When a prototype is required only for the purpose of shape verification, a soft ‘material (usually a polymer or a wax) is used as the workpiece in order to reduce or avoid any machining difficulties. The material intended for use in the actual applica- tion also can be machined, but this operation may be more time consuming, depend jing on the machinability of the material. Depending on part complexity andTABLE 20.2 ‘Mechanical Properties of Selected Materials for Rapid Prototyping Process Material “Tensile srength (MPa) Elastic modulus Section 20.2 Subtracive Processes 529 Elongation in 50 mm (%) Noes Stereo lithography Poet Fused “deposition ‘modeling Selective laser sintering Electron beam meking Somos 71203 Somos 9120 ‘WaterClear Ulea ‘Watershed 11122 DMX-SL 100 For Fos30 F930 Polycarbonate ABS-M305 rc Draform PA Doraform GF SOMOS 201 ST-100e Ti6alav a 2 6 471-536 498 2 68 48 7 30s 970-1030 1s: 29 265-288 22-26 287 249 oss 20 24 228 40 ois 137 20 24d 1s.as 218 no 10 16 Transparent amber food general purpose material fr rapid protoryping ansparent amber; good chemical resistance; good fatigue properties ‘se for producing pater in rubber molding Optically clear eesin wi properties Oprially clear with a slight green tinge; mechanical properties similar 0 thos of ABS; sed for rapid rong ‘Opaque beige: good general-purpose material for rapid protoryping, “Transparent amber; good impact strength, good paine adsorption and rmachinabality White, blue, or black; good humidity resistance; suitable fr genera vxpose applications Semiopague, gray, or black; highly exile material used for protoryping ‘of soft polymers or rubber ‘White; high strength polymer suit- able fr rapid procoryping and sReneral wee Available in multiple colors, most, commonly white; strong and ‘durable material suitable for general use: biocomparible ‘White; good combination of mechan jeal properties and heat resistance ‘White; produces durable heat- and chemical-resintant pars; suitable for snap-fit assemblies and sandcasting orsilicone tooling ‘White; lass illed form of Duraform PAhas increased sifnes and is suitable fr higher temperature applications “Multiple colors available; mimics ‘mechanical propertics of rubber Bronze infiltrated steel powder Can be heat rated by HIP to obtain ‘up to 600-MP fatigue strength ABS ike ‘machining capabilities, prototypes can be produced in a few days to a few weeks. Subtractive systems can take many forms; they are similar in approach to the manu- facturing cells described in Section 39.2. Operators may of may not be involved, although the handling of parts is usually a human task,530 Chapter 20 Rapid Prototyping Processes and Operations 20.3 Additive Processes Additive rapid-prototyping operations all build parts in layers, and as summarized in Table 20.1, they consist of stereolithography, Multijet/polyjet modeling, fused- deposition modeling, ballistic-particle manufacturing, three-dimensional printing, selective laser sintering, electron-beam and laminated-object manufacturing. In ‘order to visualize the methodology used, itis beneficial ro think of constructing a loaf of bread by stacking and bonding individual slices on top of each other, All of the processes described in this section build parts slice by slice. The main difference between the various additive processes lies in the method of producing the indivi ual slices, which are typically 0.1 to 0.5 mm thick and can be thicker for some systems, ‘All additive operations require elaborate software. As an example, note the solid pare shown in Fig. 20.3a. The first step isto obtain a CAD file description of the part, The computer then constructs slices of the three-dimensional part (Fig, 20.3b), Each slice is analyzed separately, and a set of instructions is compiled in ‘order to provide the rapid-prototyping machine with detailed information regarding she manufacture of the part. Fig. 20.3 shows the paths of the extruder in one slice, using the fused-deposition-modeling operation described in Section 20.3.1. “This approach requires operator input in the setup of the proper computer files and in the initiation of the production process. Following that stage, the machines generally operate unattended and provide a rough part after a few hours. ‘The partis then subjected to a series of manual finishing operations (such as sanding and painting) in order to complete the rapid-prototyping process. Te should be recognized that the setup and finishing operations are very labor intensive and that the production time is only a portion of the time required to obtain a protorype. In general, however, additive processes are much faster than subtractive processes, taking as litte as a few minutes to a few hours to produce a part 20.3.1 Fused-deposition Modeling In the fused-deposition-modeling (FDM) process (Fig. 20.4), a gantry robot controlled extruder head moves in two principal directions over a table, which can be raised and lowered as needed. A theemoplastc filament is extruded through the small orifice ofa heated die. The initial layer is placed on a foam foundation by extruding the filament at a constant rate while the extruder head follows a predetermined path {see Fig, 20.34), When the first layer is completed, the table is lowered so that subse- quent layers can be superimposed. Occasionally, complicated pasts are required, such as the one shown in Fig. 20.58. This pare is dificule to manufacture directly, because once the part has been constructed up to height a, the next slice would require the filament to be placed ina location where no material exists beneath to support it.The solution is to extrude a support material separately from che modeling material, as shown in Fig. 20,5b, Note thatthe use of such support structures allows all ofthe layers ro be supported by the material directly beneath them. The support material is produced with a less dense filament spacing on a layer, o it is weaker than the model mate aland can be broken off easily afte the part is completed “The layers in an FDM model are determined by the extrusion-die diameter, which typically ranges from 0.050 to 0.12 mum. This thickness represents the best achievable tolerance in the vertical direction. In the x-y plane, dimensional accura- y can be as fine as 0.025 mm—as long as a filament ean be extruded into the fea ture. A variety of polymers are available for different applications. Flat wire metalSection 20.3 Aaitive Processes ‘Sie View] © FIGURE 20.3 The computational steps in. producing a steeolithography (STL) file, (a) Three-dimensional description of par. (b) The part is divided into slices. (Only 1 in 10is shown.) fe} Support material is planned. (d) A set of tool digections is determined to ‘manufacture each slice. Also shown is the extruder path at section AA from (c) fr a fused: ‘deposition: modeling operation. deposition uses a metal wire instead of a polymer filament, but also needs a laser to heat and bond the deposited wire to build parts. Close examination of an FDM-produced part will indicate that a stepped sur- face exists on oblique exterior planes. If this surface roughness is objectionable, a heated tool can be used to smooth the surface, the surface can be hand sanded, or a coating can be applied (often in the form of a polishing wax). However, the over- all tolerances are then compromised unless care is taken in these’ finishing ‘operations. 