Chapter 38

Frozen Fish

According to the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization, there are more than
28 million people engaged in fishing operations worldwide. The annual world
catch of fish exceeds 100 million tonnes, of which around 25% is processed
into frozen fishery products. Each year, a high proportion of these frozen
products enters international trade and is carried by sea.
Cargoes of frozen products are sometimes found to be damaged when they
are unloaded from ships, leading to rejection and to claims against shipowners
and agents alleging that the damage is due to negligence on the part of the
Master and crew of the carrying vessel.
A vessel is not liable for damage that was sustained before loading, or during
handling if due to the actions of third parties. However, it is often difficult to
establish the precise cause and chain of events leading up to the damage and
specialised knowledge is required to sample and inspect fishery products and
relate their condition to the events of the voyage. However, vessel operators
also need adequate technical knowledge to minimise the risk of problems
occurring and to act in the event of a claim.

363
Carefully to Carry Consolidated Edition 2018

38.1 Frozen Fishery Products

A variety of frozen fishery products are carried by sea in reefer vessels and
reefer containers. The main types, in approximately descending order of
frequency, are:

Whole, gutted1 or dressed2 fish, individually frozen

Tuna intended for canning is a typical example.

Figure 38.1: Whole fish individually frozen.

Whole, gutted or dressed fish in blocks

Figure 38.2: Fillets of fish, frozen in a block, wrapped and packed in a carton.

This is a common form of presentation for small and medium-sized fish

intended for further processing. Blocks are rarely more than 10 cm thick or
more than 50 kg in weight. Common sizes are 25 kg and 50 kg. Blocks may be
unwrapped, or wrapped in plastic film, and are sometimes packed in strapped
cartons.

Fillets of fish, frozen in blocks

Fillets of fish are often frozen into geometrically-shaped blocks. Blocks are
usually wrapped in plastic film and packed into inner display packs. The display
packs are then usually packed in outer cartons.

1
Gutted fish are whole apart from removal of the viscera.
2
Dressed fish have heads and guts, and perhaps tails and fins, removed.

364
 Chapter 38 Frozen Fish

Fillets of fish, individually frozen

These are fillets frozen as separate pieces and sometimes coated with batter or
breadcrumbs.
Fillets are either placed in packages for retail sale or loosely packed in plastic
bags. Small display packs are packed in outer cartons while loosely packed
fillets may be packed in bags within outer cartons.

Cephalopods, frozen in blocks or as packaged products

Figure 38.3: Cephalopods (squid) frozen in blocks.

Cephalopods include squid, cuttlefish and octopus. Both processed and

unprocessed products are, typically, frozen in blocks weighing 10 or 25 kg.
Blocks are occasionally individually packaged, but more usually are overwrapped
in plastic, with several blocks packed together in a single outer carton.

Crustacean shellfish, frozen in blocks or as packaged products

These include lobster, crayfish, shrimp and crab. Smaller crustaceans and
crustacean meats are often frozen in blocks weighing up to 1 kg. Blocks are
packed individually in cartons or overwrapped in plastic film and then packed
into outer cartons.

Crustacean shellfish, individually frozen

Large crustacea, such as lobsters and crayfish, are individually frozen, whole or
as tails and then wrapped and packed in cartons.

38.2 Freezing and Storage of Fishery Products

The Master of a vessel carrying frozen fishery products does not generally need to
be concerned with how the products have been frozen and stored before delivery
to the vessel. However, the quality of the cargo discharged from the vessel is
affected by freezing, storage and distribution practices before transfer to the
vessel, as well as by the manner of loading, stowage and carriage on the vessel.

365
Carefully to Carry Consolidated Edition 2018

This section provides some background for Masters and crew about the
technologies involved in freezing, storage of frozen fishery products, and the
effects of freezing and storage on product quality.

38.2.1 The Freezing Process

When a fish product is cooled in a freezer, its temperature drops rapidly to
about minus 1°C (–1°C), when ice begins to form. However, not all the water in
the fish turns to ice at this point. As more heat is extracted, more ice forms, but
the temperature of the product drops only slowly until about minus 3°C (–3°C).
This period, when the product temperature changes very gradually, is known as
the thermal arrest period.
The product’s temperature then begins to drop rapidly towards the operating
temperature of the freezer (see Figure 38.4).
5

0 THERMAL
THERMALARREST
ARRESTPERIOD
PERIOD
Product temperature (Celsius)

–5

–10

–15

–20

–25
0 1 2 3 4
Hours in freezer

Figure 38.4: Freezing curve of fish initially at 5°C.

