Metamorphism - Introduction

Metamorphism - All solid-state changes in a rock’s composition and fabric occurring

well below the earth's surface. Does not involve melting, although aqueous fluids
expelled during the crystallization of a magma can play an important role.

The lower limit of metamorphism is hard to establish. The general approach is to define
the boundary between diagenesis and metamorphism by noting the first occurrence of a
mineral that normally does not occur in surface sediments, for example, chlorite or
epidote in mafic rocks or muscovite in shales. Other minerals that have been used as
indicators of burial metamorphism are laumontite, lawsonite, albite or other zeolites or
framework silicates, and sheet silicates that are transitional between clay minerals and
micas. Formation of most of these minerals requires a temperature of at least 150 0-
2000C, but temperatures as high as 3500C are necessary for certain rock types.

The upper limit of metamorphism is defined as the beginning of appreciable melting.

This makes it relatively easy to distinguish this upper limit in the field and in hand
samples. However, this limit does not represent a single temperature or even a narrow
range of temperatures. The onset of substantial melting in shale can occur at
temperatures as low as 650 0C, whereas many mafic igneous rocks and some aluminous
quartzo-feldspathic sandstones do not melt at temperatures up to 800 0C or higher.

Metamorphism that occurs depends upon:

1. Nature of the host (bulk chemical composition, relic fabric)

2. Nature of the metamorphic path
3. Final equilibrium state governed by P, T, X

Protolith - original rock before metamorphism occurred

Relic Fabric - Preexisting fabric or texture

Metamorphic Processes

1. Thermal Metamorphism - change in temperature producing a new mineral

assemblage and often a new fabric (larger grain size) due to grain growth.
2. Metasomatism - major gain of loss of matter involving fluid transport.
3. Pressure Metamorphism - can be either lithostatic resulting isotropic fabrics or
directed resulting in anisotropic fabric.

Types of Metamorphism

1. Contact Metamorphism - occurs adjacent to a cooling pluton. Principle agents

are T and X. P not important because at great depth rocks are too hot to be
significantly altered.

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 2. Regional Metamorphism - occurs over broad areas along plate boundaries.
Involves P and T and perhaps X. Often characterized by multiple episodes that
overprint one another.
3. Sub-seafloor Metamorphism - occurs when basalts formed at divergent
margins are invaded by seawater. A type of hydrothermal alteration in which
typically anhydrous silicates are hydrated.
4. Burial Metamorphism - due to changes in P and T solely as a function of burial.
5. Shear Metamorphism - flowage along deep-seated shear zones (mylonite)
6. Shock Metamorphism - meteor impact generated metamorphism. Usually
characterized by hi P, low T polymorphs.

Fabric

Fabric - arrangement and orientation of the mineral grains in space. A reflection of the
nature of the stress applied.

Imposed fabrics result from:

 deformation
 solid state crystal growth
 combination of the above

Deformational

 Cataclastic fabric - results from near surface fault movement

 Mylonitic fabric - deeper metamorphism along fault zones results in cohesive
deformation by ductile flow. Caused by a) plastic slip along grain boundaries; b)
recrystallization which changes grain shapes.

Solid State Crystal Growth

 Tendency is to reduce surface energy by recrystallizing to coarser grains which

have dihedral angles between faces at 120 degrees (Crystalloblastic texture).

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Becke proposes a Crystalloblastic Series

MOST EUHEDRAL

Sphene Rutile Pyrite

Garnet Sillimanite Staurolite

Epidote Magnetite Ilmenite

Andalusite Pyroxene Amphibole

Mica Chlorite Kyanite

Calcite/dolomite Idocrase Scapolite

Plagioclase Quartz Cordierite

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 LEAST EUHEDRAL

Series is little used today and the euhedral tendency is not as well understood as
first thought. Definitely related to surface anisotrophy, but why is uncertain.

1. Isotropic - random arrangement

2. Anisotropic - different or preferred arrangement in different directions.
o Planar
o Linear
o Planear-linear

Isotropic Fabrics - random orientation of grains. Analogy is a bag of marbles.

Massive - lacking anisotropic fabric on outcrop scale.

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Granoblastic - lacking anisotropic fabric at the thin section level.

Imposed fabric - that which results from metamorphism

Relict fabric - inherited from the protolith

Anisotropic Fabrics

Planar - Inequant grains layered along a particular plane. Results in foliation.

Examples are schistosity and slaty cleavage.

Lineation - Alignment along a particular trend (line). Rather rare by itself.

Planear-linear - combination of the two and probably the most common.

Obviously mineralogy is a dominant factor in determining if a rock will be lineated or

foliated. For example, quartz sandstone will probably never be foliated regardless of
stress. Shale will be foliated even if the directed pressure is only moderate.

Metamorphic Textural Terms

Epitaxial Overgrowth - situation where a mineral of similar atomic structure grows on a

seed crystal of another mineral (uralization - Amphibole on Pyroxene).

Porphyroblastic - containing large grains which grew during metamorphism.

Blastoporphyritic - rock which has retained original porphyritic texture of its igneous
protolith.

Poikiloblastic - large grains which grew during metamorphism and contain numerous
small inclusions of other minerals.

Granoblastic - a mosaic of equidemensional anhedral grains with random orientation.

Lepidoblastic - abundance of platy minerals with strong planar orientation.

Nematoblastic - abundance of acicular or columnar grains with strong linear orientation.

Mylonitic - vary fine-grained, streaked anisotropic fabric produced by intense ductile

flow.

Flaser Fabric - mylonite with ovoid megacrysts.

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

Based on:

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  fabric
 field relationships (low-grade etc.)
 inferred P-T conditions (facies)
 chemical composition

Prefixes often used when the protolith is known. For example Metagraywacke would be
a metamorphosed graywacke.

Para - sedimentary protolith

Ortho - igneous protolith

Most often used classification is based on the development of foliation and is far from
the rigorous classification we see in igneous rocks. Mineralogy plays a role as a modifier
or in some cases, such as marble or quartzite, in the rock name.

Strongly Foliated Weakly Foliated Non-foliated

Slate Gneiss Amphibolite, Quartzite

Phyllite Mylonite Serpentinite, Marble

Schist Migmatite Greenstone, Hornfels

Strongly Foliated

1. Slate - very fine-grained aphanitic rock with a dull luster and slaty cleavage
surfaces. Chief components are mica + chlorite + quartz.
2. Phyllite - fine-grained rock with poorer cleavage. Silky sheen on cleavage
surfaces. Similar mineralogy to slate.
3. Schist - phaneritic, often lineated with possible segregation of felsic and mafic
minerals. Much more diverse mineralogy reflecting the variety of different, but
dominantly sedimentary protoliths.

Weakly Foliated

1. Mylonite - dense, fine-grained rock with a mylonitic or flaser fabric. Quartz and
feldspar are the chief constituents hence often has a chert-like appearance. Form
by ductile flow caused by directed pressure.
2. Gneiss - phaneritic medium to coarse-grained rock. Comprised chiefly of quartz,
feldspar and mafics. Conspicuous banding due to segregation of various
minerals. Can have either in igneous or sedimentary protolith.
3. Migmatite - "mixed" rock consisting of mafic metamorphic minerals intermixed
with granite. Very similar to gneiss and often the terms are used interchangeably.

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 However, it is thought to represent a rock intermediate between high-grade
metamorphism and melting.

Non-foliated

1. Quartzite - composed principally of quartz grains. Thought to be derived by

metamorphism of a quartz sandstone or chert.
2. Marble - derived from limestone or dolomite and often associated with skarns
(see below)
3. Skarn - calcium-magnesium-iron silicates formed during contact metamorphism
of limestone and dolomite. Involves a large-scale addition of Al and Si.
4. Greisen - granoblastic aggregate of quartz and muscovite with accessory topaz,
tourmaline, fluorite, rutile, cassiterite and wolframite.
5. Hornfels - (spotted rock) contact metamorphic rock in which large porphyroblasts
are imbedded in a fine-grained phaneritic to aphanitic matrix.
6. Granofels - granulite facies metamorphic rock dominated by equant grains of
quartz, K feldspar, pyroxene and garnet. All minerals are anhydrous and the
texture is granoblastic. Characteristic is the presence of pyroxene.
7. Charnockite - anhydrous metamorphic rock similar to a granofels, but more often
containing only a single pyroxene + Ca feldspar + olivine. Associated with
gabbroic intrusions.
8. Greenstone - aphanitic weakly metamorphosed mafic igneous rock with a basaltic
protolith. Dominated by epidote, chlorite, actinolite and carbonates. With
increasing grade actinolite + chlorite --> Na amphibole and rock becomes an
amphibolite. Greenstones are the product of sub-seafloor alteration of basalt.
Alteration is often patchy and fracture-controlled. The term spillite is often used
interchangeably.
9. Serpentinite - metamorphosed ultramafic rocks. Assemblage comprised of
lizardite + chrysotile + brucite + talc + magnetite + carbonate. Probably forms in
much the same manner as greenstone and the two are often intimately
interlayered in older Archean terrain.