33532 Chapter 20 Rapid-Pototypng Processes and Operations ‘Thermoplastic ‘lament Plastic mode! created in minutes Heated build head. moves in x-y plane Table direction) Fixtureless foundation Filament supply @) ) FIGURE 20.4 (a) Schematic illustration ofthe fosed-depostion-modeling process. (bh) The FDM 900m, a fused- deposition modeling machine. Source: Courtesy of Stratasy, Ine — 5 a ro Wl (ay Tating win Desied part Gusset island“ anaren Ceiing ® ©) © ) @ FIGURE 20.5 (a) A part with a protruding section that requires support material (bHe) Common support structures used in rapid-prororyping machines, Source: Alter PE Jacobs, Rapid Prototyping & Manufacturing: Fundamentals of Stereoithography. Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1992, Although some EDM machines can be obtained for around $20,000, others can cost as much as $300,000, The main differences beeween them ace the maximum size ‘of the parts that can be produced and the numbers and types of materials that can be used, 20.3.2 Stereolithography A common rapid-protoryping process—one that actually was developed prior to fused-deposition modeling—is stereolithography (STL). This process (Fig. 20.6) is based on the principle of curing (hardening) a liquid photopolymer into a specific shape. A vat containing a mechanism whereby a platform can be lowered and raised is filed with a photocurable liquid-acrylate polymer. The liquid is a mixture of acrylie monomers, oligomers {polymer intermediates), and a photoinitiator (a com- pound that undergoes 2 reaction upon absorbing light)A its highest position (depth a in Fig, 20.6), a shallow layer of liquid exists above the platform. A laser generating an ultraviolet (UV) beam is focused upon a selected surface area of the photopolymer and then moved around in the x-y plane. The beam cures that portion of the photopolymer (say; a ring, shaped portion) and thereby produces a solid body. The platform is then lowered sufficiently to cover the cured polymer with another layer of liquid poly- ‘mer, and the sequence is repeated. The process is re- peated until evel bin Fig. 20.6 is reached. Thus fas, ‘we have generated a cylindrical part with a constant wall thickness. Note that the platform is now low: ered by a vertical distance ab. At level b, the x-y movements of the beam define a wider geometry, so we now have a flange- shaped portion that is being produced over the previ- Section 20.3 Additive Processes 533 Pratorm maton =| UV curable TP paid a Liquid v po FIGURE 20.6 Schematic illustration of the stercolithogeaphy process ously formed part. After the proper thickness of the liquid has been cured, the process is repeated, producing another cylindrical section between levels b and c. Note that the surrounding liquid polymer is sil fluid (because it has not been ex posed 10 the ultravioler beam) and that the part has been produced from the bottom up in individual “slices.” The unused portion of the liquid polymer can be used again ‘to make another part or another prototype. Note that the term “stercolithogeaphy,” as used to describe this process, comes from the facts that the movements are ehree-dimensional and the process is similar to lithography (see Section 28.7), in which the image to be printed on a flat surface is ink receptive and the blank areas are ink repellent. Note also that, ike FDM, stereolithography can utilize a weaker support material, In stereolithogra- phy, this support takes the form of perforated structures. Aer its completion, the part is removed from the platform, blotted, and cleaned ultrasonically and with an alcohol bath. Then the support structure is removed, and the partis subjected to a final curing cycle in an oven. The smallest tolerance that can be achieved in stereolithography depends on the sharpness of the focus of the lasers typically, itis around 0.0125 mm. Oblique surfaces also can be of very high quality Solid parts can be produced by applying special laserscanning patterns to speed up production. For example, by spacing scan lines in stereolithography, vol- "umes oF pockets of uncured polymer can be formed within cured shells. When the part is later placed in a postprocessing oven, the pockets cure and a solid part forms. Similarly, parts that are to be investment cast will have a drainable honeycomb structure which permits a significant fraction of the part to remain uncured Total cycle times in stereolithography range from a few hours to a day— without postprocessing such as sanding and painting. Depending on their capai % the cost of the machines is in the range from $100,000 co $400,000. The cost of the liquid polymer is on the order from $80 per litre. The maximum part size that can bbe produced is 0.5 X 0.5 X 0.6 m, Stereoithography has been used with highly focused lasers to produce parts with micrometer-sized features. The use of optics required to produce such features necessitates thinner layers and lower volumetric cute rates. When stereolithography is used to fabricate micromechanical systems (see Chapter 29), it is called microstereolithography.534 Chapter 20 Rapid Prototyping Processes and Operations 20.3.3 Multijet/Polyjet Modeling “The Multijet Modeling (MJM) or Polyjet process is similar to inkjet printing, where print heads deposit the photopolymer on the build tray. Ultraviolet bulbs, alongside the jets, immediately cure and harden each layer, thus eliminating the need for any postmodeling curing that is needed in stercolithography. The result is a smooth sur: face of thin layers as small as 16 ym that can be handied immediately after the process is completed. Two different materials are used: One material is used for the actual model, while a second, gel-like resin is used for support, such as these shown in Fig. 20.5, Each material is simultaneously jetted and cured, layer by layer. When the model is completed, the support material is removed with an aqueous solution. Build sizes are faily large, with an envelope of up to 500 x 400 X 200 mm. These processes have capabilities similar to those of stereolithography and use similar resins (Table 20.2). The main advantages are the capabilites of avoiding part cleanup and lengthy postprocess curing operations, and the much thinner layers produced, chus allowing for better resolution, EXAMPLE 20.2 Coffeemaker Design Alessi Corporation is well known for its high-end kitchen products. Although it makes products out of 1 wide range of materials, it is best known for