Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue

Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System

Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Master controlling and communicating system of the body

 Works together with endocrine system to maintain homeostasis
 Nervous system - quick response to stimuli
 Endocrine system - slower but long lasting effects
 Functions:
1. Monitor sensory input (information) from environment
2. Integrate the information
3. Response by activates the effector organ

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Structural

 Divided into CNS (brain and spinal cord) and PNS (nerves and ganglia)

DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Functional

 PNS subdivided into:

1. Sensory (afferent) division – conveys impulses to CNS
2. Motor (efferent) division – conveys impulses from CNS
 Motor division includes:
a. Somatic (voluntary) division - innervates skeletal muscles
b. Autonomic (involuntary) division - innervates
smooth/cardiac muscle and glands

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 Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

NERVOUS TISSUE

 Made up of 2 principal types of cells:

1. Neurons (nerves cells) - transmit electrical signals
2. Neuroglia or glial cells (supporting cells) - support, protect and nourish
the neurons
 CNS neuroglia - astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells
 PNS neuroglia - schwann cells and satellite cells

Functions of Neuroglia

Neuroglia

CNS PNS
1. Provide framework for neuron 1. Produce fatty sheath
2. Remove unwanted materials around neuron axons
3. Aid in cerebrospinal fluid (Schwann cells)
circulation

Neurons

 3 parts of neuron (nerve cell); cell body, dendrites and axon

1. Cell Body
 Located in CNS
 Receiving surface
 Containing nucleus

2. Dendrites
 Receive information from other neurons
 Dendrites of motor neuron are short but many
 Dendrites of sensory neuron are long

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 Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

3. Axon (Nerve Fibers)

 Conduct impulse away from cell body
 Short/long nerve fiber
 Long fibers processes outside CNS covered by white myelin sheath
formed by Schwann cells and neurilemma sheath
 Most large fiber are myelinated, myelin increases the rate of
nerve impulse transmission.
 Gap in between form the nodes of Ranvier, nerve cell conduction
 Synapse is a junction at axon ends to mediate information transfer
from one neuron to another

Classification of Neurons

1. Sensory neuron (afferent neuron)

 Conduct impulse from sensory receptor to CNS
 Long peripheral process
 Unipolar
 Cell body located in PNS

2. Motor neuron (efferent neuron)

 Conduct impulse from CNS to effector organ (muscle/gland)
 Short dendrite, long axon
 Multipolar
 Cell body in CNS

3. Interneuron (association neuron)

 Conduct impulse within CNS
 Short dendrite, axon long/short
 Multipolar
 Found in CNS

Properties of Neuron

1. Excitability (Irritable) - ability to respond to stimuli

2. Conductivity - ability to transmit signal
 When neuron is stimulated, an electrical impulse is generated and
conducted along the length of its axon
 This response called action potential (nerves impulse)

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 Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

ACTION POTENTIAL

 Brief reversal of membrane potential with a total amplitude of ~100 mV

 Occurs in muscle cells and axons of neurons
 Principal means of long-distance neural communication

Generation of an Action Potential

1. Resting State
 Resting membrane potential - approximately –70 mV
 All Na+ and K+ channels are closed

2. Depolarization
 Depolarizing local currents open Na+ channels
 Na+ influx causes more depolarization
 At threshold (–55 to –50 mV) positive feedback leads to opening of
all Na+ channels (inside become less negative)

3. Repolarization
 Na+ channels inactivate
 Membrane permeability to Na+ declines to resting levels
 K+ channels open
 K+ exits the cell and internal negativity is restored

4. Hyperpolarization
 Some K+ channels remain open, allowing excessive K+ efflux
 Na+ channels reset

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Brain

 4 divisions:
1. Cerebrum (Cerebral Hemispheres)
2. Diencephalon
3. Brainstem
a. Midbrain
b. Pons
c. Medulla oblongata
4. Cerebellum

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 Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

