AWS WHB-2 40 mm O7S42L5 0010857 1 m= eae) GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING Sandia National Labs R. D. Campbell E.G. &G. Rocky Flats G. J. Daumeyer, I Allied Signal Aerospace R.B, Madigan Edison Welding Institute S.J. Marburger Sandia National Labs B, Young, Westinghouse Savannal River Company WELDING HANDBOOK ‘COMMITTEE MEMBER: M. J. Tomsic Plastronic Incorporated Introduction 74 Principles of Operation a Eqipment 7" GTAW Tecines 94 Mates = es Join Design ; : a0 Wel Quality 102 Applications 103 Sele Pecoes =. Supplementary Resting List ; 106 Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Sot 05 10-1605 1997AUS WHB-2 90 Mf 0784265 0010855 3 mm 74 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING APTER 3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING INTRODUCTION Gas TUNGSTEN ARC welding (GTAW) isan are welding pro- cess that uses an are between a tungsten clectrode (noncon- sumable) and the weld pool. The processis used with shield ingggas and without che application of pressuse. The process may be used with or without the addition of filler metal. Figure 3.1 shows the gas tungsten are welding process. ‘GTAW has become indispensable asa tool for many in- dlustries because of the high-quality welds produced and low equipment costs. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the fandamentals of the GTAW process, the equip- ‘ment and consumables used, the process procedures and variables, applications, and safety considerations CURRENT CONDUCTOR DIRECTION OF WELDING ‘SHIELDING Gas GAS IN NOZZLE NONCONSUMABLE ‘TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE FILLER, ; ae “g-—GAS SHIELD ARC SOLIDIFIED WELD METAL Figure 3.1-Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Operation The possibility of using helium to shield a welding are and molten weld pool was first investigated in the 1920's.! However, nothing was done with this method until the beginning of World War Il when a great need developed in the airerafe industry 0 replace riveting for joining reactive materials such as aluminam and magnesium. Using a tung- sten electrode and direct current are power with the elec- trode negative, a stable, efficient heat source was pro duced with which excellent welds could be made. Helium was elected to provide the necessary shield be cause, at the time, it was the only readily avaliable inert gs. ‘Tingsten electrode inert gas torches typical ofthat period? are shown in Figure 3.2. The process has been called non- 1. HM, Hobart US, Patent 1,746,081, 1926 and F. K. Devers US. pax tent 1746 191, 1926 28, Meredith, US. Patent 2,274,531 Figure 3.2—Early Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Heads, Cirea 1943, With a Torch Body and an Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Sot 05 10-1605 1997AUS WHB-2 90 Mm 0784265 0010859 5 mm consumable electrode welding and ‘TIG (tungsten inert 428) welding, However, the AWS terminology for this pro- cessis gas tungsten atc welding (GTAW), because shielding 48 mixtures which are not inert can be used for certain applications, nce the early days of the invention, numerous im- provements have been made to the process and equip- tment, Welding power sources have been developed specifi- cally for the process. Some provide pulsed cc and variable GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 75 polasity ac welling power. Water-cooled and gas-cooled torches were developed. The tungsten electrode has been alloyed with small amounts of active elements to increase its emissivity; this has improved arc starting, ate stability, and electrode life, Shielding gas mixtures have been identi- fied for improved welding performance. Researchers are presently pursuing further improvements, in such areas a5 automatic controls, vision and penetration sensors, and. are length controls. TSE eee PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION PROCESS DESCRIPTION ‘THE GAS TUNGSTEN atc welding process is illustcated in Figure 3.1, The process uses a nonconsumable tungsten or tungsten alloy) electrode held in a torch, Shielding gas is fed through the torch to protect the electrode, molten ‘weld pool, and solidifying weld metal from contamination by the atmosphere. ‘The electric arc is produced by the passage of current through the conductive, ionized shield- ing gas, The arc is established between the tip of the elec- trode and the work, Heat generated by the are melts the base metal, Once the arcand weld poolare established, the torch is moved along the joint and the are progressively melts the faying surfaces. Filler wire, if used, is usually added to the leading edge of the weld pool to fill the joint. Four basic components are common to all GTAW sct- ups, as illusteated in Figures 3.1 and 3.3: (1) Torch, Q) Flectrode G) Welding power source (4) Shielding gas PROCESS ADVANTAGES ‘THE FOLLOWING ARE some advantages of che gas tungsten are process: (1) Ie produces superior quality welds, generally free of defects, (2) It is free of the spatter which occurs with other arc welding processes. (3) It can be used with or without filler metal as re- ‘quited for the specific application, (4) It allows excellent control of root pass weld penetration (6) Tecan produce inexpensive autogenous weldsat high speeds. (6) Ie can use relatively inexpensive power supplies, @) Itallows precise controt of the welding variables, Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 (8) Tr can be used to weld almost all metals, including dissimilar metal joints. (9) Iallows the heat source and filler metal additions to be controlled independently. PROCESS LIMITATIONS ‘THE FOLLOWING ARE some limitations of the gas tungsten are process: (1) Deposition rates are lower than the rates possible with consumable electrode arc welding processes, Q) There is a need for slightly more dexterity and welder coordination than with gas metal are welding or shielded metal arc welding for manual welding. (3) Iris less economical than the consumable electrode arc welding processes for thicker sections greater that 3/8 in. (10 mm). (4) ‘Thete is difficulty in shielding the weld zone prop- erly in drafty environments. TORCH ELECTRICAL TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE: ~ cas PASSAGES Power anc lsource| 7 \ WorKRece | \wsuuariwe INERT SHEATH SHIELOING GAS are Figure 3.3-Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Equipment ArrangementAWS WHB-2 90 mm 0784265 0010840 1 mm 76 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING Potential problems with the process include: (1) Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode is al lowed co contact the weld pool @) Contamination of the weld metal can occur if proper shielding ofthe filler metal by the gas stream is not maintained. (G) There is low tolerance for contaminants on filler or base metals, (4) Possible contamination or porosity is caused by coolant leakage from water-cooled torches, (6) Are blow or arc deflection, as with other processes. PROCESS VARIABLES ‘THE PRIMARY VARIABLES in GTAW are arc voltage (ate length), welding current, travel speed, and shielding gas. ‘The amount of energy produced by the arc is proportional to the current and voltage. The amount transferred per unit length of weld is inversely proportional to the travel speed. The arc in helium is more penetrating than that in argon, However, because all of these variables interact strongly, itisimpossible to treat them as traly independent variables when establishing welding procedures for fabsi- cating specific joints. Are Current [AS A GENERAL, statement, are current controls the weld penetration, the effect being directly proportional, if not somewhat exponential. Arc curzent also affects the volt- age, with the voltage ata fixed arc length increasing in pro- portion to the current. For this reason, to keep a fixed arc length, itis necessary to change the voltage setting, when the current is adjusted. ‘The process can be used with ether direct or alternating ccarrent, the choice depending largely on the metal to be welded, Diect current with the electrode negative offers the advantages of deep penetration and fast welding speeds, especially when helium is used as the shield. He- lium isthe gas of choice for mechanized welding. Alternat- ing current provides a cathodic cleaning (sputtering) which removes refractory oxides from the joint surfaces of alumi- nam and magnesium, allowing superior welds to be made. In this case, argon must be used for the shield because sputtering cannot be obtained with helium. Argon is the ‘gas of choice for manual welding whether used with dicect current or alternating current. A third power option also is available, that of using di- rect current with the electrode positive, This polarity is used only rarely because it causes electrode overheating ‘These effects of polarity are explained in more detail ins following discussion of Direct Current: Are Voltage HE VOLTAGE MEASURED between the tungsten electrode and the work is commonly referred to as the arc voltage. Are voltage is a strongly dependent variable, affected by the following: (1) Are current {Q) Shape of the tungsten electrode tip (G) Distance between the cungsten electrode and the work (4) Type of shiclding gas ‘The are voltage is changed by the effects of the ather variables, and is used in describing welding procedures only because its easy to measure. Since the other variables such as the shield gas, electrode, and current have been predeter- mined, are voltage becomes a way to control the arc length, critical variable that is difficult co monitor. Arc length ig important with this process because it affects the width of the weld pool; pool width is proportional to arc length. ‘Therefore, in most applications other than those involving sheet, the desiced arc length is as short as possible. ‘Of course, recognition needs to be given to the possibil- ity of short circuiting the electrode to the pool o° fillet wire if the are is too short. However, with mechanized ‘welding, using a helium shield, DCEN power, and a zela- tively high curren, itis possible to submerge the electrode tip below the plate surface to produce deeply penetrating but narrow welds at high speeds. This technique has been called buried arc. ‘When arc voltage is being used to control arc length in critical applications, care must be taken to observe the other variables which affect arc voltage. Among them are electrode and shielding gas contaminants, improperly fed filler wire, temperature changes in the electrode, and clec- trode erosion. Should any of these change enough to affect the are voltage during mechanized welding, the arc length ust be adjusted to restore the desired voltage. Travel Speed TRAVEL SPEED AFFECTS both the width and penetration of a gas tungsten arc weld. However, its effect on width is ‘more pronounced than that on penetration. Travel specd is important because of its effect om cost. In some applica- tions, travel speed is defined as an objective, with the other variables selected to achieve the desired weld configura tion at that speed. In other cases, travel might be a depen- dent variable, elected to obtain the weld quality and uni- formity needed under the best conditions possible with the other combination of variables. Regardless of the objectives, travel speed generally is fixed in mechanized ‘welding while other variables such as current or voltage are varied to maintain control of the weld. Wire Feed IN MANUAL WELDING, the way filler metal is added to the pool influences the mamber of passes required and the ap- pearance of the finished wel. Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997In machine and automatic welding, wire feed speed de- termines the amount of filler deposited per unit length of ‘weld, Decreasing wire feed speed will increase penetration and flatten the bead contour, Feeding the wire too slowly AUS WHB-2 90 MH O7842b5 OOLOSLL 3 mm GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 77 can lead to undercut, centerline cracking, and lack of joint fill. Increasing wire feed speed decreases weld penetration and produces a more convex weld bead. — EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT FoR GTAW includes torches, electrodes, and power supplies. Mechanized GTAW systems may incorpo- rate arc voltage controls, are oscillators, and wire feeders. WELDING TORCHES GTAW toxcites HOLD the tungsten electrode which con- duets welding current to the arc, and provide a means for conveying shielding gas to the arc zone. Torches are rated in accordance with the maximum welding current that can be used without overheating. Typical current ranges are listed in Table 3.1, Most torches are designed to accommodate a range of electrode sizes and different types and sizes of nozzles. ‘The majority of torches for manual applications have a hhead angle (angle between the electrode and handle) of 120°. Torches are also available with adjustable angle heads, 90° heads, o straight-line (pencil type) heads. Man- ual GTAW torches often have auxiliary switches and valves built into theic handles for controlling current and gas flow. Torches for machine or automatic GTAW are typi= lly mounted on a device which centers the torch over the joint, may move the torch along the joint, and may change or maintain the torch-to-work distance. Gas-Cooled Torches ‘THE HEAT GENERATED in the torch during welding is re- ‘moved either by gas cooling or water cooling. Gas-cooled torches (sometimes called air-cooled) provide cooling by the flow of the relatively cool shielding gas through the een Chee eae Macnun caren 700 200900 ‘800 {eontinuous duty), A Cooling mand Ges Water Wit Eecind metre 0020 3/92 0005/22 0080-14 accommodate cup diamaters U4-5/8 4-3/4 3/8 - 3/4 ‘accommodated, in, Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 torch, as shown in Figure 3.1. Gas cooled torches are lim- ited toa maximum welding current of about 200 amperes. Water-Cooled Torches WATER-COOLED TORCHES ARE cooled by the continuous flow of water through pessageways in the holder, As illus- ‘tated in Figure 3.4, cooling water enters the torch through the inlet hose, circulates through the torch, and exits through an outlet hose, The power cable from the power supply tothe torch is typically enclosed within the cooling water outlet hose. Water-cooled torches are designed for use at higher welding currents on a continuous duty eycle than similar sites of gas-cooled torches. Typical welding cursents of 300 to 500 amps can be used, although some torches have been built to handle welding currents up to 1000 amps, Most machine or automatic welding applications usc wa- ter-cooled torches. ‘Water-cooled torches are typically cooled by tap water ‘which flows through the torch and then down a drain, To conserve water, a closed system involving a reservoir, ump, and radiator or water chiller to disperse heat from. the system can be used. The capacity of these systems ranges from one to fifty gallons. Automotive antifreeze can be added to the coolant to prevent freezing and corrosion and provide lubrication for the water pump. Collets ELECTRODES OF VARIOUS diameters are secured in the elec- trode holder by appropriately sized collets or chucks. Col- lets are typically made of a copper alloy. The electrode is, sripped by the collet when the torch cap is tightened in place. Good contact between the electrode and the inside diameter ofthe collet is essential for proper current trans- fer and electrode cooling. SHIELDING GAS IS directed to the weld zone by gas nozzles ‘or cups which fit onto the head of the torch as illustrated in Figure 3.1. Also incorporated in the torch body are dif- fusers or carefully patterned jets which feed the shield gas to the nozzle, Their purpose isto assist in producing. lam inar low of the exiting gas shield, Gas nozrles are made ofAUS WHB-2 90 mm 78 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING various heat-resistant materials in different shapes, diame- ters, and lengths. These nozzles are cither threaded to the torch ot held by friction fit, Nozzle Materials. Nozzles are made of ceramic, ‘metal, metal jacketed ceramic, fused quartz, or other ma terials. Ceramic nozzles are the least expensive and most popular, but ate brittle and must be replaced often. Fused- ‘quartz nozzles are transparent and allow better vision of the arc and electrode, However, contamination from ‘metal vapors from the weld can cause them to become ‘opaque, and they are also brittle. Water-cooled metal noz- zles have longer life and are used mostly for machine and automatic welding applications where welding currents exceed 250 amps. Sizes and Shapes of Nozzles. ‘The gas nozzle or cup rust be large enough to provide shielding gas coverage of the weld pool area and surrounding hot base metal. The nozzle diameter must be appropriate for the volume of shield pas needed to provide protection and the stiffness needed to sustain coverage in drafts. A delicate balance exists between the nozzle diameter and the flow rate. Ifthe flow rate fora given diameters excessive, the effectiveness 784265 O0L08L2 5 mm of the shield is destroyed because of turbulence, High flow rates without turbulence require large diameters; these are essential conditions at high currents. Size selection de- pends on electrode size, type of weld joint, weld area to be effectively shielded, and access to the weld joint. Suggested gas cup sizes for various electcode diameters are listed in Table 3.2. Use of the smallest nozzle listed permits welding in more restricted areas, and offers a bet- ter view of the weld. However, use of too small a nozzle may cause shielding gas turbulence and jetting, as well as melting of the lip of the nozzle. Larger nozzles better shielding gas coverage, especially for weldi tive metals such as titanium. ‘Nozzles are available in a variety of lengths to accom- modate various joint geometries and the required clear- ance between the nozzle and the work. Longer nozzles generally prochice stiffer, less turbulent gas shields ‘The majority of gas nozzles are cylindrical in shape with cither straight or tapered ends. To minimize shielding gas turbulence, nozzles with internal streamlining are avail- able. Nozales are also available with elongated trailing sec- tions or flared ends which provide better shielding for welding metals such as titanium, which is highly suscepti- bility to contamination at elevated temperatures. TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE ‘SHIELDING-GAS OUTLET (LOW VELOCITY) COOLING-WATER INLET’ Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 ‘COLLET HOLDERGas Lenses. One device used for assuring a laminar flow of shielding gas isan attachment called a gas lens. Gas lenses contain a porous barrier diffuser and are designed to fit around the electrode or collet. Gas lenses produce a longer, undisturbed flow of shielding gas. They enable op- erators to weld with the nozzle one in. (25.4 mm) or more from the work, improving their ability o sec the weld pool and allowing them to each places with ited aces such ELECTRODES IN GTAW THe word tungsten refers to the pure element ‘ungsten and its various alloys used as electrodes. Tungsten electrodes are nonconsumable if the process is properly used, because they do not melt or transfer to the weld. In other welding processes, such as SMAW, GMAW, and SAW, the electrode is the filler metal, The function of a tungsten clectrode is to serve as one of the electrical termi- AUS WHB-2 40 mm O7842b5 0010863 7 ml GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 79 nals of the arc which supplies the heat required for weld- ing, Its melting point is 6170°F (3410°C). Approaching this high temperature, tungsten becomes thermionic; itis a ready source of electrons. It reaches this temperature by resistance heating and, were it not for the significant cool- 1g effect of electrons boiling from its tip, resistance heat- ing would cause the tip to met. In fact, the electrode tip is much cooler than that part of the electrode between the tip and the externally-cooled collet. Classification of Electrodes ‘TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES ARE classified on the basis of their chemical compositions, as specified in Table 3.3. Require- ments for tungsten electrodes are given inthe latest edition cof ANSI-AWS AS.12, Specification for Tungsten and Tieng- sten Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting. The color code identification system for the various clases of tungsten electrodes is shown in Table 33. nl Table 3.2 Recommended Tungsten Use Gas __Hectrode Diamotor Cup tb. Polarty® Wave ‘Wave in, ‘om in, CEN a Doro 025 v4 wo woe upto 15 0.020 050 4 5.20 515 1020 0.040 4100 3/8 15.80 10-60 20:30 wi6 18 3/8 70-150 10-20 50-100 30-80 9/32 2a 2 180-260 1630, 100-160 60-130 1/8 32 2 20-400 25-0 160-210 100-180, 5/32 40 12 400-500 4055, 200-275 160-240 3/6 48 5/8 500-750 55-80 250-360 130-300 v4 64 3/4 750-1100 80-125 225-460 325-460 ——&— —@—OO Eee —™ a. All values ote based onthe use of argon asthe shsting gas. 6, Use EV/TI-2 dectrades, Use EWP electrodes el Table 3.3 Color Code and Alloying Elements for Various Tungsten Electrode Alloys Tee Toten Rroctrode Atoys Nominal Weight of AWS Classification Color® Alloying Element Alloying Ox Alloying Oxide Percent EWP Greon — = = EWce2 Orange Ceram ced 2 EWla1 Black Lentharum L220 1 EwTh Yellow ‘Thoviam The 1 EWTh2 Red Thorium Tho 2 EWZ- Brown Zirconium 2102 % EWG Bray Not Spostid® = = ‘Colo may be appli inthe form of band, dots, ote, at any point onthe surface ofthe electrode 1, Manufacture must identity the typo and nominal content of th rare earth oxi ation. Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997AUS WH8-2 90 mm 0784265 001084 9 mm 80 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING Electrodes are produced with either a clean finish or aground finish, Electrodes with a clean finish have been chemically cleaned to remove surface impurities after the forming operation. Those with a ground finish have been centerless ground to remove surface imperfections. Electrode Sizes and Current Capacities ‘TUNGSTEN AND THORIATED tungsten electrode sizes and current ranges arc listed in Table 3.2, along with shield-gas cup diameters recommended for use with different types of welding power. It provides a useful guide for selecting the correct electrode for specific applications involving different current levels and power supplies. Current levels in excess of those recommended for @ given electrode size and tip configuration will cause the tungsten to erode or melt. Tungsten particles may fll into the weld pool and become defects in the weld joint, Cur rent too low fora specific electrode diameter can cause are instability, Direct current with the electrode positive requires a rmuch larger diameter to support a given level of cutrent because the tip is not cooled by the evaporation of elec- trons but heated by their impact. In general, a given elec- trode diameter on DCEP would be expected to handle only 10 percent of the current possible with the electrode negative. With alternating current, the tip is cooled during the electrode negative cycle and heated when positive ‘Therefore, the current carrying capacity of an electrode on ac is between that of DCEN and DCEP. In general, i is about 50 percent less than that of DCEN. EWP Electrode Classification. Pure tungsten elec: trodes (EWP) contain a minimum of 99.5 percent tung- sten, with no intentional alloying elements. The current- carrying capacity of pure tungsten electrodes is lower than that of the alloyed electrodes. Pure tungsten electrodes are used mainly with ac for welding aluminum and magnesium alloys. The tip of the EWP electrode maintains a clean, balled end, which provides good arc stability. They may also be used with de, but they do not provide the ar init tion and are stability characteristics of thoriated, ceriated, or lanthanated clectrodes. EWTh Electrode Classifications. The thermionic emission of tungsten can be improved by alloying it with metal oxides that have very low work functions. Asa result, the electrodes are able to handle higher welding currents ‘without filing, Thorium oxide is one such additive. To pre- vent identification problems with these and other types of tungsten electcodes, they are color coded as shown in Table 3.3, Two types of thoriated tungsten electrodes are avail- able. The EWTh-1 and EWTh-2 electrodes contain 1 per- cent and 2 percent thorium oxide (ThOz) called thoria, re spectively, evenly dispersed through their entie lengths. “Thoriated tungsten electrodes are superior to pure tung- sten electrodes in several respects. The thoria provides about 20 pezcent higher current-carrying capacity, gencr- ally longer life, and greater resistance to contamination of the weld, With these electrodes, are starting is easier, and the arc is more stable than with pure tungsten oF 7 coniated tungsten electrodes. The EWTh-l and EWTh-2 electrodes were designed for DCEN applications. They maintain a sharpened tip config- uration during welding, which is desirable for welding stecl, They are not often used with ac because itis difficult to maintain the balled end, which is necessary with ac ‘welding, without splitting the electrode. Thorium is a very low-level radioactive material. The level of radiation has not been found to represent a health hazaed. However, if welding is to be performed in con- fined spaces for prolonged periods of time, or if electrode grinding dust might be ingested, special precautions rela- tive to ventilation should be considered. The user should consult the appropriate safety personnel. ‘A discontinued classification of tungsten electrodes is the EWTh-3 class. This tungsten electrode hada longitudi- nal or axial segment which contained 1.0 percent to 2.0 pezcent thoria. The average thoria content of the electrode ‘was 0.35 percent to 0.55 percent. Advances in powder metallurgy and other processing developments have ‘caused this electrode classification to be discontinued, and it is no longer commercially available, EWCe Electrode Classification. Ceriated tungsten clectrodes were first introduced into the United States market in the early 1980's. These electrodes were devel- coped as possible replacements for thoriated electrodes be- cause cerium, unlike thorium, is nota radioactive element. ‘The EWCe-2 electrodes are tungsten electrodes contain- ing 2 percent cerium oxide (CeOn), referred to as ceria, ‘Compazed with pure tungsten, the ceriated electrodes ex. hibit reduced rate of vaporization or burn-off. These ad- vantages of ceria improve with increased ceria content, EWCo2 electrodes will operate successfully with ac or de, EWLa Electrode Classification. ‘The EWLa-1 elec- trodes were developed around the same time as the c iated electrodes and for the same reason, that lanthanum is not radioactive. These electrodes contain 1 percent lantha- num oxide (La203), referred to as lanthana, The advan- tages and operating characteristics of these electrodes are very similar co the ceriated tungsten electrodes, EW2Zr Electrode Classification. Zirconiated tung- sten electrodes (EWZ:) contain a small amount of