Other Stuff

1. Blueschist - a generic name for a Hi P/Low T metamorphic rock often

characterized by the presence of the blue sodic amphibole glaucophane, sodic
pyroxene jadeite, aragonite and members of the zeolite group of silicates. Classic
area is the Franciscan Complex of California and Santa Catalina Island. Protolith
for blueschist is predominantly graywacke, lesser chert and basalt.
2. Eclogite - comprised of garnet + omphacite but with the bulk composition of
basalt. Thought to be the high pressure equivalent of the latter and to have
formed in the upper mantle.

Isograds and Facies

Metamorphic Isograds

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Came from the work of Barrow in the Scottish Highlands. He noted that certain
metamorphic minerals appear systematically in pelitic rocks (Figure). He attributed this
to systematic increase in temperature and pressure. He used the terms low grade to
high grade with grade indicating the degree of metamorphism

Index Mineral - metamorphic mineral characteristic of a particular zone.

Isograd - line on a map representing the first appearance of an index mineral.

Problems lie in the nature of the reactions. Some are abrupt in the "right" protolith, but
others can be gradual and occur over a range of temperature, pressure and rock
composition. Furthermore, does an isograd indicate a change in pressure, temperature
or simply composition? In the case of Barrow's work the protolith was homogeneous so
the isograds do represent P/T changes. However, in many cases isograds are not so
straightforward.

Metamorphic Facies

Eskola studied the metamorphic rocks of Norway and concluded that for any given set of
P/T conditions, a new suite of minerals will from that reflect the original bulk composition
of the protolith. This coupled with Goldschmidt's observation that phase relationships
strictly limited the number of phases that could exist lead to the metamorphic facies
concept.

Eskola originally proposed five facies that have since been added to and modified by
others. Note that at the time he proposed these facies he had no idea of their T and P
ranges. Those were not worked out until decades later. In some cases the reactions that
result in the new mineral assemblages are confined to a narrow temperature range and
the boundaries between facies are abrupt, but in others the facies transition can involve
temperature ranges of hundreds of degrees. The Table below and accompanying figure
depict the current state of knowledge of metamorphic facies.
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Facies Mafic rocks Ultramafic Mudrocks Calcareous
rocks rocks

Zeolite Analcime, Ca- Serpentine, Quartz, clays, Calcite, dolomite,

zeolites, prehnite, brucite, chlorite, illite, albite, quartz, talc, clays
zoisite, albite dolomite, chlorite
magnesite

Prehnite- Chlorite, prehnite, Serpentine, talc, Quartz, illite, Calcite, dolomite,

pumpellyite albite, forsterite, muscovite, albite, quartz, clays,
pumpellyite, tremolite, chlorite chlorite talc, muscovite
epidote (stilpnomelane)

Greenschist Chlorite, Serpentine, talc, Quartz, Calcite, dolomite,

actinolite, epidote tremolite, brucite, plagioclase, quartz,
or zoisite, albite diopside, chlorite, chlorite, muscovite, biotite
(magnetite) muscovite,
biotite, garnet,
pyrophyllite,
(graphite)

Epidote- Hornblende, Forsterite, Quartz, Calcite, dolomite,

amphibolite actinolite, epidote tremolite, talc, plagioclase, quartz,
or zoisite, serpentine, chlorite, muscovite,
plagioclase, chlorite, muscovite, biotite, tremolite
(sphene) magnetite) biotite, (graphite)

Amphibolite Hornblende, Forsterite, Quartz, Calcite, dolomite,

plagioclase, tremolite, talc, plagioclase, quartz, biotite,
(sphene), anthophyllite, chlorite, tremolite,
(ilmenite) chlorite, muscovite, forsterite,
orthopyroxene, biotite, garnet, diopside,
(magnetite) staurolite, plagioclase
kyanite,
sillimanite,
(graphite),
(ilmenite)

Granulite Hornblende, Forsterite, Quartz, Calcite, quartz,

augite, orthopyroxene, plagioclase, forsterite,
orthopyroxene, augite, orthoclase, diopside,
plagioclase, hornblende, biotite, garnet, wollastonite,
(ilmenite) garnet, Al-spinel cordierite, humite-
sillimanite, chondrodite, Ca-
orthopyroxene garnet,
plagioclase

Blueschist Glaucophane, Forsterite, Quartz, Calcite,

lawsonite, albite, serpentine, plagioclase, aragonite, quartz,
aragonite, diopside muscovite, forsterite,
chlorite, zoisite carpholite, talc, diopside,
kyanite, chloritoid tremolite

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Eclogite Mg-rich garnet, Forsterite, Quartz, albite, Calcite,
omphacite, orthopyroxene, phengite, talc, aragonite, quartz,
kyanite, (rutile) augite, garnet kyanite, garnet forsterite,
diopside

Albite- Albite, epidote or Serpentine, talc, Quartz, Calcite, dolomite,

epidote zoisite, actinolite, tremolite, chlorite plagioclase, quartz, tremolite,
chlorite muscovite, talc, forsterite
hornfels chlorite, cordierite

Hornblende Hornblende, Forsterite, Quartz, Calcite, dolomite,

hornfels plagioclase, orthopyroxene, plagioclase, quartz, tremolite,
orthopyroxene, hornblende, muscovite, diopside,
garnet chlorite, (Al- biotite, cordierite, forsterite
spinel), andalusite
(magnetite)

Pyroxene Orthopyroxene, Forsterite, Quartz, Calcite, quartz,

hornfels augite, orthopyroxene, plagioclase, diopside,
plagioclase, augite, orthoclase, forsterite,
(garnet) plagioclase, Al- andalusite, wollastonite
spinel sillimanite,
cordierite,
orthopyroxene

Sanidinite Orthopyroxene, Forsterite, Quartz, Calcite, quartz,

augite, orthopyroxene, plagioclase, diopside,
plagioclase, augite, sillimanite, forsterite,
(garnet) plagioclase cordierite, wollastonite,
orthopyroxene, monticellite,
sapphirine, Al- akermanite
spinel

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Facies Series

Petrologists extend the metamorphic facies concept one step further with the series of
facies that occur within particular regions or terranes. The basis of the facies series idea
is that the metamorphic conditions within any region tend to lie in a fairly narrow band in
the P- T plane, with gradually increasing pressures as temperature increases, that is, a
shallow positive slope (Figure). A particular metamorphic terrane may be characterized
as low-pressure, medium-pressure, or high-pressure. Commonly, facies series have
been given geographic names corresponding to the regions where they occur. However,
there are exceptions like the Barrovian facies series named for George Barrow and the
Blueschist Series for the prominence of the blueschist facies in this series. The principal
value of facies series is to show graphically whether high temperatures were achieved at
shallow or great depths in a particular terrane.

Four recognized Series

 Blueschist - Hi P
 Barrovian - Medium P
 Buchan - Low P
 Hornfels - Contact Metamorphism

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Metamorphic Models

It has become clear to petrologists that to understand the interrelationships between

metamorphism and tectonism, it was necessary to characterize the actual P-T path
taken by a particular rock during metamorphism. To understand how both temperature
and pressure evolve during the life cycle of a metamorphic event, time must be
considered. It is apparent that pressure and temperature are environmental variables
that can behave very differently over time.

Two models have evolved for regional metamorphism. The normal or clockwise model is
characteristic of most orogenic belts.

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 1. Begins with the Burial phase - pressure builds up faster with temperature lagging.
2. As the basin deepens and stabilizes temperature continues to rise while pressure
remains constant. Additional heat is provided from the mantle. This is the Heating
stage.
3. The Uplift phase begins as an isostatic response to the lower density of the
sediments and to heating which further decreases the density. During this stage,
at least initially, the temperature continues to rise even as the pressure on the
system drops.
4. The Unroofing phase sees a rapid drop in both temperature and pressure as
weathering removes the overlying rock cover.

While most orogenic belts seem to be characterized by this clockwise trend, older
granulite terrains seem to have evolved in a different manner, the reverse or
counterclockwise trend.

1. Extreme crustal thinning allows mantle heat to rise and heat rocks quickly at low
pressure near the surface (Heating stage).
2. Magma rises and pods above the metamorphic rocks. Upon solidification of the
igneous rocks pressure on the underlying metamorphics increases.
3. This thermal inversion produces slow cooling due to the blanketing effect of the
igneous rocks.
4. A compressional event, probably related to collision, increases pressure on the
system and initiates uplift.
5. Uplift

and Unroofing occur much as they did in the previous model with pressure
dropping more rapidly than temperature.

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Metamorphism of Convergent Margins

Miyashiro was the first to recognize that paired metamorphic belts were a common
occurrence in the Japanese Islands. He first mapped the Ryoke/Sanbagawa belts and
subsequently three other pairs of belts to the west in Japan, Korea and China. Further
he noted that similar "paired belts" occurred all around the Pacific Rim.