its highly polished stainless steel designs. An example is the Cupola coffeemaker, a market favorite that was to be redesigned from the bottom up while preserving the general characteristics of the established design. ‘Alessi engincers used Multjet_ modeling. to produce prototypes of components ofthe coffeemaker, as shown in Fig. 20.7. The prototypes allowed engineers to evaluate the case and. security of mechanical assembly, but a. significant effort was expended on the desiga of the coffeemaker’ lip in ‘order £0 optimize the pouring of coffee. A large number of lip prototypes were constructed and evaluated to obtain the most robust and aesthetically pleasing design. The ability to compare physical prototypes t0 the existing product as deemed essential to evaluating the designs. After a final design was selected feom the numerous prototypes produced, it was found that a $-6-week time savings was achieved in product development. The time savings FIGURE 20.7 Coffeemaker protorypes produced through -Maltjet modeling and final product. Source: Courtesy Alesi Corporation and 3D Systems, In; ‘translated into cost savings, as well as assuring timely ‘market launch of the redesigned product. Source: Courtesy Alessi Corporation and 3D Systems, Inc. 20.3.4 Selective Laser Sintering Selective laser sintering (SLS) is a process based on the sintering of nonmetallic fr (less commonly) metallic powders selectively into an individual object. The basic elements in this process are shown in Fig. 20.8. The bottom of the processingSection 20.3 ‘contr unit FIGURE 20,8. Schematic illustation of the selective losersintering proses, Sonrce: After C, Deckard and PF. McClure. chamber is equipped with two cylinders: 1. A powder-feed cylinder, which is raised incrementally to supply powder to the part-build cylinder through a roller mechanism. 2. A part-build cylinder, which is lowered incrementally as the part is being formed. First, a thin layer of powder is deposited in the part-build cylinder. Then a laser beam guided by a process-control computer using instructions generated by the three-dimensional CAD program of the desired pare is focused on that layer, tracing and sintering a particular cross section into a solid mass. The powder in other areas remains loose, Yeti supports the sintered portion. Another layer of powder is then depositeds this cycle is repeated again and again until the entire three-dimensional part has been produced. The loose particles are shaken off, and the partis recov- cred, The part dovs not require further curing—unless it isa ceramic, which has to be fired to develop strength. AA variety of materials can be used in this process, including polymers (such as ABS, PVC, nylon, polyester, polystyrene, and epoxy), wax, metals, and ceramics with appropriate binders. It is most common to use polymers because ofthe smaller, less expensive, and less complicated lasers required for sintering. With ceramics and metals, its common to sinter only a polymer binder that has been blended wih the ceramic or metal powders. The resultant part can be carefully sintered in a Furnace and infiltrated with another metal if desired. 20.3.5 Electron-beam Melting A process similar to selective laser sintering and electron-beam welding (see Section 30.6), electron-beam melting uses the energy source associated with an electron beam to mele titanium or cobalt-chrome powder ¢o make metal proto- types. The workpiece is produced in a vacuum; the part build size is limited to around 200 x 200 x 180 mm. Electeon-beam melting (EBM) is up to 95% efficient ‘Aadiive Processes 535536 Chapter 20 Rapid-Pototyping Processes and Operations from an energy standpoint (compared with 10-20% efficiency for selective laser sincering) so that the titanium powder is actually melted and fully dense parts can be produced. A volume build rate of up to 60 em"Zhe can be obtained, with individ ual layer thicknesses of 0.050-0.200 mm. Hot isostatic pressing (Section 17.3.2) also can be performed on parts to improve their fatigue strength. Although applied ‘mainly to titanium and cobalt-chrome to date, the process is being developed for stainless steels, aluminum, and copper alloys 20.3.6 Three-dimensional Printing In the three-dimensional-printing (3DP) process, a printhead deposits an inorganic binder material onto a layer of polymer, ceramic, oF metallic powder, as shown in Fig. 20.9. A piston supporting the powder bed is lowered incrementally, and with each step, a layer is deposited and then fused by the binder Multijet modeling and polyjet processes (described in Section 20.3.3) are sometimes referred to as three-dimensional printing approaches, because they oper- ate in a similar fashion to ink-jet printers but incorporate a third (thickness) direc- tion. However, three-dimensional. printing is mast commonly associated with printing a binder onto powder. ‘Three-dimensional printing allows considerable flexibility in the materials and binders used. Commonly used powder materials are blends of polymers and fibers, foundry sand, and metals. Furthermore, since multiple binder printheads can be in- corporated into one machine, itis possible to produce full-color prototypes by hav- ing different-color binders (see Example 20.3). The effect is a three-dimensional analog to printing photographs using three ink colors on an ink-jet printer, ‘A common part produced by 3DP from ceramic powder is a ceramic-casting shell (see Section 11.2.4), in which an aluminum-oxide or aluminum-silica powder is fused witha silica binder The molds have to be postprocessed in two steps: (1) curing at around 150°C and (2) firing at 1000° to 1500°C. The parts produced through the 3DP process are somewhat porous and there- fore may lack strength. Three-dimensional printing of metal powders ean also be ce T= Poller mechanism “renee fender wy “| or~ wy = + LU1 fl 1. Spread powder 2. Print layer 8, Piston movement —. a lb Bra cra 4. Intermediate stage §.Lastlayer printed _—_—6. Finished part FIGURE 20.9 Schematic illustration ofthe three-dimensional printing proces. Source: After E. Sachs and M. Cima,Section 20.3 Aadtive Processes 537. Binder deposition Infitrating metal, permeates into PIM Particles are loosely sintered: Inftrated by Binder is burned off lower-meting-point metal @ © © FIGURE20.10 | Thrce-dimensional printing using (a) par-buld,(b) sinter, and (c)infieration steps to produce metal parts. (d) An example of a bronze-nfiltated stainless-steel part produced through throe-dimensional printing. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal Extrude Hone. combined with sintering and metal infiltration (see Section 17.5) to produce fully dense parts, using the sequence shown in Fig. 20.10. Here, the partis produced as, before by directing the binder onto powders. However, the build sequence is then followed by sintering to burn off the binder and partially fuse the metal powders, just as in powder injection molding described in Section 17.3.3. Common metals used in 3DP are stainless steels, aluminum, and titanium. Infilerating materials typi- cally are copper and bronze, which provide good heat-transfer capabilities as well as wear resistance. This approach represents an efficient strategy for rapid tooling (see below}. In a related ballstic-particle manufacturing process, a stream of a material {such as plastic, ceramic, metal, or wax) is ejected through a small orifice ata surface lcarget) using an ink-jet type mechanism. A powder is not involved; the macerial deposited by the ink-jet mechanism is used to build the procorype. The ink-jet head is guided by a three-axis robot to produce three-dimensional prototypes. EXAMPLE 20.3 Produ Second Life® and World of Wareraft® are examples of alter ego in the fictional world. Many modern virtual worlds accessed through a website and are computer games (such as Rock Band 2) also allow enjoyed by millions of people worldwide. To users to produce very detailed avatars, with a unique participate, users create an “avatar” that depicts their appearance and unique personalities, Avatars contain538 Chapter 20 @ FIGURE 20.11 Rapid Prototyping Processes and Operations Pelee mists () Rapid protoryped versions of user-defined characters, or avatars, produced from geometric descriptions within popular websites or games, (a) Second Life® avatay as appears on a computer screen (ef) and afer printing (right) (b) an avatar known as “Wreker” from World of Warcraft. Source: Courtesy Z Coxporation, Figure Prints and Fabjectory, Inc three-dimensional geometry data that describes their appearance, which can be translated to a file format suitable for rapid prototyping. Avatars can be printed in fall color toa 150-mm, high figurine with Z-Corp Spectrum Z510 or ZPrinter EXAMPLE 20.4 Fuselage Fitting for Helicopters Sikorsky Aircraft Company needed 0 produce a limited number of the fusclage fittings shown in Fig. 20.12a. Sikorsky wanted to produce the forging dies by means of three-dimensional-printing tech: nologies. Adie was designed using the CAD part description. Forging allowances were incorporated and flashing accommodated by the die design. The dies were printed using a three- dimensional printer produced by ProMetal and are shown in Fig. 20.12b. The dies were made by producing 0.178-mm layers with stainless-steel powder as the workpiece media. The total time spent in the 3DP machine was just under 45 hours. This 450 three-dimensional printers (Fig 20.11). Users can order their avatar prototypes on the web, which are then printed and shipped co the user within days ‘was followed by curing of the binder (10 hours, plus J hours for cooldown), sintering (40 hours, plus 17 hours for cooldown), and infiltration (27 hours, plus 15 hours for cooldown). The dies then were finished and positioned in a die holder, and the part was forged in an 800-ton hydraulic press with a die temperature of around 300°C. An as-forged part is shown in Fig. 20.12c and requires trimming of the flash before itcan be used. The dies were produced in just over six days—compared with the many months required for conventional die production, Source: Courtesy of Kennametal Extrude Hone.Section 20.3 Flange thickness Intoraal rag External rai = 10 mm () ‘adie Processes Flash Desired part © © FIGURE 20.12 A fitting required for a helicopter fuselage. (a) CAD representation with added dimensions. {b) Dies produced by thrce-dimensional printing (c) Final forged workpieve. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal Extrude Hone. 20.3.7 Laminated-object Manufacturing Lamination implies a laying down of layers that are bonded adhesively co one another. Several variations of laminated-object manufacturing (LOM) are available. The simplest and least expensive versions of LOM involve using control software and vinyl cutters to produce the prototype. Vinyl cutters are simple CNC machines, that cut shapes from vinyl or paper sheets. Each sheet then has a number of layers and registration holes, which allow proper alignment and placement onto a build fixture. Figure 20.13 illustrates the manufacture of a prototype by laminated-object, ‘manufacturing with manual assembly. Such LOM systems are highly economical and are popular in schools and universities because of the hands-on demonstration, of additive manufacturing and production of parts by layers. LOM systems can be elaborate; the more advanced systems use layers of paper cor plastic with a heat-activated glue on one side to produce parts. The desired shapes are burned into the sheet with a laser, and the parts are built layer by layer (Fig. 20.14). On some systems, the excess material must be removed manually once the part is completed. Removal is simplified by programming the laser to burn, perforations in crisscrossed patterns. The resulting grid lines make the part appear asif it had been constructed from gridded paper (with squares printed on i, similar to graph paper) 339©) @ FIGURE 20.13 Production of prototype through laminated-object manufacturing. (a) Layers are obzained from a vinyl cutters (b) layers are mandally stacked to form the part {c) completed laminated assembly; (final part prototype. Source: Courtesy P. Barraclough, Boxford Lud Laser Optics } X-Y positioning } ovice Layer outing > Laminating roller and crosshatch Sheet material Pan block Tp Platform Material VA Take-up rl supply roll ) Oy FIGURE 20.14 (2) Schematic illustration of the laminated-objectmanufacturing process. (bh) Tuhine peotorype made by LOM. Source: Courtesy of M. Feygin, Cubic Technologies, Ine 540Section 20.4 20.3.8 Solid-ground Curing “This process is unique in that entire slices of a part are manufactured at one time. As a result, a large throughput is achieved, compared with that from other rapid- procoryping processes. However, solid-ground curing (SGC) is among, the most ex pensive processes; henee, its adoption has been much less common than that of ther types of rapid prototyping, and new machines are not available Basically, the method consists ofthe following steps: 1. Once a slice is ereated by the computer software, a mask of the slice is printed ‘ona glass sheet by an electrostatic printing process similar to that used in laser printers. A mask is required because the area of the slice where the solid mate- Fial is desired remains transparent. 2. While the mask is being prepared, a thin layer of photoreactive polymer is deposited on the work surface and is spread evenly. 3. The photomask is placed over the work surface, and an ultraviolet floodlight is projected through the mask. Wherever the mask is clear the light shines ‘through to cure the polymer and causes the desired slice ro be hardened. 4. The unaffected resin (sil liquid) is vacuumed off the surface. ‘5. Water-soluble liquid wax is spread across the work area, filling the cavities previously occupied by the unexposed liquid polymer. Since the workpiece is ‘on a chilling plate and the workspace remains cool, the wax hardens quickly. {6 The layer is then milled to achieve the correct thickness and flatness. 