490 Vehicle security systems Central locking systems, locking systems

locked, the locking mechanism is blocked as Depending on their location in the vehicle,
theft deterrence and can only be operated a further distinction is made between the
with the vehicle key from the outside or with following assemblies (with differing scope
the remote control. of functions):
쐌 Side door assembly
Locking systems 쐌 Trunk assembly
쐌 Hood assembly
Application
The function of locking systems is to ensure The most important component of the
and maintain access authorization at all locking system is the door lock mechanism
times. Although lock mechanisms in motor (Fig. 2). Its primary functions include:
vehicles are subject to substantial wear and 쐌 Transmitting the structural forces be-
tear as a result of prolonged cold, wet and tween the door and the vehicle body
dirty conditions over several years, their 쐌 Reliably opening and closing the locking
main design feature must be to reliably mechanism
protect the vehicle and its occupants while 쐌 Evaluating the mechanical or electrical
ensuring smooth and efficient operation. commands
쐌 Storing the logic statuses (mechanical
Structure computer).
The structure of a locking system is made up
of the following components (Fig. 1): Method of operation
쐌 Locking bars on the body pillars Accordingly, the lock mechanism is made
쐌 Side doors, door lock mechanisms, and up of assemblies that perform the following
the associated mechanical and electrical functions:
parts The locking mechanism is responsible for
쐌 Electrical components that make up the transmitting forces to initiate the opening
access authorization facility and radio and closing functions. It consists of a catch,
remote control (frequently assigned to pawl and latch.
locking systems).

1 Structure (example: side door) 2 Mechanical door lock

Side door
Lock Locking
barrel element
(key) (knob) 4 1

Exterior Interior
operating operating
Fig. 1 element element
쐍 Mechanical (handle) 2
connection
Door lock Electronics
–– Electrical signals
(option)
Actuators
Fig. 2
1 Backplate
Mechanical
logic unit
with locking
æ UKT0069-1Y
æ UKT0068-1E

mechanism
2 Catch
Lock Data Power
3 Electrical interface stirrup bus supply 3
4 Bowden cable (B-pillar)
to inner handle
 Vehicle security systems Locking systems 491

The corresponding door lock striker is of the outer door handle, the inner opener
mounted on the body pillar. During the and the locking element. For instance, with
closing procedure, the door lock striker en- the door locked, the outer door handle can
gages in the latch. This centers the door, be freely pulled with no response, and it is
while the catch holds it in the closed posi- consequently not possible to open the door
tion (main catch). In turn, the pawl then from the outside.
positively locks the catch in position. In addition, the inner opener (opening
This lock status is initially canceled to ini- from inside) and the locking element (un-
tiate the opening procedure. For this pur- locking from inside) are inoperative in con-
pose, the actuating forces applied at the in- nection with a theft deterrence system.
ner or outer door handles are transmitted to The rear door locks cannot be opened
the pawl. The pawl now releases the catch to from the inside when the childproof lock is
allow the door to be opened. The door lock engaged. However, the occupants are able to
striker is fixed in position while the catch unlock the door from the inside to allow a
swivels into the open position. person providing assistance to open the
door from the outside. (Note the difference
Mechanical locking system compared to the theft deterrence system!)
Logic statuses of the lock mechanism The following status matrix (Table 1) illus-
The logic unit of the lock mechanism per- trates the basic functions of one rear door
mits the mechanical decoupling or isolation variant.

Table 1
1 Basic function of a rear door variant (“single-stroke ejection” type)

Childproof lock
æ UKT0070-1Y

OFF ON

ODH BUS CLC BUTTON IDH

Outer door LIN Central Locking Inner door
handle or CAN locking switch button handle
Command

Open – – – Open
– Unlock Unlock – Unlock
(single-stroke ejector)
– Lock Lock – –
– Activate theft – – –
deterrent
DS
Theft deterrent
activated
Status

VR
locked
ER
unlocked

OPENED
492 Vehicle security systems Locking systems

Design features then introduced in the form of flange-

The lock mechanism is located in the wet mounted locking actuators (electrically and
area inside the door. The adverse effects of pneumatically operated control elements).
water and dust, the considerable impact load These actuators are now integrated in the
that occurs when the door is slammed, and housing of more recent lock mechanisms.
the theft deterrence requirements necessitate Miniature motors carry out the electrical
a sturdy, tough design. commands from the access authorization
facility in the form of mechanical actuating
Currently, the typical locking parts and lever movements. The locking status is stored
mechanisms (Fig. 3) are made of steel mate- mechanically in the lever mechanisms.
rials (precision punched parts, springs, riv- The output from the high-speed drive
eted connections). Plastic components are units is converted in worm gear, multistage
being used to an ever greater extent. How- spur gear or planetary gear mechanisms
ever, they must fulfill their function even af- (plastic materials). Spindle drive systems
ter a side impact or in the event of a vehicle are also used.
fire. Corrosion, friction and wear dictate Sensors in the lock mechanism permit
that the metal components undergo a com- the electrical evaluation of the lock status.
prehensive surface treatment process (vibra- Hall effect sensors and microswitches have
tory grinding, galvanizing, coating). proven particularly suitable for this pur-
pose.
The parts of the locking mechanism are
sheathed in plastic materials to provide Open-by-wire
effective sound deadening in order to satisfy The widespread use of electrical systems in
requirements to minimize closing noise. motor vehicle applications initially gave rise
Higher-grade lock mechanisms normally to the central locking system, which was
feature extensive sound deadening measures soon followed by the theft deterrence system
incorporated in the lever mechanisms and and radio remote control. The childproof
actuators. lock is now switched electrically. Some door
closing and locking systems employ motors
In the past, operation of automotive locks to actuate the catch or the door lock striker
was purely mechanical. Central locking was (servo closing).

3 Locking mechanism (schematic) The obvious next step, therefore, is to use an

electric motor for the opening function, i. e.
1 to swivel the pawl (“open-by-wire”, Fig. 4).
Consequently, development of the “x-by-
wire” function for lock mechanisms has
been consistently pursued.