zirco- nium oxide (Z:Oa),as listed in Table 3.3. Zirconiated tun sten electrodes have welding characteristics that generally fall between those of pure and thoriated tungsten. They are the electrode of choice for ac welding because they combine the desirable arc stability characteristics and balled end typical of pure tungsten with the current capac- ity and starting characteristics of thoriated tungsten. They have higher resistance to contamination than pure tung- Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997sten, and are preferred for radiographic-quality welding applications where tungsten contamination of the weld must be minimized. EWG Electrode Classification. The EWG electrode classification was assigned for alloys not covered by the above classes. These electrodes contain an unspecified ad- dition of an unspecified oxide or combination of oxides (tare earth or others). The purpose of the addition is to affect the nature or characteristics of the arc, as defined by the manufacturer. The manufacturer must identify the spe- cific addition or additions and the nominal quantity or quantities added. Several EWG electrodes ae cither commercially availe able or are being developed. These include additions of ytttlumn oxide or magnesium oxide. This classification also includes ceriated and lanthanated electrodes which con- tain these oxides in amounts other than as listed above, oF in combination with other oxides. Electrode Tip Configurations ‘THE SHAPE OF the tungsten electrode tip is an important process variable in GTAW. Tungsten electrodes may be used with a vatiety of tip preparations, With ac welding, pure or zitconiated tungsten electrodes forma hemispheri- cal balled end. For de welding, thoriated, ceriated, or Janthanated tungsten electrodes are usually used. For the latter, the end is typically ground to a specific included angle, often with a trancated end. As shown in Figure 3.5, various electeode tip geometries affect the weld bead shape and size, In general, as the included angle increases, the ‘weld penetration increases and the width of the weld bead decreases, Although small diameter electrodes may be used with a square end preparation for DCEN welding, conical tps provide improved welding psformance. Regardless of the electrode tip geometry selected, i is portant that a consistent electrode geometry be used ‘once a welding procedute is established. Changes in clec- trode geometry can significantly influence the weld bead shape and size; therefore, electrode tip configuration is a ‘welding variable that should be studied during the welding procedure development. ‘Tungsten tips re generally prepared by balling, grinding, ‘or chemical sharpening, A tapered electrode tip is usually prepared on all but the smallest electrodes, even when the end later will be balled for ac welding. Balling. With ac welding (usually performed with puce or zitconiated tungsten electrodes), a hemispherical tip is most desirable, Before use in welding, the electrode tip can be balled by striking an arc on a water-cooled copper block or other suitable material using ac or DCE. Are cur rent is increased until the end of the electrode turns white hhot and the tungsten begins to mele, causing a small ball to form at the end of the electrode, The current is down- Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 81 sloped and extinguished, leaving a hemispherical ball on the end of the tungsten electrode. ‘he size of the hemi- sphere should not exceed 1-1/2 times the electrode diam- eter, otherwise it may fall off while it is molten, Grinding. To produce optimum are stability, grinding cof tungsten electrodes should he done with the axis of the electrode perpendicular to the axis of the grinding wheel. The grinding wheel should be reserved for grinding only tungsten to eliminate possible contamination of the tang- sten tip with forcign matter during the grinding operation, Exhaust hoods should be used when grinding thoriated clectrodes to remove the grinding dust from the work area. Thoriated, ceriated, and lanthanated tungsten elec- trodes do not balls readily as pure or irconiated tungsten electrodes. They maintain a ground tip shape much better. If used on ac these electrodes often split. Chemical Sharpening. Chemical sharpening consists cof submerging the red-hot end of a tungsten electrode into a container of sodium nitrate. The chemical reaction be- tween the hot rungsten and the sodium nitrate will cause the tungsten to erode at a uniform rate all around the cit- cumference and end of the electrode. Repeated heating and dipping of the tungsten into the sodium nitrate will form a tapered tip, Electrode Contamination CONTAMINATION OF THE tungsten electrode is most likely to occur when a welder accidentally dips the tungsten into the molten weld pool or touches the tungsten with the filler ‘metal. The tungsten electrode may also become oxidized by an improper shielding gas or insufficient gas flow, during welding or after the are has been extinguished, Other sources of contamination include: metal vapors from the welding arc, weld pool eruptions or spatter caused by gas entrapment, and evaporated surface impucities. TThe contaminated end ofthe tungsten electrode will ad- versely affect the arc characteristics and may eause tung sten inclusions in the weld metal, If this occurs, the weld- ing operation should be stopped and the contaminated portion of the electrode removed, Contaminated tungsten electrodes must be properly dressed by breaking off the contaminated section and grinding to shape according to the manufacturer's sug. gested procedure, WIRE FEEDERS. ‘WIRE FEEDERS ARE used to add filler metal during auto- matic and machine welding. Either room temperature (cola) wire or preheated (hot) wire can be fed into the mol- ten weld pool. Cold wire is fed into the leading edge and hot wire is fed into the trailing edge of the molten pool82 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING ‘AUS UHB-2 90 MH O7S4265 OOLOSLb 2 mm sy To sea LC) 150 Amp, 2 Sec, 100% Ar Doe) ro Tg oS ° ro = ¥ + » ee ee ee oe | ee AE etal mm IML Finance ott i. date. Ace ra) Figure 3.5~Are Shape and Fusion Zone Profile as a Function of Electrode Tip Geometry in a Pure Cold Wire THE SYSTEM FoR feeding of cold wire has three components: (1) Wire drive mechanism 2) Speed control (3) Wire guide attachment to introduce the wire into the molten weld pool The drive consists of a motor and gear train to power a set of drive rolls which push the wire. The control is essen tially a constant-speed governor which can be either a me- chanical oran electronic device. The wires fed to the wire guide through a flexible conduit. Argon Shield (150 A, 2.0 s Spot-On-Plate) An adjustable wire guide is attached to the electrode holder. It maintains the position at which the wire enters the weld and the angle of approach relative to the elec trode, work surface, and the joint. In heavy-duty applica- ‘ions, the wire guide is water cooled. Wires ranging from 0.015 to 3/32 in. (0.4 to 2.4 mm) in diameter arc used, Special wire feeders are available to provide continuous, pulsed, or intermittent wire feed. Hot Wire ‘THE PROCESS FOR hot wire addition is similar to that for cold wire, except that the wire is resistance heated to a temperatice close ta its melting point just before it con- tacts the molten weld pool. When using a preheated (hot) Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Sot 05 10-1605 1997‘wire in machine and automatic gas tungsten arc welding in the flat position, the wire is fed mechanically to the weld pool through a holder from which inert gas flows to pro tect the hot wire from oxidation, This system is illustrated in Figure 3.6. Normally, a mixture of 75 percent helium-25 percent argon is used to shield the tungsten electrode and the molten weld pool. Deposition rate is greater with hot wire than with cold wite, as shown in Figure 3.7. This rate is comparable to that in gas metal arc welding, The current flow is initiated when the wire contacts the weld surface. The wite is fed into the molten pool directly behind the are at a 40 to 60 degree angle with respect to the tungsten electrode. ‘The wires resistance heated by alternating cucrent from «4 constant-voltage power source, Alternating current is used for heating the wire to avoid arc blow. When the heating current does not exceed 60 percent of the aze cur- rent, the ae oscillates 30 degrees in the longitudinal diec- tion, The oscillation increases to 120 degrees when the heating and arc currents are equal. The amplitude of are oscillation can be controlled by limiting the wire diameter to 0.045 in, (1.2 mm) and reducing the heating current be- low 60 percent of the arc current. Preheated filler wire has been used successfully for join ing carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, and alloys of copper and nickel. Preheating is not recommended for aluminum and copper because the low resistance of these filler wites requires high heating curzent, which results in excessive arc deflection and uneven melting. POWER SUPPLIES CONSTANT-CURRENT TYPE power sources are used for GTAW. Power required for both ac and de GTAW can be supplied by transtormes-rectifier power supplies or from rotating ac or de generators. Advances in semiconductor electronics have made transformer-rectfier power sources HIGH SPEED FILLER, AUX, SHIELDING Sash Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 AUS WHB-2 40 MM O7842L5 OOL08L7 4 mm GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 83 popular for both shop and field GIAW, but rotating-type ower sources continue to be widely used in the field. GTAW power sources typically have cither drooping ot nearly true constant-current static output characteristics, such as those shown in Fignre 3.8. The static output char- acteristic isa function of the type of welding current con- trol used in the power source design. 9 oa HOT WIRE WITH tet osciLLarion , 8 16 NY HOT WIRE COLD WIRE DEPOSITION RATE, Ib/h kg/n one oe ieee 6 8 10 ‘ARC ENERGY, kW Figure 3.7—Deposition Rates for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding With Cold and Hot Steel Fill CONSTANT CURRENT ourpur DROOPING ourpur /ARC LENGTH 1 JARC LENGTH 2 VOLTAGE, V—> ‘CURRENT, A —> .8- Static Volt-Ampare Charactorlation, Yor Drooping and Constant Current Power ‘SuppliesAUS WHB-2 90 Mm 84 GAS TUNGSTEN ARG WELDING A drooping volt-ampere characteristic is typical of mag- netically controlled power source designs including the ‘moving coil, moving shunt, moving core reactor, saturable reactor, or magnetic amplifier designs and also rotating ower source designs, A truly constant-current output is available from electronically controlled power sources. The drooping characteristic is advantageous for manual welding ‘where a remote foot pedal current control is not available at the site of welding, With a drooping characteristic, the welder may vary the current level slightly by changing the arc length, The degree of current control possible by chang- ing are length can be inferred from Figure 3.8. In most of the magnetically controlled power sources, the current-level control is accomplished in the ac portion of the power source, As a result, these power sources are not typically used to provide pulsed current because of their slow dynamic response, The addition of a rectifier bridge allows these power sources to provide both ac and de welding current. Those power sources which use. a moving component for current control cannot readily be remotely controlled with a foot pedal, while the others typically can, “Most magnetically controlled power sources ate coi ‘ered to be open-loop controlled, in that the actual welding current for a given current setting depends on and may vary with the welding conditions. Single-phase power sources can provide both ac and de current, while three- phase sources normally provide only dc. The de current of a three-phase power source is typically smoother than that of a single-phase source because of reduced ripple-current amplitude. ‘The advantages of magnetically controlled power sources are that they are simple to operate, require litle maintenance in adverse industrial environments, and are relatively inexpensive. The disadvantages are that they are large in size and weight and have a lower efficiency com- pated to electronically controlled power sources. Also, as mentioned, most magnetic-control techniques are open- loop which limits repeatability, accuracy, and response. ‘An essentially constant-current volt-ampere characteristic can be provided by electronically controlled power sources, such as the series linear regulator, silicon con- trolled rectifier, secondary switcher, and inverter designs. ‘The essentially constant current characteristic is typi- cally advantageous for machine and automatic welding, to provide sufficient accuracy and repeatability in current level from weld to weld. Most truly constant current power sources ae closed-loop controlled, in which the ac- tual current is measured and compared to the desired cur- rent setting. Adjustments are made electronically within the power source to maintain the desited current as weld- ing conditions change. ‘Most electronically controlled power sources offer rapid dynamic response. As a result, these power sources can be used to provide pulsed welding current. Series linear regulator and switched secondary designs provide only de ‘welding current from single or three-phase input power. 