1. This process is repeated—layer by layer—until the part is completed. Solid-ground curing has the advantage of a high production rate, because entire slices are produced at once and two glass screens are used concurrently. That , while one mask is being used to expose the polymer, the next mask already is being prepared, and itis ready as soon asthe milling operation is completed. 20.3.9 Laser-engineered Net Shaping “More recent developments in additive manufacturing processes involve the principle of using a laser beam to melt and deposie metal powder or wire—again, layer by layer— over a previously molten layer. The patterns of deposited layers are controlled by a CAD file, This near-net-shaping process is called laser-engineered net shaping (LENS, a trade name) and is based on the technologies of laser welding and cladding, The heat input and cooling are controlled precisely to obtain a favorable microstructure. ‘The deposition process is carried out inside a closed area in an argon environ- ‘ment to avoid the adverse effects of oxidation (particularly on aluminum). Iris suitable for a wide variety of metals and specialty alloys for the direct manufacturing of parts, including fully dense tools and molds. Also, it can be used for repairing thin and deli- ‘cate components, There are other, similar processing methods using lasers, including controlled-metal buildup (CMB) and precision-metal deposition (PMD, a trade name). 20.4 Virtual Prototyping Virtual prototyping is a purely sofeware form of prototyping that uses advanced sraphics and virtual-tealty environments to allow designers to examine a part. In a ‘way, this technology is used by common, conventional CAD packages to render a part so that the designer can observe and evaluate it as itis drawn. However, virtual= prototyping systems should be recognized as extreme cases of rendering detail, Virtua Prototyping sat54a Chapter 20 Rapid-Potoryping Processes and Operations e and three-dimen- ‘The simplest forms of such systems use complex softwa sional graphics routines to allow viewers to change the view of the parts on a com puter screen, More complicated versions will use virtual-reality headgear and gloves with appropriate sensors to let the user observe a computer-generated prototype of the desired part in a completely viewual environment. Virtual prototyping has the advantage of affording an instantaneous rendering of parts for evaluation, bue the more advanced systems are costly. Because familiar- ity with software interfaces is a prerequisite to their application, these systems have very steep learning curves. Furthermore, many manufacturing and design practition- ers prefer a physical prototype to evaluate, rather than a video-scrcen rendering, ‘They often perceive virtual-reality prototypes to be inferior to mechanical prototypes, even though designers debug as many or more errors in the virtual environment. ‘There have been some important examples of complicated products produced without any physical prototype whatsoever (paperless design). Perhaps the best known example is the Boeing 777 aircraft, for which mechanical fits and interfer- cences were evaluated on a CAD system and difficulties were corrected before the first production model was manufactured (see Section 38.5). 20.5 Direct Manufactu g and Rapid Tooling While extremely beneficial as a demonstration and visualization tool, rapid-proto- typing processes also have been used as a manufacturing step in production. There are two basic methodologies used: 1. Direct production of engineering metal, ceramic, and polymer components or parts by rapid prototyping, 2, Production of tooling o patterns by rapid protoryping for use in various manufacturing operations. Not only are the polymer parts that can be obtained from various rapid: prototyping operations useful for design evaluation and troubleshooting, but oeca- sionally these processes can be used to manufacture parts directly—referred to as direct manufacturing. Thus, the component is generated directly to a near-net shape from a computer file containing part geometry. The main limitations to the wide- spread use of rapid prototyping for direct manufacturing, or rapid manufacturing, are as follows: + Raw-materal costs are high, and the time requited to produce each partis too long to be viable for large production runs. However, there are many applica- tions in which production runs are small enough to justify direct manufactue- ing through rapid prototyping technologies. + The long-term and consistent performance of rapidly manufactured parts (com- pared with the more traditional methods of manufacturing them) may be suspect, especially with respect co fatigue, wear, and life eye Mach progress is being made to address these concerns to make rapid manufactur- ing a more competitive and viable option in manufacturing. The future of these processes remains challenging. and promising, especially in view of the fact that rapid manufacturing is now being regarded as a method of producing a product on dlemand. Customers will be able o order a particular pare, which wil be produced within a relatively shore waiting time.Section 20.5 Direct Manufacturing and Rapid Tooling 543 CASE STUDY 20.1 Invisalign® Orthodontic Aligners Orthodontic braces have been available to straighten teeth for more than 50 years. The braces involve metal, ceramic, or plastic brackets that are bonded adhesively to teeth with fixtures for attachment to a wire, which then forces compliance on the teeth and straightens them to the desired shape within a few years. Conventional orthodontic beaces are a well- kknown and successful technique for ensuring long term dental health. However, there are several drawbacks to conventional braces including the facts that (a) they are aesthetically unappealing; (b} the sharp wires and brackets can be painful () they trap food leading to premacure tooth decay; (d) brushing and flossing teeth are far more difficult and less effective with braces in place; and () certain foods must be avoided because they will damage the braces. One solution is the Invisalign system, made by Align Technology Inc. It consists of a series of algners, cach of which the person wears for approximately ewo weeks. Each aligner (sce Fig. 20.15) consists of a precise geometry that incrementally moves the teth to the desired postions. Because the aligners can be removed fo eating, brushing, and flossing, most of the drawbacks of conventional braces are’ eliminated. Furthermore, since they are produced from a transparent plastic, the aligners do not seriously affect the person's appearance. The Invisalign product uses a combination of advanced technologies in the production process, shown in Fig. 20.16, The