The main advantage of the “open-by-wire”

function is its interaction with access autho-
rization, particularly in connection with
the use of “passive entry” systems, as they
require either extremely fast unlocking
actuators or “overtake” solutions.
æ UKT0071-1Y

Fig. 3
1 Pawl
Based on the “overtake principle”, the ac-
2 Catch in lock 2 3 tuator begins the opening procedure in the
3 Door lock striker on locking mechanism before the lock logic has
B-pillar or C-pillar been completely released. This function is
 Vehicle security systems Locking systems 493

intended to avoid waiting times for the user. 4 Open-by-wire (schematic)

Corresponding design measures reliably rule
out the possibility of being locked in.

Electrical locking system

M 1
Demands for quality and reliability as well
as the pressures of rising costs render it nec- 2
essary in the future to minimize the number
of mechanical parts in the locking system
and replace them by electrical components.
The end point of the development is the
electrical locking system (Fig. 5).
The lock then consists of only the locking
mechanism, opening actuator and the asso-
ciated electronics. The door handles and
other operating elements are equipped with
sensors. Electrical wires replace the mechan-
ical connections to the lock.

æ UKT0072-1Y
Fig. 4
1 Electric motor
The advantages of an electrical locking 2 Pawl
3 4
system are considerable: 3 Catch
쐌 Reduced size and weight of the lock 4 Door lock striker
쐌 Symmetrical design
쐌 Only one lock variant per vehicle (variant 5 Electromechanical door lock (schematic)

encoding at the end of the assembly line)

쐌 Door handles no longer move (or can be
dispensed with completely)
1
Auxiliary functions such as interior lighting,
status indicators and a whole range of other
functions will then be easy to implement in
electrical locking systems, as the lock is
equipped with electronics that can perform 2
these functions.
Communication with the locks, access
authorization and power supply all take
place via the data bus interfaces. Prognoses 3
using fault tree analysis indicate that the
electrical locking system is just as reliable as
conventional systems. Economically feasible
4
systems can be expected with the introduc-
tion of the 42-V vehicle electrical system at
the latest (active redundant power supply).

5 Fig. 5
æ UKT0073-1Y

1 Locking mechanism
2 Electronics
3 Electric motor
4 Gearing
5 Electrical interface
494 Vehicle security systems Biometric systems

Biometric systems Enrollment

In order to be able to recognize a user, a bio-
Function metric system must first of all learn the fin-
“Biometric systems” have the task of deter- gerprint pattern of that person. This process
mining or confirming the identity of per- is known as “enrollment”. It involves the user
sons on the basis of “biometric” features. placing his/her finger on a fingerprint sensor
Currently, approximately ten biometric that generates a grayscale image (typical size:
methods are known, including fingerprint 64,000 to 96,000 pixels at a resolution of
identification, face recognition, iris recogni- 8 bits/pixel, Fig. 1).
tion and voice recognition. Using signal-processing algorithms, a
processor calculates the characteristics
Biometric systems in motor vehicles features within that image, e.g. branches
Fingerprint identification is becoming estab- or nodal points in the line pattern. The bio-
lished in automotive applications, as crimi- metric system then stores these features –
nology has developed a fundamental under- though not as an actual fingerprint pattern –
standing of the techniques of fingerprint in a permanent database, typically in an
distinction. EEPROM memory (capacity requirement:
As fingerprint identification will in the 250 to 600 bytes per fingerprint).
future replace passwords on computers, in
time management and access control sys- When the biometric system checks a per-
tems, and on mobile phones as well, the son’s fingerprint pattern the next time, it
development of sensors and algorithms has again identifies the characteristic features of
already become widespread. Due to the con- the fingerprint and then searches the data-
fined space available on board a motor vehi- base for a matching set of features. If it finds
cle, there is also limited space for installing a match, the person is recognized as an
the sensor. authorized user.

Biometric features Examples of application

Biometric features are features that are Many vehicles already have programmable
uniquely characteristic to a particular person. seat adjustment functions. The control panel
They may either be physiological features typically has three numbered memory but-
(such as the pattern of a fingerprint) or be- tons, which can be assigned to three differ-
havioral characteristics (such as the way a ent drivers, and a teach-in button. The
person walks or writes his/her signature). The drivers of the vehicle will have to select a
advantage of biometric systems is, firstly, for memory button for each driver and then
the greater convenience of the user. Since bio- remember which button contains their own
metric features are part of a person’s individ- settings. The number of drivers that can use
uality, they are carried by the person at all the system is limited by the number of
times and cannot be forgotten or lost. There is memory buttons.
no need to carry a key or a transponder card.
Secondly, they offer the advantage of an at- The use of a biometric system significantly
tainable enhancement in security. Since bio- enhances the level of personalized conve-
metric features are intrinsic and unique to a nience. In this system, a fingerprint sensor
particular individual, they can neither be replaces the memory buttons for the pro-
deliberately given to others nor stolen in the grammable seat adjustment system (Fig. 2).
traditional sense of the word. Therefore, a Instead of pressing a memory button to re-
high level of reliance can be placed on call his/her personal settings, the driver
whether the vehicle really is being driven places a finger on the sensor. Since biometric
by a known driver. features are intrinsic to a particular individ-
 Vehicle security systems Biometric systems 495

ual, the biometric system can always identify use as a vehicle immobilizer, it has not yet
a particular driver reliably and apply the been definitively demonstrated that the same
correct personal settings. degree of security is attainable as with the
If a previously unknown driver places present transponder-based immobilizers.
his/her finger on the sensor to store his/her For vehicle access applications, the sensors
personal settings, the biometric system auto- for identifying the fingerprint pattern would
matically performs an enrollment sequence have to be integrated in the vehicle’s outer
and then memorizes the current settings. skin. The technical challenge is then to de-
Once a driver is known to the biometric sign a sufficiently resilient sensor system that
system, only the current settings are stored. is adequately protected against external con-
The advantage for the user lies in the sim- ditions so that effective usability is guaran-
plified human-machine interface. Users no teed at all times – including in winter.
longer have to agree on the allocation of
memory buttons, nor do they have to re-
member which button is theirs. In addition,
the maximum number of users is not lim-
ited to the number of memory buttons 1 Fingerprint sensor based on the direct optical
scanning (DiOSTM) method (example)
available. Ultimately, the number of users is
limited by the biometric system’s memory
capacity for user identities and personal a