0784265 OO}08G8 & mm Silicon controlled rectifier designs can provide ac and de current from single-phase power and de current from three-phase power. Depending on the design, inverters can provide ac and de output from single or three phase input power. Inverter power sources are the most versatile, with ‘many offering multi-process capabilities and variable weld- ing current waveform output. Inverters are also lighter and ‘more compact than other power source designs of equiva- Jent current rating, The advantages of electronically controlled power sources are that they offer rapid dynamic response, pro- vide variable current waveform output, have excellent re- peatability, and offer remore control. The disadvantages are that they are more complex to operate and maintain and are relatively expensive, Itis important to select a GTAW power source based on the type of welding current required fora particular appli- cation. The types of welding current include ac sine-wave, acsquare-wave, de, and pulsed de. The next section of this chapter has more information on the types and effects of welding current, Many power sources are available with a variety of additional controls and functions such as watet and shielding gas control, wire feeder and travel mecha- nism sequencing, current up-slope and down-slope, and multiple-current sequences. Refer to Chapter 1, “Arc ‘Welding Power Sources,” for more detailed information. Direct Current USING DIRECT CURRENT, the tungsten electrode may be connected to either the negative or the positive terminal of the power supply. In almost all cases, electrode negative (cathode) is chosen, With that polarity, electrons flow from the electrode to the work and positive ions are trans- ferred from the work to the electrode, as shown for DCN, (straight polarity) in Figure 3.9. When the electrodes po: tive lanode, the directions of electron and positive ion flow are reversed, as shown for DCEP (reverse polaity) in Figure 3.9. ‘With DCEN and a thermionic electrode such as tung- sten, approximately 70 percent of the heat is generated at the anode and 30 percent at the cathode. Since DCEN procluces the greatest amount of heat at the wockpiece, for a given welding current, DCEN will provide deeper weld penetration than DCEP (see Figure 3.9). DCEN isthe most common configuration used in GTAW, and is used with argon, helium, of a mixture of the nwo to weld most mmerals. ‘When the tungsten electrode is connected to the posi- tive terminal (DCEP), a cathodic cleaning action is created at the surface of the workpiece. This action occurs with ‘most metals but is most important when welding alumi- ‘num and magnesium because it moves the refractory ox- ide surface that inhibits wetting of the weldment by the weld metal Unlike DCEN, in which the electrode tip is cooled by the evaporation of electrons, when the electrode is used as Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997AUS UHB-2 90 mm 0784265 001089 6 om GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 85 CURRENT TYPE =] oS Ae Tentanos ELECTRODE POLAR nega emia g 3, TN & % ELECTRON AND \ af 4 \%, Benen EDM S$ N%, SW PENETRATION - CanAcTeneiSs OnE cLEAUNG "eons Ba none a o pares HEAT BALANCE IN THE ARC (APPROX. 70% AT WORK END 30% AT ELECTRODE END ‘30% AT WORK END 70% AT ELECTRODE END 60% AT WORK END 150% AT ELECTRODE END PENETRATION DEEP; NARROW ‘SHALLOW: WIDE MEDIUM ELECTRODE, EXCELLENT. POOR, coop CAPACITY ©. 1/8 in, (8.2 mm) 409A _ 0.9, 1/4 in, (6.4. mm) 120 A ©, 178 in, (8.2 mm) 225 A the positive pole, its tip is heated by the bombardment of electrons as well as by its resistance to their passage through the electrode. Therefore, to reduce resistance heating and increase thermal conduction into the elec- trode collet, a larger diameter electrode is required for a given welding current when reverse polarity is used. The ‘current carrying capacity of an electrode connected to the positive terminal is approximately one-tenth that of an electrode connected to the negative terminal. DCEP is generally limited to welding sheet metal Pulsed De Welding. Pulsed de involves the repetitive variation in are current froma background (low) vale toa peak (high) value. Pulsed de power sources typically allow adjustments of the pulse current time, background current time, peak current level, and background current level, to provide a current output wave form suited to a particular application, Figute 3.10 shows a typical pulsed current ttaveform, General, the backgrourel and pulse duration times are adjustable so that the curzent can change levels anywhere from once every two seconds to 20 pulses per second, Pulsed dcis usually applied with the electrode neg- ative (DCEN). Tn pulsed de welding, the pulse current level is typically set at 2 to 10 times the background current level. This Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 combines the driving, forceful arc characteristics of high ‘current with the lowsheat input of low current. The pulse ‘current achieves good fusion and penetration, while the background current maintains the are and allows the weld area to cool, PULSE TIME CYCLE TIME PEAK PULSE CURRENT BACKGROUND CURRENT CURRENT, A—>86 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING There are several advantages of pulsed current. For 2 given average current level, greater penetration can be ob: tained than with steady current, which is useful on metals sensitive to heat input and minimizes distortion, Because there is insufficient time for significant heat flow during the short duration of a pulse, metals of dissimilar thick- nesses usually respond equally, and equal penetration can be achieved, For a similar reason, very thin metals can be joined with pulsed de. In addition, one set of welding vari- ables can be used on a joint in all positions, such as a cie- ccumnferential weld in a horizontal pipe. Puised de is also useful for bridging gaps in open root joints. Although mostly used for machine and automatic GTAW, pulsing offers advantages for manual welding, In- ‘experienced welders find that they can improve their profi- ciency by counting the pulses (from 1/2 to 2 pulses per second) and using them to time the movement ofthe torch and the cold wire. Experienced welders ate able to weld thinner materials, dissimilar alloys, and thicknesses with less difficulty. High-Froquoncy Pulsed Wolding. High-frequency switched de involves the application of direct current which is switched from a low level to a high-current level at a rapid, fixed frequency of approximately 20 kHz, as shown in Figure 3.11. ‘The peak current “on” time is varied to change the aver- age current level. The effect of high-frequency switching is to produce a “sti” welding arc. Arc pressure is a meastire of arc stiffness. As shown in Figure 3,12, as the switching frequency nears 10 kHe, arc pressure inereases t0 nearly four times that of a steady de arc, Asarc pressure increases, lateral displacement of the arc, such as that produced by magnetic fields (are blow) and shielding gas movement (wind), is reduced. High-frequency switched de is useful in precision ma- chine and automatic applications where an arc with excep- PEAK PULSE ‘CURRENT 3 BACKGROUND ICURRENT CURRENT, A> TIME SECONDS—= Figure 3.11-High-Froquency Switched DC Pulsed Welding Current Wave Form AUS WHS-2 90 MM O784265 0010870 4 mm AVERAGE CURRENT: 50 A PEAK CURRENT: 150 A. BASE CURRENT: 5 A im “ARC LENGTH: 0.120 in. (3.0 mm). ELECTRODE: 2% Th.W, DIA. 0.093 in. (2.4 mm) POINT ANGLE 60° SHIELD GAS: Ar 15 L/min HOLE DIA. ON COPPER PLATE: 1.0 mm. CONV, D.C. 1 8 10 FREQUENCY (kH2) [ARC PRESSURE (kN/m?) ° jure 3.12-Relation Between Arc Pressure and Pulse Frequency tional directional properties and stability is required. Itis also used where a stable arc is needed at very low-average currents, The disadvantage of high-frequency switched de is that the welding power sources are costly. Also, if the switching frequency isin the audible range, the arc sound ‘ean be very annoying. Alternating Current ALTERNATING CURRENT UNDERGOES periodic reversal in ‘welding current polarity from electrode positive to elec- trode negative. Thus, ac can combine the work cleaning action of electrode positive (reverse polarity) with the deep penetration characteristic of electrode negative (steaight polarity). AC welding is compared with DCEN and DCEP welding in Figure 3.9. Conventional ac welding power sources produce a si- nnusoidal open circuit voltage output which is out-of-phase with the current by about 90°. The frequency of voltage reversal is typically fixed at the standard 60 He frequency of the primary power. The actual are voltage is in phase with che welding current, The voltage measured is the sum of voltage drops in the electrode and the plasma and at the anode and cathodes all of which are the result of current flow. When the current decays to zeto, different effects will cent, depending on the polarity. When the thermionic tungsten electrode becomes negative, it supplies electrons immediately to reignite the arc. Hlowever, when the weld pool becomes negative, it cannot supply electrons until the voltage is raised sufficiently to initiate cold-cathode emis- sion, Without this voltage, the arc becomes unstable. This is shown in Figure 3.13(A). Some means of stabilizing the arc during voltage reversal is required with conventional sinusoidal welding, power Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997AUS WHB-2 50 mm sources. This has been done by using high open circuit ower supplies; by discharging capacitors at the appropri- ate time in the cycles by using high-voltage high-frequency sparks in parallel with the arc; and by using power supplics with a square wave output, The results of such stabiliza- tion are shown in Figure 3.13(B). To improve arc stability, the open circuit voltage of the transformer can be increased. An open circuit voltage of about 100 V (rms) is needed with helium shielding. The necessary voltage can also be obtained by adding, in series with the transformer, a high-frequency voltage supply. The high-frequency voltage is generally on the order of several thousand volts, and its frequency can be as high as several megahertz, The current is very low. The high-frequency voltage may be applied continuously or periodically during welding, In the latter case, a burst of high-frequency volt- age is set to occur during the time when the welding cur- rent passes through zero. Square wave ac welding power sources can change the direction of the welding current in a short period of time. ‘The presence of high voltage, coupled with high electrode and base metal temperature at current reversals, allows the ate to be reignited without the need for an are stabilizer. Also, the lower “peak’” current of the square wave form tends to increase the usable current range ofthe electrode. Since itis easier to provide the electrons needed to sus- tain an arc when the electrode is negative, the voltage re- quired also is less. The result is a higher welding cusrent during the DCEN interval than during DCEP. In effect, the power supply produces hath direct current and alternating current, Such rectification can cause damage to the power supply due to overheating or, with some machines, a decay the output. Such rectification is eliminated by wave bal- ancing as shown in Figure 3.13(C). Barly balanced-current power supplies involved either series-connected capacitors ora de voltage source (such as a battery) in the welding circuit. Modern power supply circuits use electronic wave balancing, Balanced current flow is not essential for most manual welding operations, It is, however, desirable for high-speed machine or auto- inatic welding. The advantages of balanced current flow are the following: (1) Better oxide removal (2) Smoother, better welding (3) No requirement for reduction in output rating of given size of conventional welding transformer (the unbal- anced core magnetization that is produced by the de com- ponent of an unbalanced current flow is minimized) The following are disadvantages of balanced current flow: (1) Larger tungsten electrodes are needed. (2) Higher open cireuit voltages generally associated with some wave balancing means may constitute a safety hazard. Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 0784265 0010871 6 mm GAS TUNGSTEN ARG WELDING 87 (3) Balanced wave welding power sources are more costly. Some square wave ac power sources adjust the current level duting the electrode positive and electrode negative cycles at our standard 60 Fiz frequency. More expensive power sources adjust the time of cach polarity haf cycle as well as the current level during that half cycle. Such va able wave forms will adjust the welding cureent to suit a particular application, The characteristics of variable square wave alternating current are shown in Figure 3.14. ARC VOLTAGE CONTROL [ARG VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS (AVC) are used in machine and automatic GTAW to maintain arc length. In this casey thearc itself isa sensor, since it converts a measurement of length (are gap) into an clectrical signal (are voltage). ‘The AVC compares the measured and desired are volt- ages to determine which direction and at what speed the welding electrode should be moved. This determination, expressed as a voltage error signal, is amplified to drive motors in 2 slide that supports the torch, The changing voltage that results from the motion of the welding elec- trode is detected and the cycle repeats to maintain the de- sired arc voltage. | DC VOLTAGE BUT NO tttttt rosinewaracieerc on WolInge ay jhe CURRENT a) VOLTAGE CURRENT (8) VOLTAGE oAAAAA, [s4hARA em — Figure 3.13—Voltage and Current Wave Forms for AC Welding: (A) Partial and Complete. Rectification; (B) With Arc Stabilization; (C) ‘With Current Balancing88 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING ELECTRODE POSITIVE : pie | 5 = i ro 8 | ecrhove Figure 3. haracteristics of Variable Square ate ARC OSCILLATION ‘THE WIDTH OF gas tungsten are welds can be increased by mechanical oscillation, Mechanical arc oscillation can be achieved by mounting a GTAW torch on a cross slide that provides movement of the torch transverse to the line of travel. Such equipment provides adjustable cross-feed speed, amplitude of oscillation, and dwell on each side of the oscillation cycle. Better fusion of joint side-walls and a reduction of the disruptive effects of arc blow can be obtained by magnetic oscillation. Such oscillators deflect the atc longitudinally orlaterally over the weld pool without moving the welding electrode. These oscillators consist of electromagnets, lo- cated close to the ae, that are powered by a variable-polar- ity, variable-amplitude power supply. Control features in- clade adjustable oscillation frequency and amplitude, and separately adjustable dwell times. ‘SHIELDING GASES SHIELDING GAS directed by the torch to the arc and weld pool to protect the electrode and the molten weld metal from atmospheric contamination. Backup purge gas can also be used to protect the underside of the weld and its adjacent base metal surfaces from oxidation during weld- ing. Uniformity of root bead contour, freedom from un- dercutting, and the desired amount of root bead reinforce- ment are more likely to beachieved when using gas backup under controlled conditions. In some materials, gas backup reduces root cracking and porosity in the weld. AWS WHB-2 90 MH O7842b5 OOL0872 6 mm Types of Shielding Gases ARGON AND HELIUM or mixtures of the two are the most common types of inert gas used for shielding. Angon-hy- drogen mixtures are used for special applications. Depending on the volume of usage, these gases may be supplied in cylinders or asa liquid in insulated tanks, The liquid is vaporized and piped to points within the plant, thus eliminating cylinder handling. Argon. Argon (Ar) isan inest monatomic gas with a mo- lecular weight of 40. Its obtained from the atmosphere by the separation of liquified air. ‘Welding grade argon is refined to a minimum putity of 99.95 percent, This is acceptable for GTAW of most metals ‘except the reactive and refractory metals, for which a mis ‘mum purity of 99.997 percent is required. Often, such m als are fabricated in chambers from which all traces of air have been purged prior to initiating the welding operation. ‘Argon is used more extensively than helium because of the following advantages: (1) Smoother, quieter are action (Q) Reduced penetration G) Cleaning action when welding materials such 2s alu- minum and magnesium (4) Lower cost and greater availability (5) Lower flow rates for good shielding, (6) Better cross-daft resistance (7) Basier ac starting ‘The reduced penetration of an argon shielded arc is par- ticularly helpful when manual welding of thin material, be- cause the tendency for excessive melt-sheough is lessened. This same characteristic is advantageous in vertical or ‘overhead welding since the tendency for the base metal to sag or run is decreased. Helium, Helium (He) isan inert, very light monatomic 2s, havingan atomic weight of four. Ie is obtained by sepa- tation from natural gas. Welding grade helium is refined to a purity of at least 99.99 percent. For given values of welding current and arc length, he- lium transfers more heat into the work than argon. ‘The greater heating power of the helium arc can be advanta- geous for joining metals of high thermal conductivity and for high-speed mechanized applications. Also, helium is used more often than argon for welding heavy plate. Mix- tures of argon and helium are useful when some balance between the characteristics of both is desiced, Characteristics Of Argon And Helium. The chief factor influencing shielding effectiveness is the gas density. ‘Argon is approximately one and one-third times as heavy asairand ten times heavier than helium. Argon, after leay- ing the torch nozzle, forms a blanket over the weld area, Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997AVS WHB-2 90 Mm 0784265 0020873 T mm Helium, because itis lighter, tends to rise around the noz- zle, Experimental work has consistently shown that to produce equivalent shielding effectiveness, the flow of he- Tium must be two to three times that of argon. The same ‘general relationship is true for mixtures of argon and he- Tium, particularly those high in helium content. ‘The important characteristics ofthese gasesare the volt- ‘age-curtent relationships of the tungsten arc in argon and in helium that ate ilustrated in Figure 3.15. At all current levels, for equivalent arc lengths, the arc voltage obtained with helium is appreciably higher than that with argon, Since heat in the arc is roughly measured by the product of current and voltage (are power), helium offers more avail- able heat than argon. The higher available heat favors its selection when welding thick materials and metals hav- ing high thermal conductivity or relatively high melting temperatures, However, it should be noted that at lower currents, the volt-ampere curves pass through a minimum voltage, at current levels approximately 90 amperes (A) apart, after which the voltage increases as the current decreases, For helium, tisincrease in voltage occursin the range of 50 to 150 A where much of the welding of thin materials is done. Since the voltage increase for argon occurs below 50 A, the use of agon in the $0 to 150 A range provides the operator with more latitude in arc length to control the welding operation, It is apparent that to obtain equal are power, apprecia- bly higher current must be used with argon than with he- lium, Since undercutting with either gas will occuratabout equal currents, helium will produce satisfactory welds at much higher speeds, The other influential characteristic is that of arc stabil- ity, Both geses provide excellent stability with direct cur- rent power. With alternating current power, which is used extensively for welding aluminum and magnesium, argon yields much better are stability and the highly desirable Gleaning ation, which makes agon superior to heim in this respect. Argon-Hydrogen Mixtures. Argon-hydrogen mix: tures are employed in special cases, such as mechanized welding of light gage stainless steel tubing, where the hy- drogen does not cause adverse merallurpcal effects such as porosity and hydrogen-induced cracking. Increased weld- ing speeds can be achieved in almost dizect proportion to the amount of hydrogen added to argon because of the increased arc voltage. However, the amount of hydrogen that can be added varies with the metal thickness and type of joint for each particular application. Excessive hydro- igen will cause porosity. Hydrogen concentrations up to 35 percent have been used on all thicknesses of stainless steel ‘where a root opening of approximately 0.010 to 0.020 in, (0.25 t00.5 mm) is used, Argon-hydrogen mixtures are lim ited to use on stainless stecl, nickel-copper, and nickel- base alloys. Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 89 ‘ALUMINUM — 0.16 in. (4 mm) 2 20 HELIUM can ARC VOLTAGE, V 3 ‘060 700 160 200 250 300 350 400 ‘ARC CURRENT, A, Figure 3.15-Voltage-Current Relationship With Argon and Helium Shielding ‘The most commonly used argon-hydrogen mixture con- tains 15 percent hydrogen. This mixture is used for mecha- nized welding of tight bute joints in stainless steel up to 0,062 in. (1.6 mm) thick at speeds comparable to helium (60 percent faster than argon). It is also used for welding stainless stel beer barrels, and tube to tubesheetjointsina variety of stainless steels and nickel alloys. For manual welding, a hydrogen content of five percent is sometimes preferred to obtain cleaner welds. Selection of Shielding Gas. No set rule governs the choice of shielding gas for any particular application. Either argon, helium, or x mixture of argon and heliam may be used successfully for most applications, with the possible exception of manual welding on extremely thin material, for which argon is essential. Argon generally provides an’aze ‘operates more smoothly and quietly, is handled more easily, and is less penetrating than an arc shielded by helium. In addition, the lower unit cost and the lower flow rate re- uirements of argon mae argon preferable from an eco- nomic point of view. Argon is preferred for most appli tions, except where helium's higher heat penetration is required for welding thick sections of metals with high heat conductivity, such as aluminum and copper. A guide to the selection of gases is provided in Table 3.490 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING “AUS UHB-2 90 MM 0784265 0010874 1 mm Table 3.4 Recommended Types of Current, Tungsten Elgctraces and Shielding Gases for Welding Different letals ‘Type of Metal Thickness Typo of Curent loctroo ‘Shielding Gas ‘arinam ‘All ‘Aerating curent Pur or zirconium Argon or argn-heliam cer 1/8 in ‘OCEN Tho Argor-blum or gon nde 1/8 in. cer ‘hota or ztcosium ‘Argon Copper, copper ays ‘Al DEN Thovted Helium nde 1/8 in. Alteretngcurent Pure or ircorium Argon Magnesium aloys All Aerating curert Pu o conium Argon nde 1/8 in, CEP arcoriom or thoited Argon Nick, ike alors er | DEN Thoveted Argon Pin aon, lw-hoy all DceN Thovatod ‘Argon or argon Under 1/8 in, Aerating cunt’ Pu a cori ‘Argon Stoilss stl. al “Thotated Argon 0: argon under 1/8 in, Alternating current Par. rconiom ‘Argon Teri All DceN Thotated ‘Argon * Whore thre Recommended Gas Flow Rates SHIELDING GAS FLOW requirements are based on cup or nozzle size, weld pool size, and air movement. In general, the flow rate increases in proportion to the cross-sectional area at the nozzle (considering the obstruction caused by the collet). The nozzle diameter is selected to suit the size of the weld pool and the reactivity of the metal to be welded, The minimum flow eate is determined by the need fora stiff stream to overcome the heating effects of the arc and cross drafts. With the more commonly used torches, typical shielding gas flow rates are 15 t0 35 cfh (7 to 16 L/min, forargon and 30 to 50 cfh (14 to 241./min,) for helium. Excessive flow rates cause turbulence in the gas stream which may aspirate atmospheric contamination into the weld pool. ‘Across wind or draft moving at five or more miles per hour can disrupt the shielding gas coverage. The stffest, nonturbulent gas streams (with high-stream velocities) are obtained by incorporating gas lenses in the nozale and by using helium as the shield gas. However, in the interest of cost, protective screens to block air flow are preferred to increasing shielding gas flow. Backup Purge WHEN MAKING THE root passes of welds, the air contained fn the back side of the weldment can contaminate the ‘weld. To avoid that problem, the air must be purged from this region. Argon and helium are satisfactory for the backup purge when welding all materials. Nitrogen may be todas are recommended, corte or lanthanated electrodes may also be used. used satisfactorily for backing up welds in austenitic stain- less steel, copper, and copper alloys. Gas flow requirements for the backup purge range from 1 to 90 CFH (0.5 to 42 L/min., based on the volume to be purged. As a rule of thumb, a relatively inert atmosphere will be obtained by flushing with fous times the volume to be purged. After purging is completed, the flow of backup ‘gas during welding should be reduced until only a slight positive pressure exists in the purged area. After the root and firs filler passes are completed, the backup purge may be discontinued, Several devices are available to contain shielding gas on the back side of plate and piping weldments. One of these is shown in Figure 3.16, Refer to the latest edition of ANSI/AWS CS.5, Recommended Practices for Gas Ting- sten Are Welding, for more information, ‘When parging piping systems, provisions for an ade- «quate vent or exhaust, as shown in Figure 3.17, are impor- {ant to prevent excessive pressure buildup during welding. ‘The area of vents through which the backup gas is ex- hausted to the atmosphere should be at lest equal to the area of the opening through which the gas is admitted to the system, Extra care should be taken to ensure that the backup purge pressure is not excessive when welding the last inch or two on the root pass, to prevent weld pool blow-out or root concavity. ‘When using argon or nitrogen, the backup gas should preferably enter the system at a low point, to displace the atmosphere upwards, and be vented at points beyond the joint to be welded, Again tefer to Figure 3.17. In piping systems which have several joints, all except the one being welded should be taped to prevent gas loss Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997AUS WHB-2 90 mM O7842b5 0010875 3 mm Figure 3.16—Backup Purge Gas Chann Controlled Atmosphere Welding Chamber MAXIMUM SENERITS CAN be obtained when welding reac- tive metals ifthe entire object to be welded ean be placed in a controlled atmosphere chamber. Such chambers, as shown in Figure 3.18, contain the pieces to be welded, the shielding gas, and welding equipment. After the parts have been put in the chamber, purging is started, and readings are taken on oxygen, nitrogen, and water vapor analyzing instruments to assure that welding is not started until con- taminants are at a suitably low level, usually