To preserve the quality of the product, it is important that the thermal arrest
period is as short as possible, preferably less than two hours. This rate of
cooling can only be achieved in equipment designed for the purpose; merely
placing fish in a cold store will not achieve a sufficiently high freezing rate.

The refrigerated holds of reefer ships are designed as cold stores to

maintain the temperature of already frozen products and they do not
have the refrigeration capacity to freeze products at the required rate.

When the product is allowed to thaw, the temperature will follow a curve similar
to Figure 38.4, but in the reverse direction.

Brine freezing of individual fish

Brine freezing is used for larger, whole fish like salmon and tuna. The
technique is used almost exclusively on board fishing vessels, particularly
tuna catchers. The fishing vessel is fitted with one or more insulated tanks

366
 Chapter 38 Frozen Fish

containing refrigeration coils. Before fishing starts, these tanks are filled with
seawater, which is then cooled to around 0°C. As fish are caught, they are
dropped into the tanks. When a tank is full, salt is added to lower the freezing
point of the brine and the temperature is lowered so that the fish freeze. The
temperature that can be achieved depends on the concentration of the brine,
and the minimum, when the brine is saturated, is about minus 21°C (–21°C).
In practice, fishing vessels aim for a solution giving a temperature of around
minus 12 (–12°C). Once the fish are frozen, the brine is drained from the tank
and the fish are held in dry condition with the refrigeration system on.
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Salt solution –

0
Solid salt +
Ice + salt salt solution
–21.1 solution
Solid salt + ice

0% salt 23.3% salt 100% salt

100% water 0% water

Increasing percentage by mass of salt

Figure 38.5: Lowering of freezing point of brine.

Freezing of blocks
Small products, including small fish, fish fillets, squid, octopus and shrimps, are
often frozen in blocks. The product is laid in trays and frozen, either in a tunnel
through which cold air is passed or between pairs of hollow plates through
which refrigerant is circulated. The frozen block is knocked out of the tray,
protected by some form of overwrapping and usually packed into cartons.

38.2.2 The Quality of Frozen Fishery Products

Complaints about defects in the quality of frozen fishery cargoes usually fall into
one or both of two categories:
ƒƒ Abnormal and offensive odours, flavours or texture, or any other defects that
will influence the consumers’ perception of quality
ƒƒ physical damage affecting the processability or merchantability of the
product (this can occur during the freezing process, but more usually
happens during handling of the frozen product).
Quality defects in both categories can arise during handling, processing and
storage of the product before delivery to the vessel, during loading into the
holds and while the product is stored on the vessel.

367
Carefully to Carry Consolidated Edition 2018

Loss of quality can occur both before and after freezing. However, the nature
of the defects differs in the two circumstances and an experienced assessor
should be able to distinguish between them.

38.2.3 Loss of Quality Before Freezing

Fish of all kinds are notorious for the speed at which they spoil (even when
chilled) and for the unpleasant nature of the spoiled product. Spoilage affects
the appearance, odour and flavour of the product. Freezing halts the spoilage
process and fixes the quality as it was at the time of freezing. When frozen
products are thawed, the quality can be no better than it was at the time of
freezing. If defects in the quality of frozen fishery products at the time of delivery
are shown to be a consequence of spoilage, no blame can be attached to the
carrier of the frozen goods unless the product had thawed out during the voyage.

38.2.4 Loss of Quality During Frozen Storage

Frozen fishery products are not completely stable in the frozen state and will
deteriorate over time, resulting in changes in texture, odour and flavour of
the product. Changes in texture are similar in character across most fishery
products – the product becomes dry, stringy and tough. Changes in odour and
flavour depend on the type of fishery product. Lean fish with a low oil content
(such as cod) develop the characteristic odours and flavours described as
‘musty’, ‘cardboard’ and ‘wet dog’, while fish with a high oil content (such as
tuna, herring and mackerel) develop rancid odours and flavours reminiscent
of new leather, linseed oil or old-fashioned oil paints. Changes in odour and
flavour in frozen crustacean shellfish and cephalopods are similar to those in
lean fish. Oily fish deteriorate faster and produce off-odours more quickly than
lean fish during frozen storage.
The main factors influencing the rate at which fishery products deteriorate
during frozen storage are temperature of storage and exposure to air. The lower
the storage temperature, the slower the product deteriorates. The storage life
of fishery products carried at minus 18°C (–18°C) ranges from 3 to 12 months.
In general, storage life is halved for each 5°C rise in storage temperature. For
example, a product with a storage life of 8 months at minus 18°C (–18°C) will
have a storage life of 4 months at minus 13°C (–13°C).