treatment begins with an orthodontist or a general dentist creating. a polymer impression of the patients teth (Fig 20.16a). These impressions then are used to create a three-dimensional CAD representation ofthe patient’ teeth, 2s shown in Fig. 20.16b. Proprietary computer-aided design software then assists inthe development of a treatment strategy for moving the teeth in an optimal manner. Once the treating doctor has approved the treatment plan and it has been developed, the computer-based information is used to produce the aligners. This is done through a novel application of stereolthography. Although a number of materials are available for stereolthography, they have a characteristic yellow-brown shade to them and therefore are unsuitable for direct application as an orthodontic product. Instead, the Align process uses a stereolithography machine that produces patterns Of the desired incremental positions of the teeth (Fig. 20.160). A sheet of clear polymer is then thermoformed (see Section 19.6) over these patterns to produce the aligners, which are sent to the treating orthodontist. With the doctor’s supervision, patients are instructed to change the next set of aligners every two weeks. FIGURE 20.15 (2) An aligner for orthodontic use, manufactured by a combination of rapid tooling and thermoforming. (b) Comparison of conventional orthodontic braces withthe use of transparent aligners. Source: Courtesy of Align Technology, lnc544 Chapter 20 Rapid-Pototyping Processes and Operations @ ©) FIGURE 20.16 The manufacturing sequence for Invisalign orthodontic algners. (a) Creation of a polymer impression of the patient's teth.(b) Computer modeling to produce CAD representations ‘of desired tooth profiles. (c) Production of incremental models of desired tooth movement. An aligner is produced by thermoforming a transparent plastic sheet against this model. Source: Courtesy of Align Technologs; ne The Invisalign product has proven to be very popular for patients who wish to promote dental health and to preserve their teeth long into their lives. The use of stereolithography to produce accurate tools 20.5.1 Rapi Tooling quickly and inexpensively allows this orthodontic treatment to be economically viable. Source: Courtesy of Align Technology, Inc. Several methods have been devised for the rapid production of tooling (RT) by means of rapic-protoryping processes. The advantages to rapid tooling include the following 1. The high cost of labor and short supply of skilled patternmakers can be There is 8 major reduction in lead time. 3. Hollow designs can be adopted easily so that lightweight castings can be pro: duced more easily 4. The integral use of CAD technologies allows the use of modular dies with base-mold tooling (match plates) and specially fabricated inserts. This modu: lar technique an further reduce tooling costs. Chill- and cooling-channel placement in molds can be optimized more easily, leading to reduced cycle times.Section 20.5 Direc Manufacturing and Rapid Tooling 6. Shrinkage due to solidification or thermal contraction can be compensated for automatically through software to produce tooling of the proper size and, in ‘ur, to produce the desired parts ‘The main shortcoming of rapid tooling is the potentially reduced tool or pattern life (compared to those obtained from machined tool and die materials, such as tool, steels or tungsten carbides). The simplest method of applying rapid-prototyping operations to other manu- facturing processes is in the direct production of patterns or molds, As an example, Fig. 20.17 shows an approach for investment casting. Here, the individual patterns are made in a rapid-prototyping operation (in this case, stereolithography) and then used as patterns in assembling a tree for investment casting, Note that this approach requires a polymer that will completely melt and burn from the ceramic mold; such polymers are available for all forms of polymer rapid-procoryping operations. Furthermore, as drawn in CAD programs, the parts are usually software modified to ‘count for shrinkage, and itis then that the modified part is produced in the rapid- protoryping machine ‘As another example, 3DP can easily produce a ceramic-mold casting shell (Section 11.2.2) or a sand mold (Section 11.2.1} in which an aluminum-oxide or 1. Pattern creation 2.Tree assembly 3. Insert into flask 4. Fil with investment 1 crucible Heat Molten ° 6 5, Wax mettoutournout 6.FFll mold with metal 7.Coot FIGURE20.17 | Manufacturing steps for investment casting with rapid-prosoryped wax parts as blanks, This method uses 2 flask for the investment, but a shell method also can be used, Source: Courtesy of 3D Systems, Inc 545546 (Chapter 20 Rapid-Pototyping Processes and Operations aluminumsiliea powder is fused with a silica binder. The molds have to be post processed in two steps: curing at around 150°C and then firing at 1000°~1500°C. ‘Another common application of rapid tooling is injection molding (see Sect- jon 19.3}, in which the mold os, more typically, a mold insert is manufactured by rapid prototyping. Molds for slip casting of ceramics (sce Section 18.2.1) also can be produced in this manner. To produce individual molds, rapid-prototyping processes are used directly, but the molds will be shaped with the desired permeability. For example, in fused-deposition modeling, this requirement mandates that the fila- ‘ments be placed onto the individual slices with a small gap between adjacent filaments. The filaments are then positioned at right angles in adjacent layers “The advantage of rapid tooling is the capability to produce a mold or a mold insert that can be used to manufacture components without the time lag (typically several months) traditionally required for the procurement of tooling. Furthermore, the design i simplified, because the designer need only analyze a CAD file of the de- sited part; software then produces the tool geometry and automatically compensates for shrinkage In addition to the straightforward application of rapid-prototyping technology to ool or pattern production, other rapid-tooling approaches based on rapid-proto- typing technologies have been developed. ‘Room-temperature vulcanizing (RTV) molding/urethane casting can be per- formed by preparing a pattern of a part by any rapid-protoryping operation. The pattern is coated with a parting agent and may or may not be modified to define ‘mold parting lines. Liquid RTV rubber is poured over the pattern, and cures (usually within a few hours) to produce mold halves. The mold is then used with liquid urethanes in injection molding oF reaction-injection molding operations (see Sect- jon 19.3.1). One main limitation of this approach is a lesser mold life, because the polyurethane in the mold causes progressive damage and the mold may be suitable for as few as 25 parts. Epoxy ot aluminun-filed epoxy molds also can be produced, but mold design then requites special