In Japan, the easternmost (oceanward) belt has formed under high pressure/low
temperature metamorphic conditions. Here in California the Blueschist of the Franciscan

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(5 above) would be similar. It should be noted that subsequent research has shown that
the Japanese "paired belts" are slightly atypical in that temperature was probably higher
than the "classic" blueschist terrains elsewhere in the world, including California.

The western belt, separated by a fault lies in the greenschist-amphibolite facies series
(Buchan). Studies have shown that the rocks of this belt have been subjected to
additional heat above that of the "normal" geotherm. It is thought this high heat flux is
generated by the rising bodies of magma from partial meting of the subducting slab of
oceanic crust/mantle.

Miyashiro proposed the model below to explain the paired belts.

The blueschist belt lies in the accretionary wedge of sedimentary material at the trench.
The greenschist/amphibolite facies lie 100-250 km to the west of the blueschist belt. The
area between has often been termed the arc-trench gap. In some paired belts this gap is
absent with the two belts juxtaposed against one another. Presumably subsequent
compression shortened the intervening crust or steeper subduction angles reduced the
width of the gap.

One other problem that has intrigued researchers is the presence of blueschist facies
rocks at all. If they require high pressure to form and are uplifted and subjected to the
low pressure at the earth's surface why don't they convert to more stable low pressure
facies? It suggests that older blueschist rocks should be rare, which they are, and that
uplift must be very rapid to avoid the low-pressure overprint.

Continent-Continent Collisions

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The result of termination of subduction is the collision of two continental lithospheric
plates. There are numerous examples of collision and major crustal shortening. These
zones occur on virtually every continent. The most striking example is the closure of the
Tethys Sea to create the Alpine-Himalayan mountain chain that extends from western
Europe to southeastern Asia. The metamorphism in collision zones is typically very
complex. Metamorphic rocks created in several different environments are often jumbled
together.

THE ALPINE EXAMPLE. The young (Cenozoic) Alpine belt has metamorphic features
that are characteristic of many older collision zones. Because of the extensive crustal
shortening, many rocks have been moved great distances to the north and west from
the axial zone of the orogenic belt. The northern- and western parts of the European
Alps (the Helvetic zone) (Figure) consist of folded but only weakly metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks tectonically mixed with slices of crystalline basement. South and east
of the Helvetic zone is the Penninic zone, which contains the highest grade rocks of the
Alps, generally of amphibolite facies. Scattered areas of ultrahigh-pressure rocks occur
within this zone, some of which are among the highest pressure materials (30 kbar)
found at the earth�s surface. The Penninic zone and its ultrahigh-pressure parts
include not only metamorphosed platform and ocean basin sedimentary rocks but also
oceanic crust and upper mantle and slices of old granitic and granulite basement, all
mixed tectonically with normal greenschist- and amphibolite-facies rocks. Although very
high pressures have been recorded in some rocks, high temperatures have not, which
indicates a very steep P-T slope. Overprinting of many Alpine rocks, including high-
pressure ones, by a late, low-grade greenschist facies event is widespread and
apparently reflects the termination of collision. Alpine metamorphic events span a
significant range of time in Western Europe, from some early, apparently subduction
related high-pressure events in Switzerland and Italy as old as 90 Ma, to more typical
amphibolite fades metamorphism in Austria as young as 30-35 Ma.

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Graphical Representations - Metamorphic Rocks

Early in the century, Goldschmidt noted that certain common metamorphic assemblages
could be found worldwide. He reasoned that it would be too strong a coincidence for all
the occurrences of an assemblage to have formed at precisely the same pressure and
temperature. So he proposed instead a range of pressure and temperature for stability
of a particular, randomly selected, assemblage.

In a phase rule sense, this situation represents divariant equilibrium, that is, pressure
and temperature can each vary independently without changing the mineral
assemblage. Pressure, temperature, and chemical composition (abbreviated as X) are
the three environmental variables of greatest interest to metamorphic petrologists.
Boundaries of mineral assemblage stability fields can be shown as a function of their
mutual dependence on the variables pressure, temperature, and composition (X) in a
three-dimensional P-T-X diagram. Assuming a constant composition, so that X is no
longer variable (a reasonable thing to do if only one kind of rock is being considered),
the P-T plane becomes a very useful two-dimensional way to portray assemblage
relationships.

To illustrate the way the P-T diagram works, consider a one-component system that is of
importance to metamorphic petrology, the system Al 2SiO5 . There are several mineral
phases that have the composition of the combined component, specifically, sillimanite,
andalusite, and kyanite. Each of these Al 2SiO5 polymorphs has a region of stability in the
P-T plane, and the phase rule specifies how these stability fields intersect. In a divariant
system, the number of phases should equal the number of components, or p = c. A
single phase would be stable over an area of the P-T plane. Univariant lines along which
pairs of phases can coexist separate the divariant regions. The even greater restriction
of invariance means that there is a single point in P-T space where three phases can
coexist, this point is commonly called a triple point. The P-T diagram for the system
Al2SiO5 thus consists of three divariant regions separated by three univariant lines that
must intersect in one invariant point.

The simplest possible chemical-rock system has only one component, but more
complex systems behave in similar ways. Adding extra components and phases simply
requires adding more invariant points and more univariant reaction lines. The result is
called a petrogenetic grid (Figure); and although it looks complex, it obeys the same
basic rules as the one-component system. Realistic and complex petrogenetic grids for
metamorphosed pelites or for calcareous rocks can have as many as a hundred or more
univariant lines and tens of invariant points. The areas between the lines and points are
the divariant stability fields of typical metamorphic assemblages. A well-constrained
petrogenetic grid is a very useful tool for estimating the P-T conditions for metamorphic
rocks.

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A typical example of a sequence of metapelite mineral assemblages for a P- T path is as
follows.

1. For the horizontal P-T path shown the initial assemblage (at about 480 0C and 6
kbar) might be chloritoid (Cld)+ biotite (Bt) (all assemblages given here include
quartz and muscovite as well).
2. On crossing the reaction labeled Fe-Cld + Ann = Alm at 500 0C, iron-rich garnet
(Grt) joins the assemblage, which becomes garnet (Grt) + chloritoid (Cld) + biotite
(Bt).
3. Next, the reaction Cld + Bt = Grt + Chl occurs at about 530 0 C; this represents the
disappearance of chloritoid from biotite-bearing rocks, and indicates an
assemblage of garnet (Grt) + chlorite (Chl) + biotite (Bt).
4. At 5700C, staurolite (St) appears through the reaction Grt + Chl = St + Bt.
5. At the high-temperature end of the P-T path (640°C), the likely assemblage is
garnet (Grt) + staurolite (St) + biotite (Bt) (plus muscovite and quartz).

According to the phase rule, no equilibrium assemblage should contain more phases
than the number of components plus 2 (an invariant assemblage). Even this kind of
assemblage should be very rare, because it is extremely unlikely that a system would
exist at exactly that combination of pressure and temperature that matches those at the
invariant P-T point. Similarly, univariant lines, which represent reaction assemblages
(that is, a reaction has been caught in progress), reflect assemblages that contain one
phase in excess of the number of components. A univariant reaction assemblage should
also be unusual, although not as rare as an invariant one, because of the special
requirement for P-T conditions that fall on a line in the P-T plane. The most general and
probable situation is to find divariant assemblages in metamorphic rocks. Goldschmidt

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recognized this probability argument: the so-called Goldschmidt mineralogic phase rule
is written p = c which means that we normally expect the number of phases to equal the
number of components.

Ternary Diagrams

Metamorphic petrologists most often employ ternary diagrams to study field

relationships. To simplify natural systems, which can be quite complex, rocks are
considered to be silica saturated and volatiles completely mobile. This allows SiO 2, H2O
and CO2 to be ignored. However, a number of common oxides remain. The simplest
manner of treating the remaining oxides is to choose three that are present in most/all
the metamorphic minerals in a field study area. Then we follow a series of steps:

1. Mineral formulas are broken down into constituent oxides. For instance Al 2SiO5
(kyanite, sillimanite, andalusite) would become Al 2O3 •SiO2 and CaSiO3
(wollastonite) would become CaO•SiO2.
2. Next the minerals are plotted in their proper positions on the selected ternary. In
the case below we have utilized the three oxides Al 2O3, CaO and SiO2 (I known I
said SiO2 is usually ignored!). Kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite plot as a point
midway between the Al2O3 and SiO2 (1 mole of silica per mole of alumina) corner
and wollastonite as a point between SiO 2 and CaO (1 mole of silica per mole of
calcium oxide). A mineral such as anorthite that contains all three oxides would
plot in the interior of the diagram.