settings.
Personalization can be extended beyond 1 2
seat adjustment, mirror adjustment and
steering column adjustment functions.
Theoretically, all configurable vehicle sys-
tems can be connected to the biometric per- 3
sonalization system. It could be conceivable b
2
to personalize air conditioning and auto-
matic transmission settings (sports/econ-
omy). For the radio, a set of personal fa-
vorite stations and preferred volume and 4
æ UAE0921-1Y

tone settings could be selected, while there

could be list of favorite destinations for the 0 1 1 1 1 10 0 0 0 00 0 1 1 1 1 10 0 0
5
navigation system. Similarly, if the vehicle
has configurable displays, a driver’s personal
preferences for the display elements could be
recalled. 2 Seat adjustment via fingerprint sensor

In the case of self-teaching assistance sys-

tems which adapt to the driver’s driving pat-
terns, the “last known settings” regarding
driver characteristics could be retrieved by
the personalization system before starting
off.
Biometric systems can also be used even
before starting the engine as a means of im-
æ UKP0005Y

plementing a vehicle immobilizer and for

vehicle access. Vehicles equipped with this
technology could then be driven entirely
without the use of keys. With regard to the
496 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC ranges

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

and interference suppression
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) EMC ranges
consists of two elements. One is under-
stood as the ability of a device to con- Transmitter and receiver
tinue providing reliable service when ex- All vehicle systems must remain impervi-
posed to electromagnetism from external ous to electromagnetic radiation emitted
sources. The second aspect focuses on from such external sources as extremely
electromagnetic fields generated by the powerful radio transmitters. In other
same device; these should remain mini- words, there must be no threat to the
mal in order to avoid creating interfer- motor vehicle’s operational integrity,
ence that would impinge upon the qual- and malfunctions representing a potential
ity of radio reception, etc. in the vicinity. source of driver irritation are unaccept-
able. Another consideration is that station-
Today’s vehicle contains a multitude of ary receivers should remain unaffected by
systems whose functions are implemented passing traffic. Both considerations are
by electrical or electronic components. governed by national and international
These same functions, if present at all, codes (EU Directives, German StVZO).
used to be carried out fully or predomi-
nantly mechanically. With the exception Electrical and electronic components
of two-way transceivers used in special- Motor vehicles contain an extensive array
purpose applications, a car’s radio was of electrical and electronic components
once the only device in which signal including servo and fan motors, solenoid
reception was of any importance. valves, electronic sensors and control
In contrast, today’s vehicles feature a units with microprocessors. These devices
host of devices that rely on the reception must rely on a single vehicle electrical
of electromagnetic radio waves. Mobile system for their power supply. It is thus
phones, navigation systems, theft-deter- vital to avoid mutual interference and
rent systems with radio remote control, feedback phenomena generated by one
and integrated fax and PC units are now or several systems so that these do not
being installed and used in vehicles. cause malfunction.
This trend has led to a commensurate
increase in the importance of suppressing On-board electronic systems
interference and ensuring reception in Mobile communications equipment –
the vehicle of the operationally vital radio such as the radio – also exists within an in-
waves. terlinked environment including all of the
vehicle’s electronic systems. Every device
is powered via the same vehicle electrical
system, and its reception antennas are lo-
cated in the immediate vicinity of potential
radio-interference sources. These consid-
erations make it imperative that strict lim-
its are imposed on the levels of interfer-
ence emitted by on-board electronic sys-
tems. Compliance with official regulations
is essential, and it is important to maintain
interference-free reception in the vehicle
even when conditions are well below opti-
mal.

K. Reif (Ed.), Automotive Mechatronics, Bosch Professional Automotive Information,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03975-2_27, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015
 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle 497

EMC between different to the I/O ports of adjacent systems either

systems in the vehicle directly, through shared conductors such
as the power supply (galvanic coupling),
Shared vehicle electrical system or indirectly, through capacitive and in-
All of the motor vehicle’s electrical systems ductive coupling stemming from electro-
rely on a single shared vehicle electrical magnetic emissions.
system. Because the electric lines leading
to the individual systems are frequently Galvanic coupling
combined within a single wiring harness, Currents for two different electric circuits
feedback pulses can easily travel from one (such as a solenoid valve’s trigger loop and
system to the I/O ports of its neighbor the electric circuit for assessing sensor
(Fig. 1). data) flowing through a single conductive
This transfer of interference can be in path (common ground through the vehicle
the form of signal pulses (abrupt, steep chassis, etc.) will both generate a voltage
jumps in current and voltage) generated owing to the consistent resistance in the
during the switching on and off of various shared conductor (Fig. 2a, next page).
electrical components such as electric Continuing with this sample scenario, the
motors, solenoid valves and actuators. voltage produced by radio-interference
Yet another source is the ignition system’s source u1 has the effect of a supplementary
high-tension circuit. Similar to other inter- signal voltage in signal circuit 2, and could
ference signals (for instance the ripple lead to erroneous interpretation of the
on the power supply), these signal pulses sensor signal. One remedy is to use sepa-
can propagate through the wiring harness. rate return lines for each electric circuit
These interference pulses then proceed (Fig. 2b, next page).