less chan 50 PPM. Trailing Shields For SOME METALS, such as titanium, trailing shields are necessary if chambers or other shiciding techniques are not available o practical. Use ofa trailing shield cnsures inert gas coverage over the weld area until the molten metal has cooled to the point that it will not react with the atmo- sphere. One type of trailing shield is shown in Figure 3.19. GAS INLET PURGE GAS FLL Wit courier INERT GAS. BAFFLE PIPE WELO JOINT Figure 3.17—Backup Gas Purge Arrangement for Circumferential Pipe Joint (Note Baffles Used to Contain Purge Gas) Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 GAS TUNGSTEN ANC WELDING 91 Fixed barriers, silustrated in Figure 3.20, also aid in con- taining shielding gas within the area immediately sur- rounding the electrode. ARC INITIATION METHODS Scratch or Touch Start ‘Wins THE POWER supply energized, and the shielding gas flowing from the cup, the torch is lowered toward the ‘workpiece until che tungsten electrode makes contact with the workpiece, The torch is quickly withdrawn a short dis- tance to estabiish the arc. Theadvantage ofthis method of arc initiation sits plicity of operation for both manual and machine welding. The disadvantage of touch starting is the tendency for the electrode to stick to the workpiece, causing electrode contamination and transfer of tungsten to the workpiece. High-Frequency Start [HIGH-FREQUENCY STARTING CAN be used with de or ac power sources for both manual and automatic applica- tions, High-frequency generators usually have a spark-gap oscillator that superimposes a high-voltage ac output at radio frequencies in series with the welding circuit. The circuit is shown in Figure 3.21. The high voltage ionizes the sas between the electrode and the work, and the ionized ‘as will then conduct welding current that initiates the welding are. Because radiation from a high-frequency generator may disturb radio, electronic, and computer equipment, the use of this type of are staring equipment is governed by regulations of the Federal Communications Commission. ‘The user should follow the instructions of the manufac- turer for the proper installation and use of high-frequency are starting equipment, Pulse Start ABPLICATION OF A high-voltage pulse between the tungsten electrode and the work will ionize the shielding gas and establish the welding arc, This method is generally used with de power supplies in machine welding applications. Pilot Arc Start PILOT ARC STARTING may be used with de welding power sources. The pilot arc is maintained between the welding clectrode and the torch nozzle. The pilot are supplies the ionized gas required to establish the main welding arc as shown in Figure 3.22, The pilot arc is powered by a small auxiliary power source and is started by high-frequency initiation,AWS WHB-2 90 MM 0784265 0010876 S mm 92 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING Figure 3.18—Controlled Atmosphere Chamber Used for Gas Tungsten Are Welding of Reactive Metals (Note: Operator is Viewing the Arc Through A Plexiglass Window.) _ ————— Taw TORCH ‘CONTOUR TO FIT JOB OR SUIT INDIVIDUAL WELDER PACK WITH STAINLESS ‘OR COPPER METAL WOOL i) FOR EVEN GAS FLOW (0) Figure 3.20Barriers Used to Contain the Figure 3.19—Tralling Shield for Manual Torch _ Shielding Gas Near the Joint to be Welded Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Sot 05 10-1605 1997AUS WHB-2 90 mm 0784265 0010877 7 mt GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 93 AIR CORE ‘TRANSFORMER SPARK GAP OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY GENERATOR Aye ate! — POWER mmm SUPPLY GAS NOZZLE WORKPIECE’ TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE PILOT ARC POWER ‘SUPPLY LJSSSSSASS ISSSESSSSY i WORKPIECE Figure 3.22-Pllot Are Starting Circuit Used for Gas Tungsten Arc Spot Welding Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Sot 05 10-1605 199794 GAS TUNGSTEN Ac WELDING GTAW TECHNIQUES MANUAL WELDING ‘THE WORD “MANUAL” in the GTAW process implies that a person controls all the functions of the welding process. The functions include manipulation of the electrode holder, control of filler metal additions, welding current, travel speed, and acc length, The process is shown in Figure 3.23, Manual Welding Equipment 1 ADDITION 70 an appropriate power supply and a source of shielding gas, manual GTAW equipment includes the welding torch, hoses and electrical conductors, foot pedal (or switch on torch) for controlling welding current levels during the welding cycle, and yas flow control. Manual Welding Techniques ‘THE TECHNIQUE FOR manual welding is illustrated in Fig- ure 3.24, Once the arc is started, the electrode is moved in small circular motion until the desired weld polis estab- lished. The torch is then held at an angle of 15° from the vertical as show inthe illustration and is moved along the joint to progressively melt the faying surfaces. Filler metal if used, is added to the leading edge of the pool. The electrode holder and welding rod mist be moved progressively and smoothly so the weld pool, the hot weld- ing tod end, and the hot solidified weld are not exposed to air that will contaminate the weld metal area or heat-af- fected zone. Generally, a large shielding gas envelope will prevent exposure to ait. ‘The welding rod is usually held at an angle of about 15 degrees to the surface of the work and slowly fed into the molten pool. During welding, the hot end of the welding rod must not be removed from the protection of the inert ss shield. MACHINE WELDING “MACHINE WELDING Is done with equipment that performs the welding operation under the constant observation and control of a welding operator. The equipment may or may ‘not load and unload the workpieces, Machine GTAW provides greater control over travel speed and heat input to the workpiece. The higher cost of ‘equipment to provide these benefits must be justified by production and quality requirements Machine GTAW equipment, such as the orbital pipe welder shown in Figure 3.25, ranges from simple weld pro- ‘gram sequencers and mechanical manipulators to orbital tube and pipe welding systems. Weld sequencers operate ‘an open loop control mode: variables are maintained at pre- set levels and no attempt is made to adjust them in response AUS WHB-2 50 M™ 0784265 0010878 9 mm to changing weld quality. The sequencer automatically starts and completes the weld, stepping from one variable setting to other settings at predetermined times or locations along the weld joint. Part tolerances must be controlled closely and fixturing must be strong, since the sequencer cannot compensate for unwanted movement of the parts during welding. High precision parts and sturdy fixearing increase production costs, but welding sequencers usually cost less than more sophisticated automatic controllers. ‘SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING SEMIAUTOMATIC GTAW 1s defined as welding with equip- ment which controls only the filer metal feed. Advance of the welding torch is controlled manually. Semiautomatic systems for GTAW were introduced about 1952 but have been used only for special applications. AUTOMATIC WELDING WeLpic wir eQuirMeNT that performs the welding op- cration without adjustment of the controls by a welding operator is called automatic welding. The equipment may or may not load and unload the workpieces. Figure 3.26 shows atypical automatic GTAW application in which the parts are automaticaly loaded and discharged. janual Gas Tungsten Are Welding Figure 3. of a Pipe Joint. Note Backup Purge Gas Hose Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Sot 05 10-1605 1997AUS WHB-2 90 Mmm O7842b5 0010875 om GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 95 DIRECTION OF ——wewine GK [| WW (A) DEVELOP THE POOL WITH CIRCULAR OR SIDE-TO-SIDE MOTION (B) MOVE ELECTRODE TO TRAILING EDGE OF POOL (C) ADD FILLER METAL TO CENTER OF LEADING EDGE OF POOL () WITHDRAW ROD Some modern automatic welding systems (frequently called adaptive or feedback control) make corrections to welding variables based on information gathered during ‘welding, The objectives to maintain weld quality at a con- stant level in the presence of changing weld conditions. ‘Automaticadjustmentof individual weld variables, such as are current or arc length, is made by monitoring a weld characteristic, such as pool width. Other feedback control systems are available to provide electrode guidance and constant joint fill. Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 (E) MOVE ELECTRODE TO LEADING EDGE OF POOL igure 3.24—Technique for Manual Gas Tungsten Arc Welding ARC SPOT WELDING Gas TUNGSTEN AKC spot welding is often done manually with a pistollike holder that has a vented, water-cooled gas nozzle, a tungsten electrode that is concentrically posi- tioned with respect to the gas nozzle, and a trigger switch for controlling the operation. Figure 3.27 illustrates such am arrangement. Gas tungsten are spot welding electrode holders are also evailable for automatic applications.96 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING ‘The configuration of the nozzle is vasied to fit the con- tour of the weldment. Edge locating devices can be used to prevent vatiations in’the distance of spot weld locations from the workpiece edge. The nozzle is often used to press against the workpiece to assure tight fit-ap of the faying surfaces. This technique also controls the electrode-to- work distance, Spot welding may be done with either ae or DCEN. Au- tomatic sequencing controls are generally used because of the relatively complex cycles involved. The controls auto- matically establish the preweld gas and water flow, start AUS WHB-2 90 mH O784265 0010880 7 the arc, time the arc duration, and provide the required postweld gas and water flow. Penetration is controlled by adjusting the current and the length of time it flows. In some applications, multiple pulses of curcent are preferred to one long sustained pulse. Variations in the shear strength, nugget diameter, and pen~ ctration of the spot weld can be minimized with accurate fimers, current monitors, and tungsten electrodes that have precision ground tips. A melted spot on the bottom of the lower workpiece isa positive indication of a good spot weld, ing of Pipe Assembly Using Orbital Welder (NOTE: Baffle Taped on Nozzle to Contain Backup Gas) Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Sot 05 10-1605 1997AUS UHB-2 90 wa 0784265 0010881 9 mm GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 97 in Which Workpieces Are Loaded and Unloaded ‘Automatically Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Sot 05 10-1605 199798 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING “aus UHB-2 90 MM 784265 0010882 0 mM TORCH CABLE & HOSES: SHIELDING GAS (TRIGGER ‘TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE SLOTTED GAS NOZZLE ‘WELD NUGGET __ Figure 3.27—Schematic of Manual Gas Tungsten Are Spot Welding CONTROLS FOR TIMING CURRENT FLOW, SHIELDING GAS, COOLING WATER, AND HIGH FREQUENCY * + WELDING POWER SUPPLY i ——_— MATERIALS ‘THIS SECTION DESCRIBES the materials weldable with the GTAW process. Autogenous welds are made by melting only base metal. When filler metal is used, it can be in the form of welding wire or preplaced consuinable inserts. BASE METALS Most METALS CAN be welded by the GTAW process. Among these are grades of carbon, alloy, and stainless steels and other ferrousalloys; heat-resistant alloys of vati- us types; aluminum alloys; magnesium alloys; copper and its alloys, such as copper-nickel, bronzes, and brasses; and nickel alloys. Certain metals must be welded with the GTAW process because it provides the greatest protection from contamination by the atmosphere. GTAW is espe- cially useful for welding reactive and refractory metals and some nonferrous alloys It is not used to weld metals such as cadmium, tin, or zinc, whose liquids have low-vapor pressures. Details on the welding characteristics of specific metals and alloys can be found in the Welding Handbook, Vol 4, 7th Ed. Descriptions of the metallurgical responses of ‘metals and alloys to the heat of welding can be found in the Welding Handbook, Vol. 1, 8th Ed., Chapter 4. This section presents information on potential metalur- gical problems unique to the gas tungsten arc welding pro- ess and special concerns when welding certain metals and alloys with this process. It includes suggested types of welding current, electrode compositions, and shielding gas compositions for optimum weld quality. A guide to the selection of electrodes and gases is provided in Table 3.4, In gencral, best welding results are obtained with DCEN for almost all metals, unless specified otherwise, The typi- cal tungsten electrode composition is two percent thoriated, unless otherwise specified, 3. Volume 3 of the 8eh Fd, when published, will also contin tie Information. Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997AUS UHB-2 90 Ml O7842b5 0010883 2 mm Carbon and Alloy Steels "THEE QUALITY OF gas tungsten arc welds in carbon and alloy steels is more influenced by the base metal impurity con- tent (sulfur, phosphorus, oxygen) than are welds made ‘with SMAW or SAW. Thisis because fluxes are not present ‘with GTAW to remove or tie-up these impurities. High-strength low alloy (HSLA) stcels are readily welded by the GTAW process. However, combined levels of phosphorus and sulfur in the base metal exceeding 0.03 percent can cause fusion zone and heat-affected zone cracking. Hydrogen embrittlement of these alloys is = problem if hydrocarbon or water-vapor contamination is present, Hydrogen induced cracking can be minimized by application of preheat ot a postweld heet treatment, ot in some cases in high-humidity areas, with trailing gas shields ‘Argon shielding gas is generally used for welding carbon and alloy steels up to 1/2 in, (12 mm) thick, because the molten weld pool is easier to control than with helium, ‘When welding thicker sections, either argon or argon-he- ium mixtures can be employed depending on joint thickness. Stainless Steels and Heat-Resistant Alloys ‘STAINLESS STEELS AND the iron-, nickel, and cobalt-based heat-resistant superalloys are extensively welded with the GTAW process because they are protected from the atmo- sphere by the inert gas. Weld metal composition is esse tally identical to base metal composition because the same alloys are used as filler metal, and because the filler enters the liquid weld pool without passing through the arc, where losses of volatile alloys might be expected. ‘Argon is recommended for manual welding of thick- ‘nesses up to approximately 1/2 in, (12 mm) because it pro- vides better control of the molten weld pool. For thick sections, and for many machine and automatic applica- tions, argon-helium mixtures or pure helinm can be used to obtain increased weld penetration, Argon-hydrogen mixtures are used for some stainless stec! welding applica- tions to improve bead shape and wettability. Alternating current can be used for automatic welding of the heat-resistant alloys when close control of are length is possible. Aluminum Alloys GTAW 1s IDEALLY suited for welding aluminum alloys. GTAW of alurninum can be performed on all thicknesses, ‘Welding may be performed with or without fillee metal. ‘Aluminum alloys form refractory surface oxides, which make joining more difficult. For this reason, most welding of aluminum is performed with alternating current (using high-frequency ace stabilization) because it provides the surface cleaning action of DCEP with the deeper penctra- tion characteristies of DCEN. DCEP is sometimes used for welding thin aluminum sections, DCEN with helium Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 99 shielding gasis used for high-current automatic welding of sections over 1/4-in. thick. Since DCEN produces no cleaning action, the aluminum parts must be thoroughly cleaned immediately prior to welding. For welding with ac, pure tungsten, cetiated tungsten, and rirconiated tangscn electrodes tre recommended, ‘Thoriated tungsten electrodes are used on aluminum only with de, Argon shielding gas is generally used for welding alumi- ‘num with alternating current because it provides better arc starting, better cleaning action, and superior weld quality than does helium. When DCEN is used, helium gas pro- vides faster travel speeds and deeper penetration. How- ever, the poorer surface cleaning action of this combina- tion may result in porosity. Magnesium Alloys MAGNESIUM ALLOYS FORM refractory surface oxides sim- ilar to aluminum alloys. Alternating current GTAW is typi- cally used for welding of magnesium alloys because of the oxide cleaning action it provides. DCEP may be used for ‘welding thicknesses less than 3/16 in. (5 mam) while alter nating current provides better penetration for greater thicknesses. Argon provides the best quality welds, but he- lium or mixtures of the two are also used. Pure tungsten, ceriated, and zirconiated electrodes may be used. Beryllium BERYLLIUN A light metal and difficult ro weld because of a tendency toward hot cracking and embrittlement. ‘GTAW of beryllium is performed in an inect atmosphere chamber, generally using a shielding gas mixture of five parts helium to one part argon. Beryllium fames are toxic. Copper Alloys STAW 18 Watt, suited for copper and its alloys because of the intense heat generated by the are, which can produce smelting with minimum heating of the surrounding, highly conductive base metal, Most copper alloys are welded with DCEN and helium because of the high thermal con- ductivity. AC is sometimes used to weld beryllium coppers and aluminum bronzes because it helps break up the sur- face oxides which are present. Nickel Alloys Nicket, ALLOYS ARE often gas tungsten arc welded, typi- cally with filler metal additions. DCEN is recommended for all welding, bat ac with high-frequency stabilization may be used for machine welding. Argon, argon-helium, and heliam are the most common shielding gases. Helium is preferred when no filler metals to be added, Angon withAUS UHB-2 90 mm 07 100 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING small amounts of hydrogen (up to $ percent) is sometimes used for single-pass weldi High-purity nickel alloys can exhibit variable weld pene- tration caused by differences in surface active elements, Refractory and Reactive Metals GAS TUNGSTEN ARC is the most extensively used welding process for joining refractory and reactive metals. Refrac- tory metals (notably cangsten, molybdenum, tantalum, ni obiam, and chromium) have extremely high melting tem- peratures and, like the reactive metals (sich as ciraniam alloys, zirconium alloys, and hafnium), ace readily oxidized at elevated temperatures unless protected by an inert gas cover. Absorption of impurities such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon will decrease toughness and ductil ity of the weld metal. For these metals and alloys, GTAW provides ahi centration of heat and the greatest control over heat while providing the best inert gas shielding of any welding process. Welding these metals is typically performed in purged chambers containing high-purity inert gases. Occa- sionally GTAW is performed without special purge cham- bers, by providing the necessary inert gas atmosphere with torch, traling, and backup shielding. Argon is most frequently used for shielding, but helium and mixtures of the two gases can be used, Argon flow rates of 15 eth or helium flow rates of 40 cfh ate sufficient, even with the large diameter gas nozzles which are recommended. Cast Irons Cast RON CAN be welded with the GTAW process be- cause dilution of the base metal can be minimized with independent control of heat input and filer metal place- ‘ment. A high level of operator skill isrequiced to minimize ilaion while maintaining acceptable penetration and au2b5 0010884 4 mm GTAW of cast irons is usualy limited to repair of small pacts. Nickel-based and austenitic stainless ste! fille met- als are recommended; they minimize cracking because of their ductility and their tolerance for hydrogen. Cracking can also be minimized by preheat and postweld heat treat- tment, DCEN is recommended, although ac may be used, FILLER METALS FitteR METALS FOR joining a wide variety of metals and alloys are available for use with gas tungsten arc welding, Filler metal, if used, should be similas, although not nec cssarily identical, to the metal that is being joined, When joining dissimilar metals, th filer metals willbe different from one or both of the base metals. Generally, the filler metal composition is adjusted to tmatch the properties of the base metal in its welded (cast) condition Sich filler metals are produced with closer con trol on chemistry, purty, and quality than are base metals. Deoxicizers are frequently added to ensure weld soundness. Further modifications are made to some filler metal compo: sitions to improve response to postweld heat treatments, ‘The choice of filler metal for any application is a co promise involving metallurgical compatibility, suitability for the intended serviee, and cost. The tensile and impact properties, corrosion resistance, and electrical or thermal conductivities that are requiced in a particular weldment also must be considered. Thus, che filler metal must suit both the alloy to be welded and the intended service, Table 3.5 sts the AWS filler metal specifications which are applicable for gas tungsten arc welding. These specifi- cations establish filler metal classifications based on the mechanical properties or chemical compositions, or both, of each filer metal. They also set forth the conditions un- der which the filler metals must be tested. ‘Appendices inthe filler metal specifications provide use- ful background on the properties and uses ofthe filler met. als within the various classifications, Manufacturers’ cata- logs provide useful information on the proper use of their Table AWS Specifications for Specification Number Iron and Stel Gas- Wing Rods oper end Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rds and Eloctrodes and Weling Sutlacng Welding Rois and Electrodes Nickel and Nickel Alloy Gare Waidng Rods and AB AB. AB ABs AB AB AB AB. AS, AB, Metals Suitable for Gas Tun: Title bcos, aodn Feng Cronin a Croll Stl Bow an Copia Mtl Card an Sandel Ae Wig Aoi ed Aina Aly Weg Ros an ue Ete ectrodes Tiaiom an Titanium Aly Bare Wing os and Elesrodes Mid Stal Besos for Gas tal Ar Welding Mogesum-Aloy Wig Ros and Bee Electrodes Canpost Suing Weking Rosen Eletrodes Zrcaniun end Zivonium Alo Bare Weldng Rods and Eectratas Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997products. Brand name listings and addresses of vendors are shown in the latest edition of AWS Filler Metal Compari- son Charts, Filler metals for GTAW are available in mostalloysin the form of straightened and cut lengths (rods), usually 36 in, (1m) ong, for manual welding, and spooled or coiled con- tinuous wire for machine or automatic welding, The filler metal diameters range from about 0.020 in (0.5 mm) for fine and delicate work to about 3/16 in, (5 mm) for high- current manual welding or surfacing. AWS WHB-2 0 MM O764265 0010885 b mm GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING to1 Extra care must be exercised to keep the filler metals clean and free of all contamination while in storage, as well as in use. The hot end of the wire or rod should not be removed from the protection of the inert gas shicld during the welding operation. ‘Consumable inserts provide filler metal ad root pass welds in certain pipe and plate applications. Ad- vantages include broader fit-up tolerances, lower opera- torskill levels, more consistent weld bead fusion, and smooth, uniform underbeads. JOINT DESIGN DUE 0 ‘THE variety of base metals and their individual characteristics (such as surface tension, fluidity, melting temperature, etc), joint geometries or designs that provide ‘optimum welding conditions should be used, Factors af- fecting joint designs include metal composition and thick ness, weld penetration requirements, joint restraint and joint efficiency requicements, BASIC JOINT CONFIGURATION ‘THE FIVE BASIC joints (butt, lap, T, edge, and corner) shown in Figure 3.28 may be used for vieually all metals. Many vatiations are derived from these basic joints. In all in- stances the primary objective is to minimize welding cost while maintaining the desized weld quality and pesfor ‘mance level for the design. Factors affecting cost are preparation time, weld joint area to be filled, and setup time, While there are no fixed rules governing the use ofa particular joint design for any one metal, certain designs were developed for specific purposes. a cw (a) BUTT (8) LAP (yt (0) EDGE —_(&) CORNER ‘Weld Joints Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 ‘The primary vatiables of joint design are root opening, thickness of root face, and angle of bevel. All variables ‘must be considered prior to joint preparation. The amount of root opening and thickness of root face depend upon whether the GYAW process is to be manual ‘or automatic, whether filler metal isto be added during the root pass, and if a consumable insert will be used. Backing. sttips are generally not used due to additional costs of max terial and fit-up, as wel as difficulty in interpretation of radiographs. ‘The amount of bevel angle depends upon the thickness of the metal and the clearance needed for are movement to assure adequate fusion on both sides of the joint. These variables are generally determined by welding sample joints which cover a variety of setups. A major consideration in, GTAW joint design is provi- sion for properaccessbility. The groove angle must permit manipulation of the clectrode holder to obtain adequate fusion of the groove face, Characteristics ofthe weld metal imust also be considered. For example, the high nickel al- loys are very sluggish wien molten, and the weld metal does not wet the groove face well, Therefore, groove an- les for high nickel alloys should be more open than those for carbon and alloy stecl, to provide space for manipula- tion. However, opening the groove angle increases distor- tion, weld time, and cost, and should be limited as far as possible. Specific information on joint designs may be found in the AWS Welding Handbook, Vol.1, 8th Ed. Chapter 5, or in the metals suppliers literature. JOINT PREPARATION APTER A PARTICULAR joint design has been selected, the most important item for consideration is the method of joint preparation. Thereare many ways to remove metal to prepare a given joint configuration, However, many GTAW problems, or supposed problems, area direct result Of using improper methods to prepare the joint. Chief among, these is the improper use of grinding wheels to pre-Aus UHe-2 90 mm 0784265 OOLOSSL 6 mm 102 GAS TUNGSTEN ARG WELDING pare joints. Soft materials such as aluminum become im- pregnated with microsized abrasive particles which, unless subsequently removed, will result in excessive porosity. Grinding wheels should he cleaned and dedicated excla- sively o the material being welded. The ideal joint preps- ration is obtained with cutting