3. The final step is the most difficult. For any three component system only a
maximum of three minerals can be in equilibrium for a given bulk composition.
But which of the seven possible minerals shown on the diagram represents the
proper assemblage? The answer lies in careful study of thin sections and hand
samples. In other words, the tie lines that connect the various minerals have been
determined by painstaking study. Also remember that each diagram represents a

19
 particular range of temperature and pressure. At other P/Ts new minerals may
appear or the tie line relationships may change

ACF and AKF Diagrams

Since rocks in nature are quite complicated, containing as many as nine or more
components (SiO2, TiO2, A12O3, FeO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, H2 O) and hence nine or
more minerals petrologists have developed techniques to allow compression of the
system into three of four plotting components.

Eskola pioneered the simplified approach with the ACF diagram. Rock and mineral
compositions are plotted in terms of three idealized components A, C, and F, which are
each combinations of actual components. This diagram seeks to show only the minerals
that appear or disappear during metamorphism of mudstones. Minerals that are stable
throughout a wide range of metamorphism are ignored. The minerals left out include
albite, potassium feldspar, micas, magnetite, sphene, and apatite. Silica can be
neglected as a component by assuming silica oversaturation. The ACF components are
defined as follows:

A = Al203 + Fe2O3 - (Na2O + K2O)

C = CaO - 3.3 P2O5

F = FeO + MgO + MnO

Al2O3 and Fe2O3 are combined because they are geochemically similar and substitute for
each other. A similar argument is used for combination of FeO, MgO, and MnO. (Na 2O +
K2 O) is subtracted from the A component to account for the equivalent aluminum that is
in albite and orthoclase; if this is not done, a rock composition will plot erroneously high
in the A component. The quantity 3.3 P 2O5 is subtracted from CaO to correct for the
number of moles of CaO in the minor mineral apatite. Water and carbon dioxide are
neglected because they are assumed to be mobile. Plotting is done by using molecular
proportions, which are obtained by dividing the weight percentage of each oxide in the
rock chemical analysis by its molecular weight. Mineral compositions are also plotted on
the ACF diagram to allow interpretation of the rock composition. The Figure below
shows the plotting positions of many common metamorphic minerals. Note that minerals
can plot either as points, lines, or regions, depending on the degree of solid solution and
compositional variability in each mineral.

20
A commonly used companion diagram for ACF is the A’KF diagram. It is useful for
showing phase relationships of potassic minerals (micas, K-feldspar), in
metamorphosed mudstones (metapelites) and potassic volcanics. A is designated A’
here because it is calculated slightly differently from A in the ACF diagram:

A’= Al2O3 + Fe2O3 - (Na2O + K2O + CaO)

K = K 2O

F = FeO + MgO + MnO

AFM Diagrams

21
A third compositional diagram has proved extremely useful in showing mineralogic
relationships in metapelites. It is based on the tetrahedron K 2O-Al2O3-FeO-MgO and is
known as an AFM diagram. The advantage of this diagram is that it allows FeO and
MgO to be separated. In many metapelites, there are coexisting ferromagnesian
minerals with differing values of Fe/(Fe + Mg). Understanding the phase relations in
such rocks depends on portrayal of varying ratios of iron to magnesium. Representation
of rock or mineral compositions in terms of four components requires plotting within a
three-dimensional tetrahedron with components at the corners of the tetrahedron
(Figure). Because this is difficult to plot accurately on a two-dimensional sheet of paper,
we project points within the tetrahedron onto one face (or its extension). The technique
utilizes a point of projection (the muscovite composition) to project all rock and mineral
compositions onto the AFM face of the tetrahedron. This is graphically correct as long as
all rocks and assemblages plotted contain muscovite (that is, are saturated with
muscovite).

A rock or mineral composition falls either inside the tetrahedron or only on a face or
edge. Rock compositions typically fall inside, such as that shown at a. Projection from
muscovite, point m, involves drawing a straight line from m through a until it intersects
the AFM plane at a’. Compositions relatively poor in potassium will project into the
positive part of the AFM plane (the part that makes up one face of the tetrahedron),
whereas those richer in potassium (including the mineral biotite) plot onto the extension
of the AFM face at negative values of A. Many ferromagnesian minerals that have
variable ratios of Fe/(Fe + Mg) plot along horizontal lines at relatively constant values of
A. K-feldspar is the only metapelite mineral that does not plot at finite values in the AFM
projection. Potassium feldspar is therefore arbitrarily assigned a position beyond biotite
at negative infinity.

Examine Figure 20-10 in your text to see the effect of plotting a typical metapelite on
these three types of diagrams.

Contact Metamorphism

Contact metamorphism occurs locally, at and near the contacts between intrusions and
the surrounding country rock. The heat introduced by the intrusion controls the

22
metamorphism. The effects of increased temperature are most pronounced where
intrusions occur at shallow levels. There, contrasts in temperature between country rock
and intrusion are at a maximum. The fluid phase is also an important agent of contact
metamorphism. It transports heat and has a profound influence on the chemistry and
mineral composition of the rocks with which it comes in contact. Fluids are particularly
important in the metamorphism of carbonate rocks. Contact metamorphism commonly
produces fine-grained rocks termed hornfels. In addition to a variety of common
minerals, such as quartz, feldspars, and epidote, hornfels locally contain unique phases.
Typically, contact metamorphism occurs at shallower levels of the crust, where the
pressure is relatively low (< 4 kb). At those shallow levels, the stresses characteristic of
orogenic belts are generally absent and contact metamorphic rocks lack foliation.

Contact Metamorphic Facies Series

Contact metamorphic rocks are found in aureoles, zones of metamorphic rock

surrounding and associated with plutons. Observation of the occurrences of contact
metamorphic rocks and examination of petrogenetic grids reveals that Zeolite, Prehnite-
Pumpellyite, Albite-Epidote Hornfels, Hornblende Hornfels, Pyroxene Hornfels, and
Sanidinite facies constitute the Contact Metamorphic Facies Series.

Pelitic minerals indicative of these facies include analcite, stilbite, wairakite, pyrophyllite,
cordierite, andalusite, sillimanite, K-feldspar, orthopyroxene, sanidine, and mullite.
Albite, actinolite, epidote, hornblende, pyroxenes and olivine occur in mafic/ultramafic
rocks. In carbonate rocks, minerals such as talc, tremolite, diopside, forsterite,
grossularite, wollastonite, and spurrite may develop.

23
A classic example of a partial Contact Facies Series is provided by the contact aureole
of the Devonian Onawa pluton of Maine (see above figure). The granitic pluton was
intruded into slate country rock previously metamorphosed under conditions of the lower
Greenschist Facies. The country rocks contain the assemblage Fe-Ti oxide + white mica
+ chlorite + quartz (figure). The first evidence of contact metamorphism is the
appearance of spots in the slates as far as 2 km from the pluton margin. The spots are
cordierite porphyroblasts (largely replaced by phyllosilicates) and are part of the
assemblage biotite + andalusite + cordierite + white mica + quartz + albite (figure). This
assemblage is representative of the Hornblende Hornfels Facies.

This outer zone surrounds an inner zone, adjacent to the pluton, composed of the
assemblage biotite + sillimanite + cordierite + alkali feldspar + quartz (figure). This
assemblage is indicative the Pyroxene Hornfels Facies.

Conditions

The conditions of contact metamorphism are those of low to moderate pressure and low
to high temperature. Pressures are generally less than 4 kb. Temperatures of
metamorphism vary widely from 400-1000°C. Among the controlling factors are:

1. the temperature of the magma,

24
 2. the temperature of the country rock at the time of intrusion,
3. the conductivities of the solidifying magma and the country rock,
4. the diffusivity (of both the country rock and the intrusion),
5. the heat of crystallization of the magma,
6. the heat capacity (the rate of change in the energy of reaction with change in
temperature),
7. fluid transport, the heating or cooling by influx of water,
8. contributions from other sources, such as radioactive.

Pelitic Rocks

At the lowest grades of metamorphism, in the Zeolite Facies, combinations of quartz,

chlorite, alkali feldspar, calcite, kaolinite and various clays (smectite/illite,
vermiculite/chlorite), as well as a number of zeolites and iron oxides, characterize the
rocks.

With progressive metamorphism, the clays are replaced by white mica, chloritoid may
appear in iron-rich rocks, kaolinite is replaced by pyrophyllite, and biotite appears. The
reaction

kaolinite + 4 quartz <==> 2 pyrophyllite + 2 H2O

25
is one of the important reactions marking the boundary between the Zeolite and Albite-
Epidote Hornfels Facies. Assemblages such as

quartz-white mica-chlorite-biotite-chloritoid-albite-epidote or

quartz-chlorite-white mica-alkali feldspar-albite-epidote

are typical of the Albite-Epidote Hornfels Facies.