1 Mutual interference between two systems as transmitted through the shared vehicle electrical system (A) and
wiring harnesses (B and C)

A B C

2
I 1
3

5 Fig. 1
II 4
System I:
6
1 Control unit
2 Actuator
3 Sensor
UAE0240-1Y

System II:
4 Control unit
5 Actuator
6 Sensor
498 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle

Capacitive coupling Inductive coupling

Capacitive coupling allows variable-peri- Currents recurring with variable periodicity
odicity signals such as pulse voltages and in one conductor can induce voltage pulses
sinusoidal alternating voltages to produce in adjoining circuits. These voltage pulses
interference and crosstalk in adjacent then generate current in the secondary cir-
electric circuits, even without the exis- cuit (Fig. 4). This is the inductive principle
tence of a direct physical link (Fig. 3). exploited in transformer design. One prime
The potential level of capacitive (interfer- factor defining susceptibility to overcou-
ence) voltage is proportional to such fac- pling is the signal’s rise and fall time (or al-
tors as the closeness of the neighboring ternating voltage frequency), reflecting the
conductor paths and the rise rate of the situation encountered with capacitive cou-
pulse-shaped voltage shifts (or the fre- pling. Also significant is the effective mutual
quency of the alternating voltage). The inductance, as determined by such factors
Fig. 2 first step is to separate the conductive as the size of the wires and their relative
a Electric circuit paths while at the same time extending routing. Strategies for avoiding inductive
with shared return the ramp periods during which signals coupling include minimizing the dimensions
conductor path rise and fall (or to limit the frequency of of circuit wires, keeping critical circuits as
b Electric circuit with
the alternating voltages to the absolute far apart as possible from each other, and
separate return
minimum required for the function). the avoidance of parallel conductive paths.
lines
The tendency toward inductive interference
u1, u2 Voltage source is especially pronounced in circuits carrying
Zi Internal resistor low-frequency signals (e.g. coupling into
Za Terminal resistor loudspeaker wiring).

2 Galvanic coupling of interference signals 3 Capacitive coupling of interference signals

Fig. 3
1 Electric circuit 1 a Z i,1
2 Electric circuit 2 1

C1,2
u1 Voltage source
Zi Internal resistor
Z i,1 Z i,2 Z a,2 Z a,1
RE Input resistance
2
CE Input capacitance u1
C1,2 Capacitance
RE CE
UAE0683-1Y

between two u1 u2
conductor paths us,1
us Radio interference
voltage Zk

b 4 Inductive coupling of interference signals

Fig. 4
1 Electric circuit 1 L1
Za,1
2 Electric circuit 2
1 L2
M1,2
Z i,1 Z i,2 Z a,2 Z a,1 Za,2
u1 Voltage source
2 us
u2 Voltage source
Zi Internal resistor Z i,1

Za Terminal resistor Z i,2

L1, L2 Inductance of
u1 u2
UAE0682-1Y

UAE0684-1Y

conductors u1
M1,2 Inductive coupling
us Radio interference u2
voltage
 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle 499

Pulsation in the vehicle electrical system within a vehicle while designing all the
One strategy for dealing with interference susceptible devices (e.g. control units)
pulses in the vehicle electrical system to comply with and exceed – by a certain
entails limiting the amplitude of the inter- safety margin – Class III. If suppressing
ference emanating from the radio-inter- interference at the source proves to be
ference sources. On the other hand, the cheaper or to involve less technical com-
susceptible devices (affected electronic plexity than reducing sensitivity at the re-
components) are designed for insensitivity ceptors, the logical response might be to
to pulses of specific shapes and ampli- shift the definitions to Classes I/II. If the
tudes. The initial step was to list and clas- scenario is inverted, with the shielding
sify the pulses encountered within vehicu- of potential susceptible devices as the
lar electrical systems (Table 1). Special- cheaper and simpler solution, then a
purpose pulse generators can be used move to Classes III/IV is warranted.
to generate the test patterns defined in Because numerous wires are combined
Table 1 as a basis for assessing resistance within a single wiring harness, each indi-
to these interference waves in susceptible vidual conductor is potentially susceptible
devices. Both the test pulses and the test to inductive and capacitive interference.
technology are codified in standards Although reduced in intensity, the resulting
(DIN 40 839, Section 1; ISO 7637, Section 1) voltage pulses in adjacent supply lines can
including definitions of the measurement then appear as spurious signals at the in-
technology for evaluating emissions of put ports and control outputs in neighbor-
pulse-pattern interference. Classifications ing systems. The test technology for simu-
based on pulse amplitude levels facilitate lating crosstalk interference within wiring
effective definition of radio-interference harnesses (as defined in DIN 40 839,
sources and the susceptible devices (inter- Section 3 and ISO 7637, Section 3) uses
ference receptors) within each vehicle. a standardized substitute wiring layout
It would thus be possible to specify Class II (capacitive clip) with a defined wiring
for all of the radio-interference sources capacitance. Test pulses are fed into this

1 Mutual interference within power supply

Test pulses as defined in DIN 40 839, Section 1 Max. pulse amplitude classes
Pulse pattern This is Internal Pulse I II III IY
caused by resistance duration
1 Shutdown 10 Ω 2 ms –25 V –50 V –75 V –100 V
of inductive
consumers
2 Shutdown 10 Ω 50 µs +25 V +50 V +75 V +100 V
of motorized
consumers
3a Steep over- 50 Ω 0.1 µs –40 V –75 V –110 V –150 V
voltages
3 +25 V +50 V +75 V +100 V
b
Table 1
4 Voltage 10 mΩ to 20 s 12 V 12 V 12 V 12 V 1) “Load dump”, i.e.
curve dur- –3 V –5 V –6 V –7 V
when the alternator
ing starting
is feeding high
operation
current to the
5 Alternator 1Ω to 400 ms +35 V +50 V +80 V +120 V battery and the
load dump 1) connection to the
battery is suddenly
interrupted.
500 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle

layout and through the specimen’s wiring Effects on mobile radio reception
harness to produce overcoupling in the of high-frequency signal feedback
signal and control lines. The effects of in the vehicle electrical system
low-frequency oscillations within vehicu- Along with the pulses and other interfer-
lar electrical systems can be simulated by ence signals described above, high-fre-
producing the desired signals with a signal quency signals constitute yet another
generator and projecting these into the source of undesired interference within
wiring harness through a current clamp. the vehicle electrical system. These signals
This process reflects the procedure de- can stem from periodic switching opera-
scribed above by serving as the basis for tions, as found in high-intensity ignition
the correct balance between the amplitude systems, at the commutators in DC motors
of radiated interference pulses and the re- and from the CPU clock signals that are
sistance to interference of the potentially generated in microprocessor-equipped
susceptible devices (receptors). control units. The interference these sig-