Since ships’ refrigeration systems can maintain products at temperatures

below minus 18°C (–18°C), and since voyages are generally less than a
month long, there should be no significant loss of quality due to defects
in frozen storage during a voyage.

Rate of deterioration is also affected by exposure to air. Block-frozen products

are usually protected by close wrapping with plastic film or by coating with a
water glaze. To maintain quality, it is important that this cover, film or glaze is not
damaged or lost.

368
 Chapter 38 Frozen Fish

Another defect arising during frozen storage is excessive loss of moisture

from the product, which leads to general or localised dehydration known as a
freezer burn. The dehydration is signified by white patches that appear where
the glaze is lost or where there are tears or breaks in the protective wrapping.
In unprotected material, dehydration occurs first in thin parts of the product,
such as the fins of the whole fish and the tail-ends of fillets, or at the corners of
blocks. These dried areas do not rehydrate when the product is thawed and are
indicated by blemishes in the thawed product.

38.2.5 Physical Damage to Frozen Products

Physical damage takes a number of forms, but complaints about the quality
of reefer cargoes are usually concerned with distortion or compression of the
product. This kind of damage, which affects individually frozen fish or blocks
of products, occurs when warm fishery products (ie warm relative to the
recommended storage temperature) are subjected to pressure, for example in a
stack of fish stored in the ship’s hold.
Fish typically contain 70 to 80% water, the exact percentage depending on the
species. Water in fish tissues starts to freeze at about minus 1°C (–1°C), but at
this point only a proportion of the water is converted to ice. Progressively, more
water freezes as the temperature falls. At minus 18°C (–18°C), which is the
lowest temperature usually specified for the carriage of frozen fish in reefers,
around 90% of the water has turned to ice. It is very hard to deform frozen fish
at this temperature and below, except under extremely high pressure.
If the product warms at all, some of the ice melts. The fish tissue holds an
increasing proportion of liquid water and a decreasing proportion of ice as its
temperature rises. As the proportion of ice decreases, the fish tissue, though
still partly frozen, becomes softer and can be deformed by moderate pressure.
At minus 3°C (–3°C), ‘frozen’ fishery products are soft enough to deform and
to sag under their own weight. If the cargo in the hold of a reefer is stacked to
a height of 4 or 5 m, as is often the case, there is sufficient pressure to distort
fish to some extent at minus 7°C (–7°C), and to distort and compress fish
considerably at minus 5°C (–5°C) or higher.
Individually frozen fish can be severely indented where they lie across each
other and also tend to take up the shapes of the surfaces they are pressed
against, such as ridged floor plates or edges of structures in the hold. In an
extreme case, a stack of fish can be compressed together into a solid mass
with almost no spaces between the fish. Blocks of products can be squeezed,
flattened and distorted and will extrude into gaps between cartons and be
indented by floor plates or pallet boards.

369
Carefully to Carry Consolidated Edition 2018

Figure 38.6: Indentations caused when warmed, soft tuna were pressed onto ridged
f loor plates by the weight of the stack of fish above them.

Frozen products at low temperatures are often brittle and prone to damage by
rough handling. For example, tails are easily broken off whole fish and blocks
can be shattered or chipped.
Products can also be damaged by contamination. If oil or chemicals are spilled,
they may penetrate the wrappings and affect the contents. When cartons and
wrappings are torn, the contents are more vulnerable to both contamination
and dehydration.

38.3 Pre-shipment Inspection

The need for inspection
Loss of quality in fishery products can be caused by damage both before
and after freezing. Carriage of frozen fish by sea is just one stage in a long
sequence of processing, handling, distribution and storage operations, and
products can be damaged or decline in quality at any stage. Receivers of
damaged cargoes of frozen fishery products might allege that loss of quality
occurred solely while the material was in the charge of the shipowner.
Pre-shipment inspection is, therefore, essential to determine as far as possible
the condition and quality of the product at the time of loading and to note any
circumstances that could lead to an exaggerated loss of quality during carriage
in the vessel. Such information has an important bearing on any claim that loss
of quality or damage occurred during carriage in the vessel. The inspection
should take into account the nature of the material, its packaging and its
presentation.