The Albite-Epidote Hornfels Facies is succeeded at higher temperatures by the

Hornblende Hornfels Facies. This facies, at the middle grades of contact metamorphism,
exhibits some of the most characteristic contact metamorphic phase assemblages.
These include

quartz-white mica-andalusite-cordierite-biotite or

quartz-alkali feldspar-cordierite-plagioclase-magnetite

Staurolite and garnet may also occur in this facies, as may Mg-amphiboles. Important
reactions leading to Hornblende Hornfels Facies assemblages include

pyrophyllite <==> andalusite + 3 quartz + H2O

Fe-chlorite + quartz + magnetite <==> garnet (almandine) + H 2O

Muscovite is the next mineral to break down via the reaction

muscovite + quartz <==> andalusite (or sillimanite) + alkali feldspar + H 2O

This reaction marks the boundary between the Hornblende Hornfels and Pyroxene
Hornfels facies.

Typical assemblages of the Pyroxene Hornfels Facies include

quartz-K-feldspar-andalusite-cordierite- biotite or

quartz-alkali feldspar-plagioclase-biotite-garnet-cordierite—hypersthene

In the Sanidinite Facies, garnet may break down to form Fe-cordierite, fayalite, and
hercynite, via the reaction

5 almandine <==> 2 Fe-cordierite + 5 fayalite + hercynite

Other reactions important within this facies are

orthoclase <==> sanidine

26
quartz <==> tridymite

Common assemblages include

tridymite-sanidine-Fe-cordierite-hercynite-mullite

sillimanite-mullite-cordierite-corundum-hercynite-ilmenite-magnetite

Reviewing the reactions listed above, we can see that most represent either dehydration
reactions or polymorphic changes. The minerals of the Zeolite Facies are quite hydrous,
whereas those of the Sanidinite Facies are rather dry. Clearly, dehydration is the norm
in progressive contact metamorphism.

Quartzo-feldspathic Rocks

Protoliths include sandstones and felsic to intermediate igneous rocks. Some of these
rocks are aluminous and those that are bear mineralogical similarities to the pelitic
rocks. Mineral assemblages of those with appreciable calcium may be shown more
clearly on the ACF phase diagram (see below). The dotted polygon outline on the
Zeolite Facies diagram shows the general range of compositions for these rocks. Mafic
rocks (discussed below) plot in the bottom center and below the bottom line of the
polygon.

27
At the lowest grades of metamorphism, in the Zeolite Facies, a number of phase
assemblages characterize rocks metamorphosed under various conditions.
Metasandstones typically contain an assemblage that includes quartz, analcite, clay
minerals, heulandite, and chlorite. More calcic sandstones may also include pumpellyite,
calcite, or both.

Marking the transition from the Zeolite Facies to the Albite-Epidote Hornfels Facies are
the conversion of kaolinite to pyrophyllite, the conversion of analcite to albite, and the
disappearance of Ca-zeolites. Typical minerals of the Albite-Epidote Hornfels Facies
include quartz, albite, epidote, chlorite, white mica, biotite, prehnite, sphene, and calcite.

The appearance of andalusite, garnet, and hornblende mark the transition to the
Hornblende Hornfels Facies. Plagioclase is more calcic than in lower-grade facies and
zoisite may be present. In the higher-temperature part of the facies, cordierite occurs
and calcite is replaced by wollastonite. Typical mineral assemblages mimic those of
pelitic rocks, except that plagioclase and quartz are more abundant than they are in
pelitic rocks.

28
The Pyroxene Hornfels Facies, in its lower-temperature part, contains rocks that are
mineralogically like their pelitic counterparts, except that quartz and the feldspars are
more abundant. White mica is absent. In rocks of intermediate composition, epidote-
group minerals are absent and clinopyroxene is present. At higher temperatures,
andalusite rather than sillimanite is present in aluminous rocks, orthopyroxene is an
important phase in more basic assemblages, and hornblende does not occur.

The phase assemblages of the Sanidinite Facies are rather simple. Quartzo-feldspathic
rocks either contain an aluminum silicate (sillimanite or mullite) or they contain a
pyroxene. In either case, they contain quartz, plagioclase, and may contain cordierite.

Mafic Rocks

The metamorphic equivalents of gabbros, basalts, and related rocks are characterized
by the phase assemblages depicted by tie lines that cross the lower, right-hand third
(the Fe-rich corner) of the ACF triangle (see figure above).

In the Zeolite Facies, typical assemblages include

chlorite-smectite-analcite-heulandite-quartz-calcite

chlorite-albite-laumontite-epidote-pumpellyite-quartz-sphene, and

chlorite-wairakite-albite-pumpellyite-quartz-calcite

Reactions marking the upper boundary region of the Zeolite Facies, include the
following:

5 prehnite + chlorite + 2 quartz <==> 4 epidote + actinolite + 6 H 2O and

wairakite <=> anorthite + 2 quartz + 2 H2O

The typical assemblage of the Albite-Epidote Hornfels Facies is

chlorite-albite-epidote-actinolite-quartz-sphene

Calcite, iron oxides, and iron sulfides are also common. The upper boundary of the
facies and corresponding lower boundary of the Hornblende Hornfels Facies is a broad
zone marked by the appearance of two plagioclases (albite coexisting with oligoclase)
and the coexistence of two Ca-amphiboles (an actinolite and a hornblende)

The Hornblende Hornfels Facies thus begins with reactions such as

actinolite + albite <==> hornblende + oligoclase + quartz and

epidote + actinolite + chlorite <==> hornblende + H2O

29
that yield hornblende and oligoclase at temperatures just below 400 0C converted to
ilmenite. Typical assemblages are:

actinolite-hornblende-albite-oligoclase-chlorite-epidote-sphene

hornblende-andesine-clinopyroxene-quartz -ilmenite, or

anthophyllite-cummingtonite-cordierite-plagioclase-quartz-ilmenite

The transition from the Hornblende Hornfels Facies to the Pyroxene Hornfels Facies is
marked by the disappearance of chlorites.

Chlorite may be eliminated by reactions such as

chlorite + 2 quartz <==> garnet + orthopyroxene + 4 H 2O

Representative assemblages in metabasites of the Pyroxene Hornfels Facies are

orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene-hornblende-biotite, and

orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene-Ca-plagioclase-hornblende-ilmenite

The Sanidinite Facies is characterized by the absence of amphibole. A representative

assemblage in a metabasite is

Ca-plagioclase-augite-olivine-ilmenite-magnetite

Carbonate Racks

Calcite and dolomite are stable at elevated pressures, in the absence of H 2O, to
temperatures in excess of 700 °C. Therefore, contact metamorphism of a pure limestone
or dolostone may yield no more than a coarsening of grain size. Most carbonate rocks,
however, are not pure calcite or dolomite. Many contain silica in the form of chert or
sand grains, and calcite-dolomite-quartz mixtures are also common. Clay minerals in
carbonate rocks provide aluminum to the system. Bowen proposed a series of
decarbonation reactions that yield successive assemblages marked by ten index
minerals: tremolite, forsterite, diopside, periclase, wollastonite, monticellite, akermanite,
spurrite, merwinite, and larnite.

The Importance of the Fluid Phase

In many aureoles, tremolite and talc are phases that develop at the lowest grades of
metamorphism. Both are hydrous phases developed through interaction with H 2O. It is
clear that progressive metamorphism or carbonates yields both CO 2 and H2 O. These
components are completely miscible and form a single fluid phase. The inclusion of two
fluid components in the system means that the effect of the mole fraction of CO 2 (XCO2)

30
or H2O (XH2O) on the stability fields of minerals in carbonate rocks must be considered.
As an example, at very low values of X CO2 , the sequence of minerals that will develop
with increasing temperature during the metamorphism of a siliceous dolomitic marble is
talc-->tremolite-->antigorite--> wollastonite --> brucite--> periclase. At very high values
of XCO2 the sequence will be diopside--> forsterite--> wollastonite.

Metamorphism of Dolomitic, Argillaceous, and Siliceous Carbonate Rocks

Taking into account XH2O and XCO2, we can now define phase assemblages for the
various facies of contact metamorphism of impure carbonate rocks (see figure). The
important phases that develop from these dolomite-calcite rocks include talc, tremolite,
diopside, forsterite, wollastonite, grossularite, phlogopite, and a host of other,
uncommon minerals. The sequence in which they appear depends on the chemistry of
both the rock and the fluid phase, as well as on the P-T conditions.

Consider the metamorphic aureole at Crestmore, California (figure). Quartz diorite and
porphyritic quartz monzonite have intruded a relatively pure Mg-bearing limestone. The
igneous rocks are surrounded by an aureole of variable width (< 3 cm-> 15 m)
consisting of four parts. The outermost zone, referred to as the marble zone, consists of
calcite marble and brucite-calcite marble. The marble zone is succeeded inwardly by the
monticellite zone, consisting of rocks composed of calcite and monticellite in association

31
with one or more of the various minerals clinohumite, forsterite, melilite, spurrite, tilleyite,
and merwinite. An idocrase zone occurs interior to the monticellite zone. The idocrase
zone contains rocks composed of idocrase in association with such minerals as calcite,
diopside, wollastonite, phlogopite, monticellite, and xanthophyllite. Closest to the
intrusion is the garnet zone, where diopside-wollastonite-grossularite rocks, containing
minor calcite and quartz, are the dominant rock types.