5 Voltage amplitude

dB
a b
Fig. 5 Tr
a As a function
T
of time
b As a function Ti fg1
of frequency A0 H
dB
20
Dek
T Period duration
fg2
Tr Rise time
Ti Pulse duration dB
Amplitude

Amplitude

f0 = T–1 Fundamental
40
Dek
wave

UAE0685-1E
fg Fundamental
frequencies f0 fmin1 fmin2
fmin Periodic minima Time Frequency
H Envelope curve

6 Interference-signal spectrum

dB dB
a b
Radio-interference voltage level

Radio-interference voltage level

Fig. 6
UAE0241-1E

a Wide-band
interference MHz MHz
b Narrow-band Frequency Frequency
interference
 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle 501

nals can induce in mobile communications In the case of radio interference this
receiver equipment may impair reception equipment is in the form of a selective
or even render it impossible. laboratory receiver or spectral analysis
unit. Similar to a radio tuner therefore, the
Spectrum tester thus measures the signal amplitude
Pulsation within on-board electrical sys- only within a specific narrow frequency
tems is usually based on the analysis of band (receiver bandwidth). The test pro-
current and voltage progressions as func- gresses through the entire relevant fre-
tion of time (Fig. 5a). Amplitudes at specific quency range using a procedure analogous
frequencies are generally viewed as the to the station search function in standard
prime criterion for evaluating interference radios: while maintaining the initial band-
signals affecting radio reception (Fig. 5b). width, the laboratory receiver proceeds
Under standard conditions, the interfer- through a range of frequencies, either at
ence signals encountered in the automotive graduated intervals or in a continuous
environment are rarely isolated sinusoidal progression.
waves with single amplitudes recurring at Interference signals recurring at fre-
consistent frequencies. Much more com- quencies lower than the test bandwidth
mon are superimpositions consisting of produce the continuous signal pattern
numerous oscillation components with indicative of wide-band interference.
a variety of amplitudes and frequencies. If the frequency is higher than the test
The “spectrum” for an interference signal bandwidth, the test monitor will also pick
is a portrayal of amplitude versus fre- up gaps in the spectrum, and the result
quency designed to facilitate evaluation of will be the line spectrum that indicates
interference potential in individual wave- narrow-band interference.
bands (Figs. 6a and 6b). Table 4 (refer to Electric motors are a typical source of
section "Interference-suppression catego- wide-band interference. Commutation
ries") lists the most significant wavebands frequencies in electric motors are located
for automotive applications. around just a few 100 Hz, with the exact
Interference test technology divides figure depending on the motor’s number
interference signals into wide-band and of poles and its speed. At a test bandwidth
narrow-band interference: a spectrum with of 120 kHz (bandwidth corresponding to an
a continuous, progressive curve (Fig. 6a) is FM radio tuner receiver bandwidth) this
indicative of wide-band interference, and produces a continuous spectrum. At the
identifies the corresponding radio-inter- same test bandwidth, a 2 MHz cycle fre-
ference source as a wide-band interferer. quency (of the kind that might be encoun-
A contrasting pattern composed of isolated tered in a microprocessor-equipped con-
spikes forming a so-called line spectrum trol unit) will generate a completely differ-
indicates narrow-band interference stem- ent spectrum, this time with the spiked line
ming from narrow-band emitters (Fig. 6b). spectrum typical of narrow-band interfer-
Initially, the classifications in either cat- ence (interference signal recurs at fre-
egory are arbitrary: among the factors that quency greater than test bandwidth).
determine whether interference is emanat- While all electric motors – fans, wind-
ing from a “wide-band” or “narrow-band” shield wipers, servo units and fuel-supply
radio-interference source are the recep- pump, etc. – join the alternator as typical
tion properties of the potentially suscepti- emitters of wide-band interference, yet an-
ble devices as reflected in the characteris- other potential emitter is the high-tension
tics of the test equipment employed to ignition circuit. In addition, low-frequency
monitor the emissions. clock signals stemming from devices such
as switching elements can produce wide-
502 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle

band interference. The list of narrow-band Measuring incident interference

interference emitters includes the micro- Test techniques (DIN 57 879/VDE 0879,
processors in control units as well as all Sections 2 and 3; CISPR 25) are stipulated
other devices using high-frequency con- for monitoring interference transmitted
trol signals. through wiring and antennas. Research on
individual components is carried out using
Interference signals picked up by radio
receivers may also be of the so-called con-
Schematic diagram of simulated automotive
ducted interference type, that is they may 7 electrical circuit
propagate through wiring and conductors
5 H
(such as the radio’s power supply) or they
A P
can enter the receiver’s I/O ports via in-
ductive and capacitive radiation in the wir-
ing harness. However, interference usually
0,1 F
Fig. 7 enters through the antenna, either through
Terminals: coupling in the antenna cable, or because
P-B Test
the antenna picks up the electromagnetic
A-B Power supply M
fields generated by radio-interference 1 F S
M-B Radio-interference
monitor sources. One particularly effective trans-
S Switch mission antenna is the wiring harness.
B Reference ground Other factors influencing the amplitude 50

UAE0686-1Y
(metal sheet, of the interference signals picked-up by
shielding for
the receiver are the vehicle-body structure
simulated vehicle
and the type and location of the antenna. B B
electrical system)

2 Interference-suppression levels: permissible radio-interference voltage limits for individual frequency ranges in
dBµV for wide-band (B) and narrow-band (S) interference as defined in CISPR 25 (DIN/VDE 0879-2)
Interference- Interference-suppression levels
suppression 0.15 to 0.53 to 5.9 to 30 to 70 to
levels 0.3 MHz (LW) 2.0 MHz (MW) 6.2 MHz (SW) 54 MHz 108 MHz (VHF)
B S B S B S B S B S
1 100 90 82 66 64 57 64 52 48 42
2 90 80 74 58 58 51 58 46 42 36
3 80 70 66 50 52 45 52 40 36 30
4 70 60 58 42 46 39 46 34 30 24
Table 2 5 60 50 50 34 40 33 40 28 24 18