Pre-shipment inspection by the ship’s officers is generally confined

to visual inspection of the cargo and to measurement of physical
properties such as temperature. Officers are not expected to carry out
detailed evaluations of the quality of the material, which would require
examination of material after thawing and perhaps also after cooking.

370
 Chapter 38 Frozen Fish

Nature of the consignment

The deck officer should check that the materials to be loaded are consistent
with the B/L. However, information provided on a B/L is usually very brief and
a cargo may be described as ‘fishery products’, which encompasses many
different product types. Wherever possible, deck officers should record any
additional information, for example, in the case of individually frozen fish, the
species or variety, the presentation (whole or dressed) and the name of the
fishing vessel.
It is also important to record the details of any labelling on wrapped or cartoned
material, particularly production dates or batch codes. The absence of any
labelling, particularly of batch or production codes, should also be noted.
Information on the nature of the consignment and all details of labelling should
be recorded on the mate’s receipt. If labels are detachable, one can be
removed and attached to the receipt.

Temperature of the consignment

It is essential to measure the temperature of frozen fish presented for

loading. Since fishery products suffer damage if they are stowed at a
high temperature, temperature records provide important evidence of
the state of the product at the time of loading.

The terms of carriage normally stipulate the temperature, or at least the

maximum temperature, at which the cargo should be carried. Holds of reefer
vessels are intended for storage of frozen material loaded at the required
temperature of carriage. Refrigeration systems have little spare capacity
to lower the temperature of products that are put into the hold at above its
operating temperature. Material that is above the operating temperature of the
hold will take a long time to cool down and will lose quality as a result.
The terms of contract between the provider of the frozen products and the
recipient sometimes specify the maximum temperature at which the products
should be stored and delivered to the vessel and a temperature no warmer
than minus 10°C (–10°C) would be typical for frozen tuna delivered from a
tuna fishing vessel. Even if there is no specific requirement for the cargo’s
temperature on delivery to the vessel, the Master may refuse to accept a
product if he considers the temperature too high and the product at risk of
damage during stowage and carriage.
The deck officer should ensure that sufficient measurements are taken to
provide an adequate summary of the temperature of the cargo and that
the measurements are accurately recorded. Guidelines for temperature
measurement are provided in Section 38.5.

371
Carefully to Carry Consolidated Edition 2018

During loading, supervising officers should note any softening of the

f lesh of fish during transfer to the vessel; this can be gauged by pressing
the surface of the fish with a thumb nail or the point of a temperature
probe. Even when the temperature measured at the core of a fish is
low, the f lesh on the outside can be soft enough to be damaged by the
pressure of a stack within the hold.

Condition of the material

It is not easy to assess the intrinsic quality of frozen products by visual
examination but, with experience, one can get some indication of pre-freezing
quality from the appearance of the eyes and skin in the case of whole fish, from
the colour of the shell in the case of shell-on crustacean shellfish, and from the
colour of the skin in the case of cephalopods. These indications of quality will
not be visible in packaged products unless some of the cartons are opened.
Whenever possible, photographs should be taken of any defects.

Visual indication of spoilage in individually frozen fish

The inspecting officer should examine frozen fish individually for signs of
spoilage before freezing.

Good quality fish Stale fish

Colours Bright, demarcated Degraded and dull
Eyes Clear or slightly cloudy; Yellowish or reddish; sunken or missing
flat to the head or even
projecting slightly
Skin Clean – no discoloured Abraded and covered with yellowish slime
slime or coating or blood-stained brine; head region of tuna
takes on a diffuse pinkish hue
Tuna spoiled prior to freezing – note
sunken, discoloured eyes, dull colours,
pinkish discolouration of head, loss of skin
and dirty, bloodstained slime

Table 38.1: Signs of spoilage in individually frozen fish.

Nature and integrity of packaging and wrapping

Packaging is intended to protect the product from physical damage. The
inspecting officer should record any damage to outer wrappings, particularly if
the damage has caused exposure of the contents. Sometimes, the packaging

372
 Chapter 38 Frozen Fish

includes strapping, particularly where a carton contains individually wrapped,

heavy products such as blocks of fillets. The nature and integrity of any
strapping should be noted.
Wrapping, which may or may not be supplemented by further packaging in a
carton, is intended to prevent contamination and dehydration. Wrapping is only
effective in protecting against dehydration if it is sealed or closely applied to
the product. The record should include details of the type and condition of any
wrapping.