Examination of the key minerals indicates that metasomatism has occurred. The
progressive sequence of key minerals and their chemistries is as follows:

calcite CaCO3

calcite + brucite CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2

monticellite CaMgSiO4

idocrase Ca10Mg2Al4Si9O34(OH)4

grossularite - Ca3Al2Si3O12 - CaSiO3-

wollastonite - CaMgSi2O6
diopside

Notice that there is a progressive increase in the ratio Si/Ca towards the contact and a
similar increase in Al. Chemical analyses of the rocks confirm these trends and also
indicate a slight enrichment in Fe 3+ . Inasmuch as the original rock was a Mg-bearing
limestone, the first two assemblages indicate isochemical metamorphism. The latter
three as introduction of silica and alumina (i.e., they reflect metasomatism).

32
Buchan and Barrovian Metamorphism

Mountain systems typically contain large belts of regionally metamorphosed rock.

Foliated metamorphic rocks developed under medium to high temperatures characterize
these regional belts, from which the term regional metamorphism was originally derived.
The accompanying pressures vary from low to high. Geothermal gradients, which are
likewise moderate to high, produce Buchan and Barrovian Facies series. Because the
pressures of Buchan and Barrovian Facies series are commonly higher than are those
of Contact Facies Series, they may contain different sequences of minerals.

 Buchan Facies Series forms under pressures, which, in the middle grades of
metamorphism, are lower than that of the aluminum silicate triple point.
Consequently, the critical sequence of aluminum silicates is kaolinite
-->pyrophyllite -->andalusite --> sillimanite.
 Barrovian Facies Series, in contrast, develops where pressures in the middle
grades of metamorphism are higher than that of the aluminum silicate triple point.
The resulting aluminum silicate mineral sequence is kaolinite -->pyrophyllite
-->kyanite --> sillimanite.

The presence in pelitic rocks of either andalusite or kyanite at the middle grades of
metamorphism is one feature that distinguishes these facies series from one another.

BUCHAN FACIES SERIES

Buchan Facies Series takes its name from a region in the Scottish Highlands. Buchan
rocks lie to the east of Barrovian rocks and were metamorphosed under lower

33
pressures. At depths of 10 km, temperatures are about 400-800 °C and the pressure is
3 kb. In general, the geothermal gradients that give rise to the low pressures and high
temperatures of Buchan Facies Series may be attributed to (a) regional heating from
intrusion of groups of plutons at shallow to moderate depths; (b) plate collisions at
convergent margins; and (3) crustal thinning. Buchan metamorphism is common, and a
number of Buchan belts have been described from various parts of the world, notably
Spain and Japan. Other localities include Maine, New Hampshire, Colorado, Oregon,
Alaska, Australia, India, and Ireland.

The progression of mineralogical changes in the Buchan Facies Series at the type
locality defines only the facies sequence Greenschist -->Amphibolite --> Granulite. The
Zeolite and Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies are not represented. The facies series is shown
below.

The low-grade assemblages are virtually identical to those of the Barrovian Facies
Series described below. Similarly, Greenschist Facies rocks are mineralogically similar
to their equivalents in Barrovian Facies Series. It is in the Amphibolite Facies, where
andalusite and cordierite appear, that the Buchan Facies Series is distinguished from
the higher-pressure Barrovian rocks.

The various phase assemblages developed in each metamorphic zone of the Buchan
Facies Series indicate various reactions. In pelitic rocks, at the lowest grade, the Zeolite
Facies contains assemblages such as

kaolinite-illite-smectite-chlorite-quartz-analcite-K feldspar

Note the similarity between the above phase assemblage and those of low-grade
metamorphism.

34
At slightly higher-grade conditions, where assemblages of the Zeolite Facies are
replaced by those of the Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies, some minerals, such as K
feldspar, are absent from many rocks, and new phases appear, such as white mica,
prehnite, pumpellyite and albite. Smectites and K feldspar are among the first minerals
that may disappear from aluminous rocks. Kaolinite also commonly disappears from
pelitic assemblages during development of Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies assemblages.

Typical assemblages in Greenschist Facies pelitic rocks include

white mica-chlorite-quartz-albite-magnetite-epidote-pyrophyllite-biotite-garnet-ilmenite

Note the loss of all clays and prehnite/pumpellyite.

The Greenschist-Amphibolite Facies boundary is a broad zone. The disappearance of

albite marks the maximum upper limit of the Greenschist Facies. Both albite and
pyrophyllite are absent from Amphibolite Facies rocks, whereas cordierite and the
aluminum silicates andalusite (at lower grades) and sillimanite (at higher grades)
characterize aluminous bulk compositions. Additional phases that may occur in pelitic
rocks include, but are not restricted to, chloritoid, alkali feldspar, tourmaline, apatite, and
sphene. Reactions distinctive of Buchan Facies Series are those defining the
appearance of andalusite and cordierite, which combined with the disappearance of
albite, mark the transition to the Amphibolite Facies.

Pelitic rocks in the Granulite Facies are distinguished by the general absence of white
mica, by the presence of alkali feldspar + sillimanite or orthopyroxene, and by the
occurrence of the assemblage cordierite + orthopyroxene.

Example: Buchan Metamorphism, Northern New England, U.S.A.

Perhaps the best-known Buchan Facies Series is that of northern New England. A line
representing the aluminum silicate triple point extends through New England-from
Rhode Island, through central Massachusetts, across western New Hampshire, and into
northeastern Vermont-marking a change from a Barrovian Facies Series on the
southwest to a Buchan Facies Series on the northeast (figure).

35
In the Buchan Facies Series of northeastern New England, mid-Paleozoic isograds have
been mapped in the widely distributed pelitic rocks, including biotite, garnet, andalusite-
staurolite, cordierite-staurolite, sillimanite, and K feldspar-sillimanite (Greenschist
Facies). Locally, muscovite coexists with sillimanite and K feldspar in pelitic rocks of the
uppermost zone; thus, the rocks containing these minerals belong to the Amphibolite
Facies. Granulite Facies rocks are present only to the south, in New Hampshire,
Massachusetts, and northern Connecticut. In northernmost Maine, Quebec, and New
Brunswick, the Zeolite and Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies are represented by analcite,
prehnite-pumpellyite, and pumpellyite-epidote-actinolite zones in metaclastic and
metavolcanic rocks.

Radiometric dating, geothermometry, and geobarometry indicate that a four-stage

Acadian metamorphism (405-350 MY) produced the Buchan rocks at variable
temperatures and maximum pressures of 2.4-4.5 kb. Temperatures ranged from 400 °C
at the biotite isograd to 670 °C in the K feldspar-sillimanite zone. Locally, contact-like

36
geothermal gradients of 800-1000 °C may have been attained near the numerous
intrusions associated with the regional metamorphic event.

In south central Maine, an opportunity exists to examine mineralogical changes with

increasing grade of metamorphism within single formations. The Waterville and
Vassalboro/Songerville Formations, which trend northeast-southwest, are crossed by
isograds that trend approximately east-west (figure). The Waterville Formation is
composed of metamorphosed shale, argillaceous sandstone, and argillaceous
limestone, whereas the Vassalboro/Songerville Formation consists of metamorphic
equivalents of argillaceous carbonate rocks, calcareous graywackes, and shales.
Metamorphic grade increases from chlorite-zone pelitic rocks and ankerite-zone
carbonate rocks in the northeast to sillimanite-zone metapelites and diopside-zone
metacarbonate rocks in the southwest. As is typical in zones of increasing grade, there
is an overall increase in grain size towards the southwest.

Differences and Similarities Between Contact and Buchan Facies Series

  Contact Buchan

37
 Distribution local regional

Foliation non-foliated foliated

Hi Grade Facies Sanidinite Granulite

Location near pluton orogenic belt

BARROVIAN FACIES SERIES

Barrovian Facies Series occur in a number of Phanerozoic orogenic belts, as well as in

some of Precambrian age. Notable among the Phanerozoic belts are the Caledonides of
northwestern Europe, including the classic region in the Scottish Highlands, and parts of
the Appalachian Mountain System of eastern North America. Other Phanerozoic belts
with Barrovian rocks occur in Idaho, Colorado, British Columbia, Alaska, Venezuela,
Spain, southern Europe and Asia (the Alpine-Himalayan Orogen), central Asia (the Ural
Mountains), and Japan. Precambrian belts of Barrovian rocks occur in the Black Hills of
South Dakota, the Rocky Mountains, and Labrador, Quebec, and Ontario (Canada).