care, With RTV rubber, the mold flexibility allows it to be peeled off the cured part. With cpoxy molds, the high stiffness precludes this method ‘of part removal, and mold design is more complicated. Thus, drafts are needed, and undercuts and other design features that can be produced by RTV molding must be avoided. Acetal clear epoxy solid (ACES) injection molding, also known as direct AIM, refers to the use of rapid prototyping (usually stereolithography} to directly produce molds suitable for injection molding. The molds are shells with an open end to allow filling wich a material such as epoxy, aluminum-filled epoxy, ora low-melting-point metal. Depending on the polymer used in injection molding, mold life may be as few as 10 parts, although a few hundred parts per mold are possible. Sprayed-metal tooling. In this process, shown in Fig, 20.18, a pattern is ereat- ed through rapid prototyping. A metal spray operation (see Section 34,5) then coats the pattern sueface with a zinc~alurinum alloy. The metal coating is placed in a flask and potted with an epoxy or an aluminum-filled epoxy material. In some ap- plications, cooling lines can be incorporated into the mold before the epoxy is ap- plied. The pattern is removed; two such mold halves are then suitable for use in injection-molding operations. Mold life is highly dependent on the material and temperatures used, and can vary from a few to thousands of parts. Keltool process. In the Keltool process, an RTV mold is produced based on & sapid-protoryped pattern, as described earlier. The mold is then filled with a mixture (of powdered A6 tool ste! (Section 5.7), tungsten carbide, and polymer binder, and is allowed to cure. The so-called green tool (green, as in ceramics and powderMetal spray: Alignment tabs Coating Section 20.5 Dect Manufacturing and Rapid Tooling 547 ‘Aluminum powder filled epoxy ; 5 (a) (e) process. (a) A pattern and baseplate are prepared through a rapid-prototyping operation: (b) a zine-alumsinum alloy is sprayed onto the pattern (see Section 34.5); ( the coated baseplate and pattern assembly are placed together in a flask and backfilled with aluminum impregnated epoxy; (d) after curing, the baseplate is removed from the finished mold; and (e) second mold half suitable for injection molding is prepared ‘metallurgy’ is fired to burn off the polymer and fuse the steel and the tungsten-car bide powders. The tool is then infilecated with copper in a furnace to produce the final mold. The mold can subsequently be machined or polished to attain a superior surface finish and good dimensional tolerances. Keltool molds are limited in size to around 150 * 15i % 150 mm, so, typically, a mold insert suitable for high-volume molding operations is produced. Depending on the material and processing condi tions, mold life can range from 100,000 ro 10 million parts, EXAMPLE 20.5 Casting of Plumbing Fixtures ‘A global manufacturer of plumbing fixtures and accessories for baths and kitchens used rapid tooling to transform its development practice. One of the company’s major product lines is decorative water faucets produced from brass castings that are subse- quently polished to achieve the desired surface finish. The ability to produce prototypes from brass is essen- tial to quickly evaluate designs and identify process- ing complications that may result. ‘A new faucet design was prepared in a CAD program: the finished product is shown in Fig. 20.19. As part of the product development cycle, it was desired to produce prototypes of the faucet to confirm the aesthetics of the design. Since such faucets are typically produced by sand casting, it was also desired to validate che design through a sand-casting process followed by polishing. This approach allowed ‘evaluation of the cast parts in terms of porosity and ‘other casting defects, and also would identify process- ing difficulties that might arise in the finishing stages. A sand mold was produced first, as shown in Fig. 20.20. The mold material was a blend of foundry548 Chapter 20 Rapid-Pototyping Processes and Operations FIGURE 21 rapid-prototyped sand molds. 9A new faucet design, produced by casting from FIGURE 20.20 Sand molds produced through three-dimensional princing sand, plaster, and other additives that were combined to provide strong molds with good surface finish (see also Section 11.2.1). A binder was printed onto the sand mixture to produce the mold. The mold could be produced as one piece, with an integral core (see Figs. 11.3 and 11.6), but in practice, itis often desired, to smoothen the core and assemble it later onto core prints. In addition, slender cores may become damaged as support powder is removed from the mold, especially for complicated designs. Therefore, the core is produced separately and assembled into the two-part mold. Using 3D printing, the operation produced brass prototypes of the faucets in five days, which included the time required for mold design, printing, metal casting, and finishing. The actual prine time of the mold was just under three hours, and che material cost was approximately $280. The production of pattern plates for sand casting is, in general, t00 expensive for producing prototypes, but would cost over $10,000 and add several months to the lead time. The incorporation of 3D printing into the design process provided new capabilities that confirmed the design aesthetics and function, as well as manufacturing robustness and reliability Source: Courtesy of Z Corporation.SUMMARY + Rapid protoryping has grown into a unique manufacturing discipline within the past ewo decades. As a physical-model-producing technology, itis a useful tech nique for identifying and correcting design errors. Several techniques have been developed for producing parts through rapid prototyping + Fused-deposition modeling consists of a computer-controlled extruder through which a polymer filament is deposited 0 produce a part slice by slice + Stereolithography involves a computercontrolled laser-focusing system that cures a liquid thermosetting polymer containing a photosensitive curing agent. ‘+ Muleijet and polyjet modeling use mechanisms similar to ink-jet printer heads to eject photopolymers to direety build prototypes. + Laminaeed-object manufacturing uses a laser beam or vinyl cuter to first eut the slices on paper or plastie sheets (laminations). Then it applies an adhesive layer if necessary, and finally it stacks the sheets to produce the part. + Three-dimensional printing uses an ink-jet mechanism ro deposit liquid droplets of the liquid binder onto polymer, metal, or ceramic powders. The related process of ballistic particle manufacturing directly deposits the build material. Using multiple printheads, three-dimensional printing can also produce full-color prototypes. + Selective laser sintering uses a high-powered laser beam to sinter powders or coat- ings on the powders in a desired pattern