Figure 38.7: Damage to outer carton, although wrapping and

contents appear unharmed.

The officer should note any staining of cartons and outer wrappings, including
the character and nature of the stain – lubricating oil, fuel oil, water, fish juices,
for example. Oils tend to be dark in colour and leave the wrappings soft, even
when frozen. Fish-juice stains are yellowish or reddish. The officer should
note whether the staining is extensive, covering all or most of the container or
wrappings, or localised. When stains are localised, it should be noted whether
they are predominantly on the corners or edges of the packages or on the sides.

Blemishes, stains and contamination of the product

When the surface of the product is visible, it should be inspected for blemishes
and contamination. Blemishes include surface damage to whole fish, such as
abrasions and tears to the skin or splits in the flesh, and surface damage to
blocks, such as patches of freezer burn. An attempt should be made to assess
the proportion of the consignment affected.
It is important to record any unusual discolouration or staining and, if possible,
the nature of the defect, for example blood or bloody brine (particularly on
brine-frozen tuna), oil or chemicals. The product should also be examined for
contamination by dust, organic matter such as fish offal or vegetable debris,
and any other foreign matter.

In all cases of blemishes or contamination, the inspecting officer should

note the extent of the damage and estimate the proportion of the
consignment affected.

373
Carefully to Carry Consolidated Edition 2018

Signs of thawing or partial thawing

Sometimes, claims are made against shipowners on the basis that a cargo
has thawed or partially thawed during the voyage, and has then frozen again
to the stipulated carriage temperature. It is, therefore, important to check that
a potential cargo does not show signs that it has thawed and refrozen before
being presented for shipment. Such thawing or near thawing is often indicated
by distortion of product shape and release of liquids from the product.

Distortion
Distortion of whole or blocks of fish indicates that the material has thawed or
partially thawed since freezing, or was distorted during the freezing process.
Individually frozen whole fish often have slight pressure marks formed during
the freezing process. These minor distortions must be allowed for during
examination of frozen products. The nature of the marks depends on the
freezing process. For example, fish frozen in trays are slightly flattened or have
indentations on one side where they have lain on the trays during freezing.
Brine-frozen fish tend to float in the brine tanks and are restrained below the
level of the brine by a grating. As a result, the fish may have slightly flattened
sides where they have been compressed, or shallow cylindrical-shaped
depressions where they lay across each other as they froze. Sometimes, the
pressure on tuna during brine freezing results in splitting of the skin and flesh,
usually on the dorsal surface at the base of the dorsal fin. Any other splitting
should be noted by the officer.

Any distortions other than slight f lattening or the presence of minor

depressions suggest that the product has warmed up, softened and
refrozen in the distorted shape. The officer should note the nature and
extent of any distortions.

Blocks of fish should reflect the sharp angles and regular, geometrical shape
of the tray or former in which they were frozen. Blocks of fish that have thawed
while stored on pallets or in stacks will show signs of slumping, bending
or compression and material is often squeezed into the spaces between
the blocks. Restraints such as strappings and the framing of pallets and
shelf-supports cause indentations in blocks of fish. Again, the inspecting officer
should note the nature and extent of distortions.

Release of liquid
Fish release liquid as they thaw. The cargo officers should check for pools of
liquid collecting within wrappings, and for signs that liquid has been squeezed
from the blocks and has refrozen on the sides of the stack or on shelves and
pallets. Staining of cartons is sometimes an indication that the contents have
thawed and released liquid.

374
 Chapter 38 Frozen Fish

Figure 38.8: Oil-stained cartons. Figure 38.9: Carton that has been stained by
fish juices when the block partially thawed.

38.4 Transfer, Stowage and Carriage

Temperature control during loading
It is very important for maintaining quality that frozen fishery products are held
at low temperatures at all times. Although it is inevitable that the product’s
temperature will rise during loading into the hold, the loading operations must
be conducted so as to keep this rise to a minimum. The product’s quality
suffers not only due to the immediate rise in temperature as material is stowed
in the hold, but also because of the time taken to bring the product back down
to the required temperature after stowage.
As far as possible, the cargo should be loaded at, or below, the required
temperature of carriage, typically around minus 18°C (–18°C). Officers and
crew should attempt to minimise warming of the cargo while it is being loaded
and stowed in the holds, preferably so that the temperature of the cargo is not
above minus 10°C (–10°C) by the time it is stowed. Although the ship’s crew
may have little control over loading operations, the Master should cooperate
with the ship’s agent, and particularly with the stevedoring company, to ensure
that good practices are adopted during loading and stowing.