The Phanerozoic orogenic belts are clearly associated with convergent plate margins.
Both Barrovian and Buchan Facies series develop at such margins. Those of
Precambrian age may represent convergent margins. In convergent zones, regional
heating due to the rise of plutons into the overlying plate (the plate above the subduction
zone) is the general cause of metamorphism, but migrating fluids may also transport
heat.

The zones of metamorphism in the Scottish Highlands originally described by Barrow

(1893) (figure) include six distinct mineral assemblages that occur in the rock types
listed below:

38
Chlorite Zone (slates, phyllites, and schists)

quartz-albite-white mica-chlorite-microcline ± calcite

Biotite Zone (phyllites and schists)

quartz-albite-white mica-chlorite-biotite ± microcline ±calcite ± epidote

Almandine (Garnet) Zone (phyllites and schists)

quartz-albite-white mica-biotite-garnet ± chlorite

Staurolite Zone (schists)

quartz-oligoclase-white mica-biotite-garnet-staurolite

Kyanite Zone (schists)

39
quartz-oligoclase-white mica-biotite-garnet-kyanite ±staurolite

Sillimanite Zone (schists and gneisses)

quartz-oligoclase-biotite-sillimanite ± kyanite ± K-feldspar ± white mica

As was the case in occurrences of Contact and Buchan Facies series rocks,
metamorphic belts exhibiting Barrovian Facies Series do not always exhibit all of the
facies possible within the series. Clearly this is the case in the Scottish Highlands, where
Zeolite and Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies are not described as part of the sequence.

Phase Assemblages and Reactions in Barrovian Facies Series

At the lowest grade, in the Zeolite Facies, which forms under conditions just above those
of diagenesis, assemblages are characterized by clay minerals. Assemblages may
include

kaolinite-illite-smectite-chlorite-quartz-analcite

40
At slightly higher-grade conditions, assemblages of the Zeolite Facies are replaced by
those of the Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies. New phases appear, including albite, white
mica and stilpnomelane. As was the case in Buchan Facies Series, K feldspar and
smectites are among the first minerals to disappear from aluminous rocks. Kaolinite also
is commonly absent from Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies rocks.

As the P-T conditions increase, Greenschist Facies assemblages with new minerals
form. Typical assemblages in pelitic rocks include

white mica-chlorite-chloritoid-quartz-albite-magnetite-biotite-epidote-garnet-pyrophyllite

As is the case in the Buchan Facies Series, the Greenschist-Amphibolite Facies

boundary is a broad zone. The disappearance of albite marks the maximum upper limit

41
of the Greenschist Facies. Thus, albite, like pyrophyllite, is absent from Amphibolite
Facies rocks. Staurolite, rather than chloritoid, occurs in the lower part of the
Amphibolite Facies and the aluminum silicates kyanite (at lower grades) and sillimanite
(at higher grades) characterize aluminous bulk compositions. Typical assemblages
include

white mica-chlorite-biotite-quartz-plagioclase-garnet-magnetite-staurolite-ilmenite-
kyanite-sillimanite

The Granulite Facies is distinguished by the general absence of white mica and the
presence of orthopyroxene and cordierite. Pelitic assemblages include

biotite-garnet-sillimanite-K feldspar-andesine-quartz-cordierite-orthopyroxene-sillimanite-
zircon

The quartzo-felspathic rocks differ from the pelitic rocks. Quartz and feldspar are the
dominant phases, rather than the phyllosilicates, and calcium-bearing phases are
common. Additional minerals that may occur include stilbite, calcite, stilpnomelane,
actinolite and hornblende.

Example: Barrovian Metamorphism in the Southern Appalachian Orogen

The southern Appalachian Orogen extends from central Virginia to Alabama. It is a

complex orogenic belt, parts of which have experienced regional metamorphism during
four orogenic events. The ages of these events are Proterozoic, Ordovician (the Taconic
Orogeny), Devonian-Mississippian (the Acadian Orogeny), and Pennsylvanian-Permian
(the Alleghanian/Appalachian Orogeny).

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While the Southern Appalachian Orogen is one of the major regions of Barrovian Facies
Series rocks in North America, analysis of the metamorphism there has been
confounded by several factors. First, the various tectonic belts (terranes) in the southern
Appalachian Orogen have been juxtaposed by significant movements of various types
along major faults—in several cases, after metamorphism had occurred. This problem is
particularly significant in the central and eastern parts of the Orogen. Second, the
thermal significance of various metamorphic zones is open to question.

A map of the orogen, showing the approximate positions of metamorphic facies of

Paleozoic age, is presented below. A broad range of rock types exists in the region, but
carbonate rocks, especially impure carbonate rocks, are relatively rare in the higher-
grade parts of the metamorphic belt, whereas mafic and ultramafic rocks are rare to
nonexistent in the low-grade zones. Rocks of the Zeolite and Prehnite-Pumpellyite
Facies occur primarily in the Valley and Ridge Belt. At these lowest grades of
metamorphism, the pelites are characterized by clays and the carbonate rocks by calcite
and/or dolomite + quartz. Greenschist Facies assemblages are distributed in the
western Blue Ridge Belt. Rocks of this grade consist of younger (Cambrian)
sedimentary and igneous rocks and older (Proterozoic) polymetamorphic rocks. Quartz-
rich metaclastic rocks typically contain the assemblage quartz-white mica-chlorite-alkali
feldspar. Quartz-feldspar gneisses, probably products of retrograde metamorphism of
Precambrian Amphibolite and Granulite facies rocks, contain similar assemblages.
Pelitic rocks are composed of the assemblage chlorite-white mica-quartz-albite. In
higher-grade assemblages, garnet is present. Metabasites contain assemblages such
as chlorite-epidote- albite-quartz-actinolite.

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Much of the eastern Blue Ridge Belt is composed of rocks of the Amphibolite Facies.
Migmatites are common. Pelitic mica schists consist of various assemblages containing
staurolite, kyanite, and sillimanite. Quartzo-feldpathic rocks are composed
predominantly of the assemblage plagioclase-quartz-biotite-white mica-garnet. Mafic
rocks are typical amphibole schists and gneisses, with hornblende and plagioclase as
the dominant phases. Geothermometry and geobarometry indicate that the Amphibolite
Facies rocks of the Blue Ridge were metamorphosed at temperatures between 500 and
850 °C at pressures of 5-11 kb.

Paleozoic Granulite Facies rocks have been recognized at only a few localities.
Aluminous schist consists of biotite-garnet-sillimanite-K feldspar-andesine-quartz.
Quartzo-feldpathic rocks contain assemblages such as andesine-quartz-K feldspar-
biotite-garnet. A typical metabasite assemblage is hornblende-bytownite-biotite-
orthopyroxene. Given that the estimated P-T conditions do not differ significantly from
those for Amphibolite Facies metamorphism, the zones of Granulite Facies
metamorphism probably represent local areas in which the rocks were dehydrated by
previous metamorphic events.

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Because the overall metamorphic pattern in the Southern Appalachian Orogen
developed over a long period of time, it is difficult to discern the complete patterns of
metamorphism associated with each orogenic event. In the western part of the orogen,
that problem is increased where thrust faults have shortened the width of the orogen,
concealing sections of the metamorphic belt. Nevertheless, the elongate metamorphic
zones are typical of orogenic Barrovian Facies Series metamorphic belts.

Blueschist Facies

Glaucophane imparts an attractive blue hue to rocks. This feature undoubtedly accounts
for the considerable interest given to the relatively uncommon glaucophane schists (the
"blueschists") of the California Coast Ranges. The blue color also serves as the basis for
the name Blueschist Facies, even though this facies contains large volumes of rock that
are neither blue nor schistose. It is also true that all rocks containing blue amphibole do
not belong to the Blueschist Facies.

The Blueschist Facies develops in terranes in which the geothermal gradient is low or
the overall P/T is moderate to high. Two sub-types of facies series are recognized in
such terranes— the Sanbagawa Facies Series and the Franciscan Facies Series. In the
Sanbagawa Facies Series, the maximum temperatures are somewhat higher than in the
Franciscan Facies Series. The facies sequence is Zeolite--> Prehnite-Pumpellyite--
>Blueschist -->Greenschist--> Amphibolite. In the Franciscan Facies Series, the facies
sequence is Zeolite--> PrehnitePumpellyite-->Blueschist -->Eclogite.

Bluescist Facies series are widely distributed. They occur in North, Central, and South
America, in the Caribbean region, in Europe, especially in the Alps, in the Middle East,
in Asia, and in the circum-Pacific region (figure). Typically, these facies series form on
the outer (trench) side of a paired metamorphic belt associated with a subduction zone.
In some cases, high P/T (low-temperature) rocks form where subduction-induced
collision between a continent and island arc or another continent is inferred.