tools such as a lathe for round or cylindrical joints, or a milling cutter for longitu- dlinal preparations, Care must be exercised in the choice of cutting fluid (if any) to be used. Cleaning after cutting or ‘turning shoald be with safety-approved solvents that are free of residues. ‘Oxyfuel cutting and plasma are cutting are also accept- able, provided any sag is removed by careful grinding. Joint Tolerance TTHE ALLOWABLE TOLERANCE of joint dimensions depends upon whether GTAW isto be done manually or by mecha- nized means. Manual welding applications can tolerate greater irregularities in joint fi-up than mechanized weld: ing, The particular tolerance fora given application can be determined only by actual testing, and this tolerance should be specified for furure work. Cleaning CLEANLINESS OF BOTH the weld joint areas and the filler metal san important consideration when welding with the gas tungsten arc process. Oil, grease, shop dirt, paint, ‘marking crayon, and rust or corrosion deposits all must be removed from the joint edges and metal surfaces, to a dis- tance beyond the heat-affected zone. Their presence dur- ing welding may lead to arc instability and contaminated ‘welds. Depending upon the metallurgical response to these contaminants, welds can contain pores, cracks, and incu- sions. Cleaning may be accomplished by mechanical means, by the use of vapor or qd cleaners or bya com bination of these. FIXTURING FIXTURING MAY BE required if the parts to be welded can- not be self-supported during welding or if any resultant distortion cannot be tolerated or corrected by straighten- ing, The fixturing should be massive enough to support the ‘weight of the parts and weldment and to withstand weld- ig stresses caused by thermal expansion and contraction, he fixtures must also handle the normal wear and tear that occurs during production. The decision to use fixturing for the fabrication of a ‘weldment is governed by economics and quality require- ments. The proper use of fixturing, including heat sinks, can reduce welding time. The one-time fabrication of an assembly may not justify the use of fixturings however, the fabrication of a large number of assemblies could justi even complex fixtures. Also, high-quality work may di tate that fixturing be used to maintain close tolerances re- quired by the design, or for nondestructive examination requirements. “The following are primary functions of fixturing: (1) Locate parts precisely within the assembly 2) Maintain alignment during welding G) Minimize distortion in the weldment (4) Control heat buildup WELD QUALITY DISCONTINUITIES AND DEFECTS DISCONTINUITIES ARE INTERRUPTIONS in the typical struc- ttre of a weldment, and they may occur in the base metal, weld metal, and heat-affected zones. Discontinuities in a ‘weldment that do not satisfy the requirements of an appli cable fabrication code or specification are classified as de~ fects, and are required to be removed because they could impair the performance of that weldment in service. PROBLEMS AND CORRECTIONS Tungsten Inclusions ONE bisconTINUITY FOUND only in gas tungsten are welds is eungsten inclusions. Particles of tungsten from the clec- trode can be embedded in a weld when improper welding procedures are used with the GTAW process. ‘Typical causes are the following: (1) Contact of electrode tip with molten weld pool Q) Contact of filler metal with hot tip of electrode G) Contamination of the electrode tip by spatter from the weld pool (4) Exceeding the current limit fora given electrode size or type (6) Extension of electrodes beyond their normal dis- tanees from the collet (as with long nozzles) resulting in overheating of the electrode (6) Inadequate tightening of the holding collet or elec- trode chuck ) Inadequate shielding gas flow rates or excessive wind drafts resulting in oxidation of the electrode tip (8) Defects such as splits or cracks in the electrode Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997AUS WHB-2 40 mm O7S4265 0010887 T Mm (9) Use of improper shielding gases such as argon-oxy- {gen or argon-COz mixtures that are used for gas metal are welding, Corrective steps are obvious once the causes are recog. nized and the welder is adequately trained. Lack of Shielding DISCONTINUITIES RELATED To the loss of inert gas shel are the tungsten inclusions previously described, porosity, oxide films and inclusions, incomplete fusion, and cracle- ing, The extent to which they occur is strongly related to the characteristics of the metal being welded. In addition, the mechanical properties of titanium, aluminum, nickel, GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 103 and high-strength steel alloys can be seriously impaired with loss of inert gas shielding. Gas shielding effectiveness can often be evaluated prior to production welding by. amaking a spot weld and continuing gas flow until the weld has cooled to alow temperature. A bright, silvery spot will bbe evident if shielding is effective, WELDING PROBLEMS AND REMEDIES NUMEROUS WELDING PROBLEMS may develop while setting up or operating 2 GIAW operation. ‘Their solution will require careful evaluation of the material, the fixturing, the ‘welding equipment, and the procedures, Some problems that may be encountered and possible remedies are listed in Table 3.6, Te ‘Troubleshooting Guide Cause Gas Tungsten Arc Wel 3.6 1. Inadequate gas fow. 1. Traease gas flow. 2. Operating on reverse polarity 2. Use larger electrode cr chenge to stright poet. 8 Improper sian electrode fr curent required. 3. Use larger oactrode, 4, Excessive heating in holder. 4. Check for proper cle contac. 5. Contaminated olectods. 5. Remove contaminated potion. Erotic results wil cantina long as contamination exist. 6, Electrode onidatin dung cooing 6. Kop gs finger sopsing foals 10 to 15 seconds, Using gas containing oxygen or C02. 1. Erratic ae 1. Base metal is diy, greasy, 1 2, doit too narrow 2. nt gu: eg cd co awk decease vatege, 3, Electode is contaminated. 3. Remove contaninated portion of electrode. 4. Ae to lang ____ 4 Bring holdr closer to work to shorten ae _ Porosity 1. Enrapped gas impurities (hydrogen, nitrogen, si, wator 1. low out ar from al lines befor striking ar; remave vapor. condensed maisture fom lines; use welding grade (99.99%) inet gas. 2, Dafoative gos hose or loose hose connections. 2. Chock hose and connections for leaks, ‘3. OI fm on base metal ‘Tngsten contamination 1 Contact stating with electrode, of workpiece ‘3 Touching tungsten to molten poo 2. Electroda malin and alying with base mata. 3. Clean with chemical cleaner nt prone to break up in ar 00 NOT WELD WHILE BASE METAL IS WET. 1. Use igh frequaney starr, uso copper srk plate, 2. Uso loss current ot largr electrode; use thoritd or econiam-ungsten electrode, 3. Keep tungsten out of moten pool APPLICATIONS “THE GAS TUNGSTEN are welding process offers advantages to many industries, ranging from the high quality required in the aetospace and nuclear industries and the high-speed autogenous welds required in tube and sheet metal manu Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 facturing, to the ease and flexibility of GTAW which is so welcome in repair shops. Gas tungsten arc welding provides precise control of heat input, For that reason itis preferred for joining thin104 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING ‘gage metals and for making welds close to heat sensitive components, It is also used for small obs and repair weld. ing in many fabrication shops because of the case of con- trol of the process and the ability to ada filler metal as necessary. Gas tungsten are welding is used with or with- out filler metal to produce high-quality welds with smooth, uniform shapes. The GIAW process can also be used for spot welding in sheet metal applications, “The process can be used to weld almost all metals, It is specially useful for joining aluminum and magnesium, which form refractory oxides, and for reactive metals like titanium and zirconium, which can become embrittled if exposed to air while moleen. “Aus WHB-2 90 m™ 0784265 0010858 1 mm GTAW can be used to weld all types of joint geometries and overiays in plate, sheet, pipe, tubing, and other struc- tural shapes. Its particularly appropriate for welding sec- tions less than 3/8 in, (10 mm) thick, Welding of pipe is often accomplished using gas tungsten arc welding for the root pass and either SMAW or GMAW for the fill passes. ‘An aerospace application involving GTAW is shown in Figure 3.29. This pulsed current application shows the welding of 2 flanged joint between two stainless steel castings. Castings (NOTE: Argon Shielding Gas is Used on This 7- ‘Travel Speed is 16 in./ min (40 cm/min) Using 41 Amps Average Pulsed Cur Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Sot 05 10-1605 1997AUS UHB-2 10 MM O7842bS 0010889 3 mm GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING 105 SAFE PRACTICES ‘THE GENERAL SUKJECT of safety and safe practices in weld- ing, cutting, and allied processes is covered in ANSIZA9.1, Safety in Welding and Cuiting.* All welding personnel should be familiar with the safe practices discussed in this document, Using safe practices in welding and cutting will ensure the protection of persons from injury and illness and the protection of property from unwanted damage, The po- tential hazard areas in arc welding and cutting include, but arc not limited to the handling of cylinders and regulators, ‘gases, fumes, radiant energy, and electrical shock, The ar- eas that are associated with GTAW are briefly discussed in this section. Safe practices should always be the foremost concern of the welder or welding operator. SAFE HANDLING OF GAS CYLINDERS AND REGULATORS ComResseD GAs CYLINDERS should be handled carefully. Knocks, fall, or rough handling may damage cylinders, valves, or safety devices and cause leakage o explosive rupture accidents. Valve protecting caps, when supplicd, should be kept in place hand-tight) except when cylinders are in use or connected for use. When in use, cylinders should be securely fastened to prevent accidental tipping. For further information, see CGA Pamphlet P-1, Safe Han dling of Compressed Gases in Containers.S GAS HAZARDS ‘THE MAJOR TOXIC gases associated with GTAW are ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and phosgene gas. Phosgene gas could be present as a result of thermal or ultraviolet decomposition of chlorinated hydrocarbon cleaning agents, such as trichlorethylene and perchlorethylene, located in the vi- cinity of welding operations, Degreasing or other cleaning oper wolving chlorinated hydrocarbons should be performed where vapors from these operations are not ex- posed to radiation from the welding arc. ‘Tue v-rravioverLicH emitted by the welding are acts on the oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere to produce ozone, The amount of ozone produced will depend upon the intensity of the ultraviolet energy, the humidity, the amount of screening afforded by the welding fume, and ‘& ANSI 749.1 is aslable fom the American Welding Society, $50 N.W.Lefeune Read, Miami, Hiosida 33126, 5, CGAP-1is available fom the Compressed Gas Assocation Tne, 500 Fit Avenue, New York, New York 10036, Copia by the Ameian Welling Society Satu 05 10-1605 1997 other factors. Test results, based upon present sampling methods, indicate the average concentration of ozone gen erated in the GTAW process docs not constitute a hazard under conditions of good ventilation and welding practice. (See ANSI Z49.1 for welding conditions requiring ventila- tion, particularly when weldingiis done in confined spaces) Nitrogen Dioxide SOME TEST RESULTS show that high concentrations of ni- trogen dioxide are found only within 6 in (150 mm) of the arc. Natural ventilation quickly reduces these concentra- tions to safe levels in the welder’s breathing zone. As long, as the welder’s head is kept out of the fumes, nitrogen dioxide is not thought to be a hazard in GTAW. Inert Shielding Gases PROVISION FOR ADEQUATE ventilation should be made ‘when inert gas shielding and purging gases are used. Accu- mulation of these gases could cause suffocation of welding and inspection personnel, Metal Fumes "THE WELDING FUMES generated by the GIAW process can be controlled by natural ventilation, general ventilation, local exhaust ventilation, or by respiratory protective ‘equipment, as described in ANSI Z49,1, The method of ventilation required to keep the level of toxic substances in the welder’s breathing zone within acceptable concentra- tions is directly dependent upon a number of factors, among which are the material being welded, the size of the ‘work area, and the degrce of confinement or obstruction to normal air movement where the welding is being done, Each operation should be evaluated on an individual basis in order to determine what will be require. Acceptable levels of toxic substances associated with welding and designated as time-weighted average theesh- old limit values (TLVs) and ceiling values, have been pub- lished by the Occupational Safety and Health Administra- tion, The OSHA standards for general industry are also known as the Code of Federal Regulation (29CER 1910) and san be obtained through the U.S, Goverment Pent ing Office, Washington, D.C, 20402. Compliance these acceptable levels can be checked by sampling the is mosphere inside the welder’s helmet or in the immediate vicinity of the helper's breathing zone. Sampling should be in accordance with ANSI/AWS Fi.1, Method for Sam- pling Airborne Particulates Generated by Welding and Al- lied Processes.