Good practices during loading

ƒƒ Ensure that delivery to the ship’s side is matched to loading onto the vessel
to reduce the time that products are waiting on the quay
ƒƒ products should be delivered in insulated containers or lorries, or at least in
covered vehicles
ƒƒ if the material must be unloaded onto the quay or held on the deck of the
reefer, it should be placed on pallets or on an insulating base, packed as
tightly as possible and covered with a tarpaulin or similar protection against
sun and wind
ƒƒ the cargo should be protected from exposure to wind, rain and sun until it is
about to be transferred to the vessel
ƒƒ in tropical climates, avoid loading for two or three hours either side of noon
and consider loading the vessel at night.

375
Carefully to Carry Consolidated Edition 2018

Good practices during stowage

ƒƒ Ensure that the hold is cooled to below the carriage temperature before
loading begins
ƒƒ during breaks in loading, cover holds or decks with at least the hatch
covers, even if the thermal covers are not put in place
ƒƒ refrigeration to the holds should be turned on during long breaks
ƒƒ transfer cargo as rapidly as possible from the quay or discharging vessel to
the hold
ƒƒ once loaded, the cargo should be covered with tarpaulins
ƒƒ where consistent with efficient loading, use only one hatch at a time to
avoid through currents of air in the hold.

Maintaining low temperatures during carriage

There is usually an explicit or implicit requirement to hold the cargo below
minus 18°C (–18°C) during carriage. The ship’s refrigeration system must be
capable of delivering air to the holds at a temperature a few degrees below the
target temperature to allow for heat leaks through the ship’s structures. Cargo
spaces in reefers are usually cooled by recirculating air systems, which are only
effective if the air can circulate freely through and around the stow.
Most heat leaks into the cargo hold occur through the sides and bulkheads and
it is important to ensure that there is free circulation between the cargo and
the structures to the hold. Sides and bulkheads should be fitted with vertical
dunnage (without horizontal battens which could obstruct airflow) to keep the
cargo away from the structures. There should be an even gap of at least 20 cm
between the top of the stowed cargo and the lowest part of the deckhead.
Cartons should be stacked with gaps between them, while stows of individually
frozen fish will inevitably have spaces unless the fish are deformable and have
been compressed.

The ship’s engineer should ensure that refrigeration equipment is well

maintained and can achieve the design temperatures. Evaporator coils
must be defrosted as required to maintain the cooling capacity. Frequent
need for defrosting is a sign of high temperatures in the cargo and
should be noted in the engine room log. In addition, the engine room
log should record temperatures at critical and meaningful positions in
the refrigeration system, such as the outlet and return air streams in air-
cooling systems and the outlet and return f luid temperatures in pipe-
cooled systems.

It is vital to take and record temperature measurements in the hold. How

meaningful these measurements are depends on the location of the
temperature sensors. Material in the centre of the stow is the slowest to cool

376
 Chapter 38 Frozen Fish

because the source of refrigeration is mainly around the sides of the stow.
Refrigerated air percolates gaps between fish or between cartons and the
cooling effect depends on the existence of uninterrupted spaces. Sensors
attached to the sides or bulkheads of the hold are exposed to cold air
circulating through the dunnage against the sides or bulkheads and, therefore,
tend to indicate temperatures lower than the bulk of the cargo. Sensors should
be attached to posts or other structural members running through the hold,
where they are more likely to reflect accurately the temperature of the bulk of
the cargo.

Protecting the cargo from contamination

Every effort must be made to protect the cargo from contamination. Good
shipboard practices will prevent direct contamination by seawater, bilge
water, fuel oil and the like, but it is important to be aware that fishery products
are rapidly tainted by odours picked up from the ambient air. This is a vital
consideration when using air-cooled refrigeration systems – the air must not
become polluted by odoriferous materials such as fuel oil, paints or chemicals
used on the ship.

A simple guideline is that, if the air circulating through the hold has an
odour, then that odour will be picked up by the fish products.

Unloading
When a cargo is unloaded from the ship, similar precautions should be taken to
those recommended during loading to minimise warming. Unloading should be
completed as quickly as possible and the cargo should be protected from wind,
rain and high temperatures.