Cerebrum / Cerebral Hemispheres

 Consists of 2 hemispheres; right and left
 Cerebral hemispheres exhibit gyri /gyrus (elevated ridges of tissue), sulci
/sulcus (shallow grooves) and fissures (deep grooves)
 Longitudinal fissure partially separates the hemispheres
 Involved in logical reasoning, moral conduct, emotional responses, sensory
interpretations, and the initial of voluntary muscle activity
 Surface of cerebrum is gray matter called the cerebral cortex
 Divided into 5 lobes:
1. Parietal lobe
2. Frontal lobe
3. Temporal lobe
4. Occipital lobe
5. Insula - buried deep within the lateral sulcus and forms part of its floor
 Functional areas of the cerebral cortex include:
1. Motor areas
2. Sensory areas
3. Association areas
 Central sulcus separates the motor areas and sensory areas
 Motor areas – control precise or skilled voluntary movements
 Sensory areas – concerned with conscious awareness of sensation
 Association areas – intellect, cognation, reasoning, judgment, etc
 Cerebral hemispheres show lateralization of cortical function. In most people,
the left hemisphere is dominant (i.e., specialized for language and
mathematical skill), the right hemisphere is more concerned with visual-
spatial skills and creative endeavors
 Beneath (interior) the cortex is cerebral white matter
 Fiber tracts of the cerebral white matter include commissural fibers,
association fibers, and projection fibers
 Deep within the cerebral white matter is the third basic region of each
hemisphere, a group of subcortical nuclei called basal nuclei
 The pair basal nuclei help control muscular movements.
 Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease are disorders of the basal nuclei

Diencephalon
 Located deep to the cerebrum
 Connects the midbrain with the cerebral hemispheres
 Composed of thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus
 Thalamus - relay station for sensory impulses passing to the sensory
cortex for interpretation
 Hypothalamus - autonomic control center, maintains water balance and
regulates thirst, eating behaviour, gastrointestinal activity, body
temperature and the activity of the anterior pituitary glands
 Epithalamus - includes the pineal gland which secretes the melatonin
(helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle)

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 Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

Brainstem
 Relays messages between the spinal cord and the cerebrum

1. Midbrain
 Mainly fiber tracts
 Connects the pons and cerebellum with the cerebrum

2. Pons
 Connecting bridge between the medulla oblongata and the
midbrain
 Has fiber tracts and nuclei involved in respiration

3. Medulla oblongata
 Fibers of motor tracts from the motor cerebral cortex cross over
(decussate) in the medulla oblongata before entering the spinal
cord
 Contains vital cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory center
(breathing, HR, BP, etc,)
 Regulates vomiting, sneezing, coughing, and swallowing

Cerebellum
 Located behind the pons
 Large and cauliflower-like
 Mainly a coordination center for muscular movement, involved with balance,
precision, timing, and body position

Protection of the Brain

 Protected by:
1. Bone
2. Meninges
3. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
4. Blood-brains barrier

Meninges
 Brain is covering by 3 layer protective membranes (connective tissues):
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater
 Between the arachnoid and pia mater is the subarachnoid space, which
contains cerebrospinal fluid

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 Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

Cerebrospinal fluid/ CSF

 Formed by the choroid plexus from blood plasma, circulates through the
ventricle and into the subarachnoid space
 Supports and watery cushions the brain and spinal cord and helps to nourish
them

Blood-brain barrier
 Reflects the relative impermeability of the epithelium of the capillaries of the
brain
 It allows water, respiratory gases, essential nutrients, and fat-soluble
molecules to enter the neural tissue, but prevent entry of other, water-
soluble, potential harmful substances

The Spinal Cord

Gross Anatomy and Protection

 Two-way impulse conduction pathway and a reflex center
 Conducting impulse between brain and peripheral nerves
 Connecting link between the brain and most of the body
 Controls many reflex actions
 Protected by bone (vertebral column), meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid
 Extends from the foramen magnum to the end of the 1 st lumbar vertebra
 31 pairs of spinal nerve roots issue from the cord
 The cord is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions, where spinal nerves
serving the limbs arise

Cross-sectional Anatomy
 ‘H’ shaped gray matter surrounded by white matter
 Axons of motor neurons emerge in common from the cord via ventral roots
 Axons of sensory neurons enter the posterior aspect of the cord and form the
dorsal roots
 The ventral and dorsal roots combine to form the spinal nerves
 Conduction pathway comprised of:
1. Ascending tract
2. Descending tract
 Ascending tract are made up of sensory fibers that carry impulse up the spinal
cord to the brain
 Descending tract of motor fibers transmit impulse from the brain down the
spinal cord to the efferent neurons
 All tracts are pair and decussate

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 Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Consists of sensory receptors, nerves conducting impulses to and from the

CNS, their associated ganglia, and motor endings
 Nerves extend between skin, muscles, visceral organs and glands to and from
the CNS
 Divided into somatic and autonomic nervous system
 Prominent nerves involve are cranial and spinal nerves