Selective laser sintering has been applied to polymers, sand, ceramics, and metals, Electron-beam melting uses the power of an electron beam to melt powders and form fully dense functional parts. + Rapid-protoryping techniques have made possible much faster product develop- ‘ment times, and they are having a major effect on other manufacturing processes. When appropriate materials are used, rapid-prototyping machinery can produce blanks for investment casting or similar processes, so chat metallic parts can now be obtained quickly and inexpensively, even for lor sizes as small as one part. Such technologies also can be applied co producing molds for operations (such as, injection molding, sand and shell mold casting, and even forging), thereby signif icantly reducing the lead time between design and manufacture. Bibliography Solid-ground curing 549, Sprayed metal tooling Stereoithography Subteactve processes “Thee-dimensional printing Virtual protoryping KEY TERMS ACES lectron-beam melting Photopolymer Additive processes Free-form fabrication Polyjet allistic-particle Fused-deposition modeling Prototype ‘manufacturing Keltoo! Rapid tooling Desktop machines Laminated-object RTV molding/urethane Direct AIM ‘manufacturing casting Direct manufacturing ‘Muljet modsting Selective laser sintering BIBLIOGRAPHY Beaman, JJ Barlow, JW, Bourell, D:L, and Crawford, Ry Chua, C.K, Solid Freeform Fabrication, Kluwer, 1997. Apel Bennett, G. (ed), Developments ia Rapid Protoryping and Gebhardt, A, Rapid Prototyping, Hanser Tooling, Insticution of Mechanical Engineers, 1997. 2004. rid Fea, I.K., Rapid Prototyping: Principles and xions in Manufacturing, Wiley, 1997. Gardnes,550 Chapter 20 Hilton, RD., and Jacobs, RE, Rapid Tooling: Technologies ‘and Industrial Applications, CRC Press, 2000. Kamani, A, and Nass, EA. (eds., Rapid Prototyping: “Theory and Practice, Springer, 200 Noorani, Ril, Rapid Protoryping: Principles Applications, Wiley, 2006, REVIEW QUESTIONS 20.1. What is the basi difference berween additive manu: facturing and rapid protoryping? 20.2. What is steeolthography? 20,3. What is virtual prototyping, and how does it differ from additive methods? 20.4. What is used-deposition modeling? and 20.5. Explain what is meant by rapid cooling 20.6. Why are photopolymers essential for stereolitho= ‘graphy? QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS 20.10. Examine a ceramic coffee cup and determine in ‘which orientation you would choose to produce the part if you were using (a) fused-deposition manufacturing, or (b) laminated-object manufacturing, 20.11. How would you rapidly manufacture tooling for injection molding? Explain any difficulties that may be ‘encountered. 20.12, Explain the significance of rapid tooling in. manu facturing. 20.13. List the processes described in ths chapter that are best suited forthe production of ceramic parts, Explain 20.14. Few parts in commercial products today are directly ‘manufactured through rapid-prototyping operations. Explain, QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS 1220.20. Using an approsimate cost of $160 per lire for the liguid polymer, estimate the material cost of a rapid-pro- totyped rendering ofa «ypical compurer mouse 1220.21, The extruder head ina fused-deposition modeling setup has a diameter of 1.25 mm and produces layers that are 1.25 mm thick. If the extruder head and polymer exerudate velocities are hoth 50 mn estimate the production time for the generation of a 38-mm solid cube, Assume that there is 3 10-second delay berween layers as the extruder head is moved over a wire brush for cleaning Rapid Prototyping Processes and Operations Pham, D.T, and Dimosy $8. Rapid Tooling: The "Technologies and Applications of Rapid Prototyping and Rapid Tooling, Springer Verlag, 2001 Wood, L., Rapid Automated Prototyping: An Incroducion, Industral Press, 1993. 20.7. Explain what each of che following means: (a) 3DP, (b} LOM, (c) STI, (d) SGC, (e} FDM, and {f) LENS, 20.8, What staring materials can be used in fased-deposi- tion modeling? In thrce-dimensional printing? 20.9. What are the cleaning and finishing ope rapid-provoryping processes? Why are they necessary Can rapid-protoryped parts be made of paper? 20.16, Careful analysis ofa rapid-protoryped part indicates that itis made up of layers witha dstinec hlament outline vis ible on cach layer. Is the material a thermoset or a thermo- plastic? Explain 20.17. Why are the metal parts in three-dimensional print ing often infierated by another metal? 20.18. Make a lst ofthe advantages and limitations of each ‘of the rapid-prototyping operations described inthis chapter. 20.19. In making a protorype of a toy automobile, lst the postrapid-protoryping finishing operations that you thin would be necessary. Explain. 1820.22. Using the daca for Problem 20.21 and assuming thae the porosity for che support material is $0%, calculate the production rate for making a 100-mm high eup with an ‘outside diameter of 90 mm and a wall thickness of 4 mm Consider the eases (a) with the closed end up and (b) with the closed end down, 20.23. Inspect Table 20.2 and compare the numerical values given with those for metals and other materials, as can be found in Pare I ofthis text. Comment on your observations.SYNTHESIS, DESIGN, AND PROJECTS 20.24. Rapid-protoryping machines epresent a large cap: tal investment; consequently, few companies can justify the purchase of their own system. Thus, service companies that produce parts hased on their customers’ drawings have be ome common, Conduct an informal survey of such service companies, identity the elasses of rapid-protoryping machines that they use, and determine the percentage use of each clas. 20.25. One ofthe major advantages of stercolithography ‘that it can use semitransparent polymers, so that internal de tails of parts can readily be discerned. List and describe sever: al parts in which this feature is valuable 20.26. A manufacturing technique is being proposed that 1uses variation of fused-deposition modeling in which there are two polymer filaments that are melted and mixed prior to being extruded to make the part. What advantages docs this scthod have? Synthesis, Design, and Projects SSI 20.27. Identify the rapid-provoryping processes described in this chapter that cane performed with materials available in your home or that you can purchase easily at low cost Explain how you would go about it. Consider materials such as thin plywood, thick paper, glue, and butter, as well asthe tse of various tools and energy sources. 20.28. Design a machine that uses rapid-protoryping tech- nologies to produce ice sculprures. Describe its base features, ‘commenting on the effect of size and shape complexity om your design 20.29. Because of relief of residual stresses during curing, long unsupported overhangs in parts made by stereoithogra phy tend ro curl. Suggest methods of controlling or eliminae ing this problem,