3 Permissible radio interference-field strength in dBµV/m for interference-suppression levels in individual frequency ranges
according to DIN/VDE 0879, Section 2, or CISPR 25 for wide-band interferers, measured with quasi-peak detector (B), and
narrow-band interference, measured with peak detector (S).
Interfer- Interference-field strength level
ence- 0.15 to 0.53 to 5.9 to 30 to 68 to 76 to 142 to 380 to 820 to
sup- 0.3 MHz 2.0 MHz 6.2 MHz 54 MHz 87 MHz 108 MHz 175 MHz 512 MHz 960 MHz
pression (LW) (MW) (SW) (VHF)
level B S B S B S B S B S B S B S B S B S
1 83 61 70 50 47 46 47 46 36 36 36 42 36 36 43 43 49 49
2 73 51 62 42 41 40 41 40 30 30 30 36 30 30 37 37 43 43
3 63 41 54 34 35 34 35 34 24 24 24 30 24 24 31 31 37 37
4 53 31 46 26 29 28 29 28 18 18 18 24 18 18 25 25 31 31

Table 3 5 43 21 38 18 23 22 23 22 12 12 12 18 12 12 19 19 25 25
 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between different systems in the vehicle 503

laboratory setups and standardized test units are usually switched on along with
setups in shielded chambers. Interference the ignition). Also of significance is the fact
is monitored with a laboratory receiver. that the radio receiver cannot distinguish
Line lengths and other geometric dimen- these spurious signals from useful signals,
sions are specified. The power supply making reception of weak transmissions
must be provided by a precisely defined impossible. This situation is reflected in
vehicle electrical system. Voltage sources the definition of interference-suppression
are also precisely defined, with laboratory categories. In a given interference-sup-
specimens being powered from simulated pression category, narrow-band interfer-
vehicle electrical systems (Fig. 7). ences are assigned lower permissible in-
terference levels than wide-band interfer-
Interference-suppression categories ences.
Similar to pulsation in the vehicle electri-
cal system, narrow- and wide-band inter- Because individual vehicle configuration
ference factors are classified by interfer- also has a substantial effect on the quality
ence-suppression category in order to of broadcast reception, the interference-
facilitate selection and design for specific suppression data derived from laboratory
applications. Within this classification testing must be confirmed in a practical
system, demands on sporadically active automotive environment. The test involves
radio-interference sources are less strin- measuring antenna voltage at the end of
gent than the requirements placed on the antenna cable to which the radio re-
components in continuous operation, ceiver will subsequently be connected.
such as the alternator. The permissible CISPR 25 also prescribes limits for radio
CISPR 25 (DIN/VDE 0879-2) radio interfer- interference voltage as determined using
ence levels are listed in Table 2. Table 3 in- this procedure (Table 4). It contains volt-
dicates the permissible interference-field age levels defined to reflect the unfavor-
strengths for radiation measurements with able reception conditions as encountered
antennas. in motor vehicles, where the strengths of
useful signals not only fail to exceed just
Narrow-band interference of the kind a few mV, but also suffer from substantial
generated by CPU clock signals in control fluctuation owing to vehicle motion and
units poses an especially acute problem the multiple reception paths generated
for radio reception. These interference by signal reflections. Table 4
signals are always present (the control QP-B Quasi-peak
detector relays
aural impression
4 Limits defined for permissible radio interference voltage at vehicle antenna in dBµV produced by
Frequency range Frequency Continuous wide-band Sporadic wide-band Narrow-band interference
interference interference interference B Wide-band

MHz QP-B b QP-B b S interference emitter

with peak detector
LW 0.14 to 0.30 9 22 15 28 6
indicates maximum
MW 0.53 to 2.0 6 19 15 28 0
level
SW 5.9 to 6.2 6 19 6 19 0 S Narrow-band
2-way transceivers 30 to 54 6 (15*) 28 15 28 0 interference emitter
2-way transceivers 70 to 87 6 (15*) 28 15 28 0 with peak detector

VHF 87 to 108 6 (15*) 28 15 28 6 indicates maximum

level
2-way transceivers 144 to 172 6 (15*) 28 15 28 0
* Limit values for
C-network car phone 420 to 512 6 (15*) 28 15 28 0
high-voltage
D-network car phone 800 to 1000 6 (15*) 28 15 28 0 ignition
504 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between the vehicle and its surroundings

Interference from electrostatic charges EMC between the vehicle

ESD, or electrostatic discharge, can dam- and its surroundings
age or even destroy electronic compo-
nents. The voltages produced in the event Since early 1996, an official regulation
of this discharging can be anywhere up to has placed mandatory limits on radiation
several volts, which in turn also generate by the vehicle of interference affecting
very high, pulsed currents. For this reason, stationary radio reception, while at the
suitable measures are required to prevent same time defining suppression require-
the destructive effect or, better still, the ments during exposure to external electro-
discharges themselves. Electronic compo- magnetic fields. This ordinance (European
nents that come into contact with vehicle Directive 95/54/EC) superseded an earlier
passengers are particularly endangered. directive of more limited scope, which
only limited interference emissions while
ISO TR 10605 defines test procedures for defining the homologation certification
examining the effects of electrostatic dis- procedure governing EMC in motor vehi-
charge and the immunity to interference cles.
that components exhibit both in the labo-
ratory and when installed in the vehicle. Emitted interference
The test is conducted with a suitable ESD Electromagnetic emissions radiated by mo-
test-pulse generator, usually in the shape tor vehicles must remain within the limits
of a pistol. The generator produces the for narrow and wide-band signals (Fig. 1)
high-voltage pulses that are then coupled to ensure that they do not interfere with
into the test specimen. radio and television broadcasts or private
transmissions. These limits are specified in
the Directive 95/54/EC cited above as well
as in VDE 0879, Section 1 and the CISPR 12
standard. These regulations contain de-
tailed descriptions of the test procedure,
which employs antennas set up at defined
distances from the vehicle (10 meters,
3 meters).
The specifics of the test procedure are
1 Wide- and narrow-band limit values for vehicles described in the regulations quoted.
as monitored at a distance of 10 m
In practice, it is the ignition system that is
usually responsible for the greatest amount
dB V/m of interference radiation. However, since a
comprehensive range of measures have
Interference field strength

been taken to ensure good radio reception

Wide-band
40 limit value in the vehicle, the emitted interference is
limited to such an extent that compliance
with the legal limit values is usually com-
Narrow-band fortably achieved.
30 limit value
Incident radiation
As a vehicle travels through the high-in-
tensity electromagnetic field (near field)
UAE0681-3E