Peripheral Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System

Sympathetic Division Parasympathetic Division

Sensory Receptors

 Are specialized to respond to environmental changes (stimuli)

 Simple (general) receptors for pain, touch, pressure, and temperature found
in the skin, skeletal muscles, tendons, and visceral organs
 Complex receptors (sense organs) serve the special senses (vision, hearing,
equilibrium, smell, and taste)

Nerves and Associated Ganglia

 A nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers in the PNS wrapped in connective tissue

covering
 Each fiber is enclosed by an endoneurium, fascicle of fibers is wrapped by
perineurium, and the whole nerve is bundled by the epineurium
 Ganglia are collections of neuron cell bodies associated with nerves in the
PNS; e.g.: the dorsal root (sensory) ganglia and autonomic (motor) ganglia

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 Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

Cranial Nerves

 12 pairs
 Originate from the brains
 Innervate the head and neck
 Only the vagus nerves (X) extend into the thoracic and abdominal cavities
 Cranial nerves are numbered from anterior to posterior in order of
emergence from the brain
 Their names reflect structures serves or function or both; e.g.:
 Olfactory nerves (I) - sensory; carries impulses for the sense of smell
 Optic nerves (II) - sensory; carries impulses for vision
 Facial nerves (VII) - activate the muscles of facial expression and the
lacrimal and salivary glands; carries sensory impulses from the taste
buds of anterior tongue

Spinal Nerves

 Consists of nerves extend between skin, muscles, visceral organs and glands,
CNS
 Divided to somatic and autonomic system
 There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves:
1. 8 cervical (C1 - C8)
2. 12 thoracic (T1 - T12)
3. 5 lumbar (L1 - L5)
4. 5 sacral (S1 - S5)
5. 1 coccygeal (C0)
 Spinal nerves emerging from:
1. Cervical enlargement - innervate the upper limbs
2. Lumbar enlargement - innervate the lower limbs
 Each spinal nerves divided into:
1. Ventral (anterior, motor) root - contain efferent nerve fibers and convey
motor information)
2. Dorsal (posterior, sensory) root - contain afferent nerves fibers, which
enter the cord with sensory information
 Branches of each spinal nerve include dorsal and ventral rami, a meningeal
branch, and rami communicantes (ANS branches) in the thoracic region
 Dorsal rami serve the muscles and skin of the posterior body trunk
 Ventral rami (except T2 to T12 nerves) are arranged to form networks of
nerves called plexuses that serve the limbs
 The intercostals nerves are the T2 - T12 spinal nerves (serve the thorax wall
and abdominal surface)

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 Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

The Reflex Arc

 A reflex is a rapid, involuntary motor response to a stimulus

 Has 5 elements:
1. Receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Integration center
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector
 Reflexes are divided into:
1. Somatic reflex - effectors are the muscles
2. Autonomic (visceral) reflex - effectors are the smooth or cardiac
muscles or glands

THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Composed of:
1. Somatic afferent (sensory) division
2. Somatic efferent (motor) division
 Somatic afferent division conveys sensory information from the skin, skeletal
muscles, tendons, joints, eyes, tongue, nose and ears to the spinal cord and
brain via the spinal and some cranial nerves
 Somatic efferent division conduct impulse from the CNS to skeletal muscle

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Divided into:
1. Sympathetic division
2. Parasympathetic division
 The two divisions normally exert antagonistic effects on many of the same
targets organs.
 Main function of the ANS is to promote homeostasis by regulating visceral
activities, especially activities of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and gland
 Generally, the sympathetic division prepares the body for stressful situation,
and the parasympathetic division is active when the body is at rest

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 Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

Parasympathetic division

 The ‘house-keeping’ system and is in control most of the time

 Maintains homeostasis by seeing that normal digestion and elimination occur
and that body energy is conserved
 Parasympathetic effects include pupillary constriction, glandular secretion,
increased digestive tract mobility, and smooth muscle activity leading to
elimination of urine and feces

Sympathetic division

 The ‘fight-or-flight’ system, which prepares the body to cope with some
threat or under conditions of emergency
 Sympathetic responses include dilated pupils, increased heart and respiratory
rates, increased blood pressure, dilation of the bronchioles of the lungs,
increased blood glucose levels, and sweating
 During exercise, sympathetic vasoconstriction shunts blood from skin and
digestive viscera to the heart, brain, and skeletal muscles

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