38.5 Measuring the Temperature of Frozen Fishery Products

Equipment
The most convenient thermometer for measuring the temperature of frozen
food products is a water-resistant, K-type thermometer with a digital display
reading to 0.1°C. Typically, these thermometers have a measuring range down
to minus 50°C (–50°C) and an accuracy of ±0.5°C in the range required when
measuring the temperature of chilled or frozen foods. This accuracy is adequate
for the purposes described in this chapter.
There are several types of probe available for plugging into the instrument.
The best all-round probe for measuring the temperature of fishery products is
a 100 mm long, 3 to 4 mm diameter, stainless steel penetration probe on a
1 m lead. There are also stouter, hammer-in probes for forcing into frozen fish
(provided the temperature is not too low), but these have long response times.
It is usually preferable to drill holes and use a thinner probe.

377
Carefully to Carry Consolidated Edition 2018

Measuring the temperature of frozen fish

It is not usually possible to push a probe into frozen products. Normal practice
is to drill a hole, with an ordinary engineer’s hand or power drill, of such a
diameter that the probe fits tightly. The bottom of the hole should be at the
thermal centre of the object, ie at the position that will cool down or warm up
most slowly. The thermal centre is usually at the backbone in the thickest part
of a fish or at the centreline of a block of fillets. The hole should be around 100
mm deep, ie sufficiently long to take the whole length of the probe. This may
mean that the hole must be drilled at an angle to the surface of a fish or along
the centreline of a block from one of the smaller side faces.

Figure 38.10: Thermometer and probe.

PRVWRISUREH SUREHILWVVQXJO\ SRLQWRISUREHDW

ZLWKLQSURGXFW LQKROH WKHUPDOFHQWUH

Figure 38.11: Inserting temperature probe into frozen fish or block of fish.

378
 Chapter 38 Frozen Fish

Connectors Probes

NB: Diagram not drawn to scale.

Figure 38.12: Location of thermometer probes.

Once the probe has been inserted, note the lowest temperature reading
given in the next 2 to 4 minutes. While the hole is drilled and the temperature
measurement taken, the product warms up, so measurements should be taken
as quickly as possible, and preferably while the product is still in the hold.

Measuring the temperature of products in cartons

Products in cartons may be delivered in regular stacks or in random loads. In a
regular stack of cartons, for example cartons on pallets, temperatures can be
measured by inserting the probe between cartons. The warmest areas are the
corners of the stack.
Temperature should be measured at diagonally opposed top and bottom
corners and in the centre of a face. Insert the whole length of the probe
between cartons, or between the flap and body of a carton, on the mid-line.
Insert the probe between vertically stacked cartons rather than horizontally
adjacent cartons as the weight of the cartons above ensures a good thermal
contact with the probe. Record the minimum reading. Pushing the probe
between cartons will result in some frictional heating, so 5 to 10 minutes may
be required to reach equilibrium. When measuring temperatures of cartons, it is
useful to have several probes, cover the stack to avoid heat loss, and allow 5 to
10 minutes before connecting the probes in turn to the thermometer.

Figure 38.13: Measuring temperature within a carton.

379
Carefully to Carry Consolidated Edition 2018

When cartons are loosely stowed, it is necessary to measure the temperature

within cartons. If the contents are loose, such as individually quick frozen (IQF)
fillets, the probe can be forced through the side of the carton into the product.
Thermal contact is poor in such cases and it may take 10 minutes, or more, to
reach thermal equilibrium. If the cartons contain blocks, it should be possible to
insert the probe between blocks or to drill a hole in a block and insert the probe
through the side of the carton. The carton usually has to be split to locate gaps
between blocks and the centres of faces of blocks.

Calibration of the thermometer and probes

Instruments are calibrated by their manufacturers, but it is possible to check
thermometer/probe combinations at 0°C on the vessel.
Finely crush some ice made from fresh or distilled water and pack it tightly into
a vacuum flask or jar. Add cold water to fill the flask and insert the probe to its
full length in the ice/water mixture in the centre of the flask. Leave the flask and
probe for a while in a cool place, perhaps a refrigerator or chill room, before
taking a temperature reading. Since a mixture of ice and fresh water at thermal
equilibrium has a temperature of 0°C, any deviation of the probe/thermometer
combination from 0°C is the correction for that system.

Figure 38.14: Reefer cargo temperature probe calibration.

380