20
30 75 400 1,000 immediately surrounding a high-intensity
Frequency MHZ emissions source, radiation penetrates
through gaps and apertures in the vehicle
 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between the vehicle and its surroundings 505

body and interferes with on-board electri- The anechoic chamber is used for investi-
cal systems. The intensity of this effect (in- gating the overall performance of vehicle
cident radiation) varies according to com- electrical systems under real-world oper-
ponent locations, body configuration and ating conditions. The Bosch anechoic
the wiring harness. chamber (Fig. 2) is equipped with devices
capable of generating high-frequency
Vehicle measurements fields within a frequency range extending
At one time the procedure for verifying that from 10 kHz to 18 GHz, with a maximum
various electronic systems would continue field strength of Emax = 200 V/m. Since
to provide satisfactory performance under these field strengths represent a health
exposure to high-intensity fields involved hazard, the test vehicle is operated via
driving the motor vehicle to a number of remote control from within a shielded
different broadcast transmitter locations. control room, while testing is monitored
Now, special test chambers are available by video cameras. The chamber is screened
for this purpose. with metallic sheeting, and non-conduc-
These chambers must be surrounded tive materials (wood and plastic) line the
(shielded) with a metallic casing to prevent interior, as metallic substances could
the electromagnetic field generated during foster spurious readings. To prevent reflec-
testing from radiating to the outside. In ad- tions and inhibit the formation of standing
dition, the chambers must be equipped with waves, walls and ceiling are covered by pyr-
absorption materials to inhibit formation amid-shaped absorption elements made of
of standing waves (nodes and antinodes), graphite-filled polyurethane foam.
which would lead to major variations in Vehicle testing proceeds on a chassis
field strength between the various measur- dynamometer (rolling road) capable of
ing points. accommodating simulated speeds of up to

2 Measuring resistance to incident radiation of vehicle electrical systems in the EMC anechoic chamber
UAE0689Y
506 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between the vehicle and its surroundings

200 km/h. A fan is also present to direct up a different procedure is used for this
to 40,000 m3/h (corresponding to a wind range. The alternate procedure relies on
speed of 80 km/h) of air over the vehicle. antennas to project electromagnetic fields
Among the advantages that distinguish into standardized bench setups.
indoor testing from the old open-air tests The specifics of the methods outlined
near transmitters is that the former method below are defined in DIN 40 839, Section 4,
allows latitude for considerable variations and ISO 11 452, Sections 1 – 7 (which also
in both frequency and field strength. This contains additional process descriptions
facilitates evaluation of vehicular resis- detailing less widespread methods).
tance to incident radiation under a wide All these methods furnish a precise pic-
range of conditions, and not at just a few ture of a system’s resistance to incident
available points. The ability to gradually radiation. This can then be used to imple-
increase field strengths right up to each ment improvements while the develop-
electronic device’s operational limits fur- ment phase is still in progress. Thanks to
nishes information on safety margins. this inestimable advantage it is now im-
Specifics defining the test procedures possible to imagine development projects
used in determining radiation resistance without these laboratory measurements
in the overall vehicle are described in as flanking measures.
DIN 40 839, Section 4. ISO 11452, Sec- It must be taken into consideration that
tions 1 – 4 contain similar descriptions as the design of the electrical system in itself
elements within a more extensive compila- is not the only important factor. Because
tion of special-purpose test procedures. installation conditions in the vehicle and
the routing of the wiring harness can also
Laboratory measurements exercise a decisive influence on ultimate
Although the data garnered from assess- levels of interference resistance, all earlier
ments of incident radiation on the vehicle results still need to be confirmed on a pro-
as a whole are invaluable, the disadvan- duction vehicle in the anechoic chamber.
tage of this type of testing is that it can
only be performed at an advanced stage Stripline method (Figs. 3 and 4)
in the vehicle and electronic system design The designation, “stripline”, refers to a
process. Only very limited latitude is avail- conductor in the form of a strip. This con-
able for responding to indications of inad- ductor has a length of 4.1 m and a width of
equate resistance to incident radiation un- 0.74 m. It is arranged with a clearance of
covered at this stage. 0.15 m above the conductive sheet (coun-
This explains the necessity to determine ter-electrode). A high-frequency alterna-
at an early stage how an electronic system tor serves as the source of a transverse
will operate during subsequent use in its magnetic wave generated between the
automotive environment: prompt informa- stripline and the counter-electrode, con-
tion allows effective recourse to remedial tinuing until it reaches the terminal resis-
action when needed. Various test proce- tor. The stripline dimensions have been
dures have emerged for obtaining the re- selected to minimize the likelihood of re-
quired information. flections occurring during wave propaga-
In the first of the three tests described tion, thus ensuring constant field-strength
below, interference waves propagating amplitudes relative to frequency.
through a conductor are coupled into the
wiring harness of the system under inves- A typical system setup might include a
tigation. As the suitability of these test ar- control unit, wiring harness and peri-
rangements for evaluating the frequency pheral devices (sensors and actuators).
range beyond > 400 MHz is restricted, These are set up at a height half way be-
 Electromagnetic compatibility | EMC between the vehicle and its surroundings 507

tween the base plate and the stripline, Bulk current injection method (Fig. 5)
with the wiring harness in alignment with Bulk current injection (BCI) is an immunity
the waves’ direction of propagation. test commonly used in the automotive
and aircraft industry. As with the stripline
The field strength between the planes at method, the system being tested is ar-
a given frequency is then increased until ranged above a conductive sheet (counter-
the system malfunctions or until a maxi- electrode). A current clamp attached to the
mum specified level is reached. If the in- wiring harness injects transformer current
crements are small enough, repeating this into its individual wires. The vectorial sum
process at progressively altered frequen- of these currents corresponds to the total
cies will produce a detailed diagram por- current radiated by the clamp. While test-
traying resistance to incident radiation as ing using the stripline method proceeds
a function of frequency (Fig. 4). through a range of increasing field
strengths, BCI relies on progressively
3 Stripline method higher current flows as it continues until
the system malfunctions or until current
3 reaches the specified terminal value.