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Young mountain belts contain the majority of these rocks, but early Paleozoic and rare
Precambrian Blueschist Facies rocks are known. The two sub-facies series of high P/T
metamorphism take their names from well-studied examples on opposite sides of the
Pacific Ocean. The Franciscan Facies Series is named for the Franciscan Complex of
western California and southern Oregon. The Sanbagawa Facies Series takes its name
from rocks exposed in southeastern Japan.

MINERAL ASSEMBLAGES, FACIES, AND TEXTURES

Mineral assemblages, facies, and textures set the high P/T facies series apart from
those of lower P/T. Minerals such as lawsonite occur only at high P and low T. Because
the rocks in outer metamorphic belts are metamorphosed pieces of ocean crust and
overlying sediments, metabasites, metagraywackes, and metapelites are the dominant
rocks of the high P/T facies series.

Representative mineral-facies charts for the Franciscan Facies series are shown below.
The most common of the critical minerals that appear include laumontite, pumpellyite,
glaucophane, lawsonite, aragonite, jadeitic pyroxene, and omphacite.

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The Franciscan sub-facies, exhibits more extensive development of the Blueschist
Facies rocks than does the Sanbagawa sub-facies Series and will be the subject of our
lecture. In particular, assemblages containing jadeitic pyroxene, lawsonite, and

47
aragonite are common. The phase assemblages for quartzo-feldspathic are represented
below.

In the Zeolite Facies, common mineral assemblages are

heulandite-quartz-analcite-vermiculite-white mica-laumontite-calcite

These are replaced in the Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies by assemblages such as

quartz-albite-prehnite-pumpellyite-white mica-chlorite- stilpnomelane-calcite

Blueschist Facies assemblages include

quartz-albite-lawsonite-pumpellyite-chlorite-white mica-jadeitic pyroxene-glaucophane-

aragonite

Rare Eclogite Facies rocks contain

quartz-white mica-omphacite-glaucophane-garnat-epidote

PETROGENETIC MODELS

Three hypotheses for the origin of Blueschist Facies Series rocks are advocated by
various geologists.

 Metasomatic Recrystallization Hypotheses

- The metasomatic model assigns little importance to the experimental studies on

the P-T stability ranges of Blueschist Facies minerals. Blueschists result from low-
pressure metasomatism induced by concentrated, saline pore fluids evolved
during serpentinization. Largely rejected because large tracts of Blueschist
Facies contain little or no ultramafic rock, the necessary precursor for a
serpentinite.

 Tectonic Overpressure Model

-Hypotheses that require relatively high pressures of formation for Blueschist

Facies mineral assemblages seem more reasonable, since experimental data
suggest that relatively high pressures are required to stabilize jadeitic pyroxene,
glaucophane, aragonite, and lawsonite in metamorphic rocks. This hypothesis
argues that tectonic overpressures cause Blueschist Facies Series
metamorphism. Metamorphic grade decreases away (and down) from major
regional thrust faults (i.e., the metamorphism is "upside down," with higher-grade
rocks at shallower depths). Tectonic overpressures develop below a regional
thrust fault that is capped by serpentinite. The impervious cap trapped water,
creating the overpressures.

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 Burial Metamorphism Hypothesis

- Deep burial may result from either sedimentation or tectonic thickening of the
crust via faulting. Experimental data, which require high pressures of
metamorphism for Blueschist Facies mineral assemblages, are the primary
evidence favoring the deep burial hypothesis. The tectonic setting of high P/T
metamorphic belts is consistent with this hypothesis. In particular, the presence of
Blueschist Facies Series rocks in paired metamorphic belts (which form in
response to subduction) suggests that subduction and associated accretion of
subducted rocks, are generally responsible for the petrogenesis of Blueschist
Facies and related rocks. Finally, the subduction burial hypothesis explains
inverted sequences of Amphibolite, Greenschist, and Blueschist Facies rocks that
apparently form on the hanging walls of subduction zones.

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One of the unresolved problem is the preservation and uplift of Blueschist Facies rocks.
Either prolonged burial or slow subduction may result in progressively higher
temperatures, over time, in a buried mass of rock. Progressive heating will result in
conversion of Blueschist and Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies rocks to Greenschist or
Amphibolite Facies rocks. It follows that if blueschists are preserved at the surface, they
must have been protected from heating, either by rapid uplift following metamorphism or
by some form of "refrigeration" (i.e., continued cooling while at depth). If they were
refrigerated, they must have remained cool while they moved towards the surface.

Two general types of subduction tectonics hypotheses that allow for the origin,
preservation, and uplift of Blueschist Facies rocks have been proposed. One type of
hypothesis advocates coeval subduction and uplift, that is synsubduction uplift. The
second type assumes metamorphism during subduction, but relies on postsubduction
isostatic rise for uplift of the blueschists. Both types of hypothesis accept the premise
that, during subduction, masses of rock are successively underplated beneath the
overriding plate.

Synsubduction models may be divided into three subtypes:

 an imbricate thrust model of subduction accretion with the proviso that large
coherent slabs move up within the subduction zone;

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 the subduction channel model, which requires that upward movement of blocks
and slabs be a function of circulating flow in a shale-based tectonic melange that
dominates the active part of the subduction;

 the E-type model, requires that accretion and underplating in the subduction zone
generate an instability in the overlying accretionary wedge that causes extension
and (listric) normal faulting. The faulting removes the overburden from the buried
Blueschist Facies rocks. Continued underplating (accretion) via imbricate
thrusting of slabs below the extensionally faulted zone provides the driving force
for uplift. Eventually, blueschist masses are driven to the surface and exposed by
faulting and by erosion.

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Post-subduction models of blueschist uplift rely on one of three processes. Uplift results
from:

 buoyant rise caused by density differences between subducted rocks and those
of the overlying plate,
 erosion induced isostatic uplift, or
 orogenic uplift.

EXAMPLE: REGIONAL HIGH P/T METAMORPHISM OF THE FRANCISCAN

COMPLEX, CALIFORNIA

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The Franciscan Complex forms the structurally complicated, locally chaotic basement of
much of the California and southwestern Oregon Coast Ranges. It is composed of a
wide variety of rock types, not all of which are metamorphosed. As a group, however,
metamorphic rocks dominate. Graywacke and metagraywacke and associated shale
and metashale are the most abundant rock types. Chert, pillow basalt, limestone,
conglomerate, ultramafic rocks and the metamorphic equivalents of all of these also
occur at numerous localities. Well known among the metamorphic rocks are eclogites,
glaucophane schists and gneisses, and actinolite and hornblende schist and gneiss that
occur in isolated blocks and sheets. The isolated masses most commonly occur in
melanges. In addition, Eclogite, Blueschist, Amphibolite, and rare Greenschist Facies
rocks form slabs and tectonic blocks along faults.

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In the northern Coast Ranges, rocks of six metamorphic facies are distributed across
three major, fault-bounded belts that are successively younger from east to west. High-
grade schists and gneisses, in tectonic blocks and slabs, form a fourth unit that locally
caps the Franciscan Complex along its eastern edge. Each belt is subdivided into
several thrust sheets or fault blocks (commonly designated as terranes) that include
various formations, broken formations, dismembered formations, and melanges. The
Central Belt is largely melange. In contrast, the adjoining Eastern and Coastal belts,
though locally containing melange, consist predominantly of rock bodies with greater
internal coherence. In the area at the southern end of the Northern Coast Ranges, in the
San Francisco Bay area and to the north for several tens of kilometers, the structural

54
and metamorphic patterns are highly disrupted by Cenozoic faulting. The metamorphic
patterns of the northern Coast Ranges are more regular than the patterns in the south.

In the north, the westernmost belt, the Coastal Belt, is a metawacke and metashale-
dominated, Zeolite Facies metamorphic belt. The metawackes contain laumontite,
prehnite, or pumpellyite. The Central Belt melanges structurally overlie the Coastal Belt
rocks. Most rocks of the Belt are considered to belong to the Prehnite-Pumpellyite
Facies. However, because the Central Belt consists primarily of an assemblage of
melanges, rocks from Zeolite Facies to Eclogite and Amphibolite Facies are present. To
the east and structurally overlying the Central Belt is a faulted Bluesehist Facies belt
dominated by metasedimentary rocks and containing a variety of pumpellyite, lawsonite,
and jadeitic-pyroxene-bearing assemblages.

Analyses of the conditions that produced the metamorphic rocks in the Franciscan
Complex suggest metamorphism of Eastern Belt rocks occurred at P=6-10kb and T=
125-350 °C, whereas Central Belt melange metamorphism resulted from pressures of 2-
6kb and temperatures of 125-300 °C. Zeolite Facies metamorphism of Coastal Belt
rocks occurred at about P= 1-3kb and T=100-200 °C.

The origin of the Franciscan Facies Series in California served as a focal point for the
debates about the origin of bluesehists that occurred during the 1960s and 1970s. It is
now generally agreed that subduction carried the rocks of each of the belts (or terranes
within the belts) to the depth appropriate for metamorphism of that belt.

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