1
TEM cell (Fig. 6)
As with the stripline method, a transverse
G
electromagnetic field (TEM) is generated
Fig. 3
here between a strip conductor and a 1 High-frequency
5
counter-electrode. The TEM counter-elec- alternator
7 6 trode, however, is an enclosed housing 2 Resistor
instead of a metal plate. This leads to an- 3 Stripline

other distinguishing feature: TEM test 4 Counter-electrode

2 2
(conductive sheet
benches do not need to be set up within
or cell)
specially shielded chambers.
UAE0246-1Y

5 System under test

4 6 Wiring harness
7 Peripherals
(sensors, actuators)

4 Resistance to incident radiation 5 BCI Method

Fig. 4
Determined using
-1 1 2
V·m G stripline, BCI or
TEM cell method
Resistance to incident radiation

Fig. 5
7
1 High-frequency
4
alternator
2 Resistor
6 5 3 Counter-electrode
(conductive sheet
or cell)
4 System under test
UAE0249-1E

UAE0247-1Y

5 Wiring harness
3
MHz 6 Peripherals
Frequency (sensors, actuators)
7 Current clamp
508 Electromagnetic compatibility | Guarantee of immunity and interference suppression

A further difference lies in the fact that Guarantee of immunity and

only the test specimen per se (for example: interference suppression
a control unit) is subject to electromag-
netic exposure. The peripheral equipment As early as the planning and conception
is located outside the TEM cell and is con- phases, EMC requirements for immunity
to and suppression of radio interference
wiring harness arranged at right angles have to be considered as part of every
to the direction of propagation of the development project focusing on any elec-
electromagnetic waves. tronic system or component. The finished
The measurement procedure is consis- products must incorporate EMC measures
tent with that of the stripline method. as an integral design element.
Here, too, the field strength is increased
until the system malfunctions or until a EMC in the electronic control unit (ECU)
maximum specified level is reached. The first EMC requirement reflected in
any ECU is to select microprocessor cycle
Incident radiation via antenna frequencies that are as low as possible
Once again similarities with the stripline while simultaneously making every effort
method are encountered, as the test speci- to keep the signal transit curves as flat as
men, including control unit, wiring har- possible. EMC characteristics join stan-
ness and peripherals, is set up on a base dard operational aspects as an essential
plate. The wiring harness is laid out at criterion governing the selection of com-
a defined distance from this base plate. ponents (integrated circuits). Whereas the
An antenna located at a specified distance components’ resistance to interference
from this assembly generates an electro- must be maximal, its interference emis-
magnetic field for projection into the en- sions should be minimal. On printed-
tire test setup. Again, field strength is circuit boards designed for optimal EMC
raised until the system malfunctions or performance, all components with pro-
until field strength reaches the maximum nounced sensitivity to interference, and
value specified for testing. all of those with the potential to cause it,

6 TEM-cell test setup

3
6 5
Fig. 6 1
1 High-frequency
G
alternator
2 Resistor
3 Stripline
5
4 Counter-electrode
2 2
(conductive sheet
UAE0248-1Y

or cell)
5 System under test
6 Peripherals 4 4
(sensors, actuators)
 Electromagnetic compatibility | Guarantee of immunity and interference suppression 509

are decoupled from the connected wiring High-voltage ignition

harness. This is done by locating the com- The ignition system’s high-voltage circuit
ponents as far as possible from the plug represents a potential source of substan-
connections. tial interference to radio reception.
Suppression components, usually ca- One standard solution is to use spark plugs
pacitors designed for high-frequency ap- and cable sockets with noise-suppression
plications, place the required restrictions resistors. While the resistor element is
on potentially disruptive interference. usually located at the end of the ignition
These interference-suppression capacitors cables, in modern (multiple-coil) systems
are located either directly within the inte- it can be integrated within the dedicated
grated circuits or in the plug-connector ignition coils plugged directly onto the
area. The suppression elements in the spark plugs for the individual cylinders.
plug-connector area combine with hous- In using resistors, the object is to find a
ings featuring optimal conductive proper- balance between the demand for ignition
ties (shielded casing) to prevent high-fre- energy and the required level of interfer-
quency radiation in the immediate vicinity ence suppression.
from reaching the inside of the ECU. This
ensures that signals produced outside the Retrofit interference suppression
unit do not cause interference inside the As made clear in the above sections,
unit. On the other side of the coin, high- EMC design considerations must be care-
frequency signals produced inside the unit fully aligned and balanced against opera-
do not cause undesirable interference in tional requirements. Subsequent remedial
the surrounding environment. measures superimposed on the original
design at a later date usually entail sub-
Electric motors and other stantial effort, and should be avoided in
electromechanical components production vehicles.
Standard practice in the design of electric Should the interference-suppression
motors reflects the procedures used for measures incorporated in electrical com-
ECUs and sensors by incorporating inter- ponents prove inadequate for dealing with
ference suppression in the design process the conditions encountered in specific ap-
right from the initial development stages. plications (in special-purpose emergency
A sample problem is the interference pro- vehicles, etc.), supplementary action can
duced by the brush arcing during current be implemented to deal with the problem.
reversal in motors with commutator Options include installation of filters as
control. This can severely disrupt radio well as supplementary shielding for com-
reception. Suitable suppression elements ponents and wiring.
(capacitors and throttles) limit the inter- These options should be exercised with
ference. Motors are designed with optimal great care, as field modifications to elec-
operation of these interference suppres- tronic components can lead to operational
sors in mind. malfunctions.
The voltage pulses produced during
switching operations in electromagnetic
actuators are kept to an acceptable level
by suitable elements, such as quench
resistors, in the circuit.