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Foundations of Social Work

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Sample Chapter - Foundations of SW Practice

Foundations of Social Work

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1 Foundations of Social Work Practice ‘Mark A. Mattaini and Casey Holtschneider Although social workers perform many tasks in an expanding number of settings, the essential work of social work is to realize a progressive vision ofa just and caring society. This mission requires integrated practice that challenges oppres- sion and structural violence, offers care and accompaniment for casualties of that oppression, and co-constructs a society of individual and collective well-being and liberation. Guided by an organizing value of social justice (Marsh, 2005), social ‘workis holistically concerned with the petson-in-situation and intervening in that social reality to achieve these goals. This focus is fundamentally differen fom the foci of allied professions, although certain skills, knowledge, and functions overlap, Given the central function of the social work feld, social workers need to understand individuals, collectives, environments, and how they interrelate this is perhaps the most complex assignment of any profession. Isues that contempo- raty social workers and thei clients grapple with every day (for example, HIV/ AIDSin the United States and around the world; family breakdown and violence associated with deep, intergenerational poverty; the failure of education for an enormous numberof children in urban centers) illustrate this complexity but it has been present since the beginning of social work. One has only to read the work of (Charles Loring Brace (1872/1973) or Mary Richmond (1917) to see that problems and solutions to the most serious human challenges have never been simple to ‘understand and have always been challenging to address. 2 Fourdaions d Sula work Practice: A Gracias Te Altrough many social work practice functions can be performed effectively by. pparaproiessional and bachelor’s-level staff, the primary function ofthe graduate- level social worker is not so much to simply act as to think—to understand the pezplexing intricacies of each client's unique dilemma and pariner with the client in developing intervention strategies that are based on that understanding, (We use the tem “client,” standard inthe field, to discuss the genel case; in specific settings other terms including “participant,” “member,” survive," or simply “per- som” may be more respectful. Examples are found in later chapters) Professional practice cannot be based on simple formulas or uniform step-by-step prescriptions, although practice guidelines may be of significant use. As the social worker and e Felpful, parsimonious, and consistent with the cients welfare, Deciding on these steps requires an extensive knowledge base. Practice thatisbased entily on intui- ‘von er common sense is not only unprofessional, but also likely to be ineffective, Effectiveness, when it can be achieved, is an ethical mandate. Practice Wisdom Tractice wisdom—one form of knowledge for practice—is a slippery concept, yet there can be litle doubt that much of what happens in practice is rooted init. In this discussion, “practice wisdom” refers to two separate but related phenomena (explicit rules, handed down to others by experienced practitioners, that appear to work—heuristic rules viewed as good enough to guide much of practice—and (2) patterns of professional behavior, articulated of not, that have been shaped and refined through years of practice and often serve as models for other wors- ers, These two forms of knowledge are passed on from generation to generation of socal workers, sometimes asa form of oral tradition. Experienced social workers have offen learned a tremendous amount that can be of value to others and the importance of this type of knowledge should not be minimized, Reliance on such rules has associated risks, however. The rules may be in ‘curate but passed on persuasively by practitioners who strongly believe them tobe ‘nue; their application may then result in less-thar-adequate services to clients. For ‘ecample, social workers in the feld of substance abuse often rely on codependency theory, which “assert(s) that a woman married to an alcoholic contribute(s) to her husband's addiction because of her own disturbed personality needs” (Collins, 1993, p. 471}—an assertion for which there is no persuasive evidence (Collins, 1983: Peele, 1995) "Codependency” is perhaps a useful narrative for some ctu tions, but it carries clear risks; in some of ts common forms, codependency theory, defines most families as dysfunctional, characterizes shared responsiblity for col lective outcomes as bad, and suggests that attention should be directed primarily ‘todysfunction rather than strengths and personal power (Collins, 1983) Ithas also resulted in unjustifably blaming women and labeling them as pathological. The ‘term “codependence” is not found in most evidence-based work related to the Foundations of Socal Werk Pracice 9 families of those addicted to substances, who often prove to be among the most powerful resources for treatment ofthe person with addiction (Miller, Forcehimes, Zweben, & McLellan, 2011), The second type of practice wisdom—patterns of professional behavior shaped by practice experience—is also essential, although it is more difficult to capture. Sometimes social workers know what they are doing and why, and they can accurately explain it verbally. At other times, effective practitioners cannot explain exactly what they do or why, butby observing thie timing ofthe inflection oftheir voice during clinical sessions, for example, others can lear to do much {he same thing. Fr tis reason, among others, videotaped and audiotaped sample sessions and real or simulated clinical presentations are valuable. Observers can otic the principles that are the particular focus ofa session or demonstration, and they may be abe to learn, consciously or not, from the many subtle behavioral ‘events that occur simultaneously, Inresponse to the limitations of practice wisdom, contemporary social work- cers have increasingly come to value evidence-guided practice—practce that relies ‘on neither intuition nor authority but on critical examination of the best available evidence, particularly evidence that has been tested in rigorous, scientific ways (Gambrill, 2006) Certainly, practice involves much more than this (Gitterman & Kaight, 2013), but the importance of testing what one does and of seeking the bbest-ralidated information on which to base decisions can hardly be overem- phasized. Evidence-guided practice is discussed in depth in chapter 2 and in ‘subsequent chapters. Biological, Behavioral, and Sociocultural Sciences Moving beyond practice wisdom, much ofthe foundational knowledge for social ‘work practice has scientific roots. Social workers work with people (who are bio- logical, emotional, behavioral, and socal beings); with families, groups, communi ties, and organizations (which ae sociocultural entities); and with the relationships ‘among and between people, social entities, and the physical world, Because these are the raw materials of practice, itis important to understand as much as possible about them, Thus, social workers must know not only about practice and social, issues, but also about the basic sciences that undergird them, including biology and genetics, ecological science, and behavioral science and the disciplines that ‘examine lage systems, including sociology, anthropology, and cultural analysis, Some conditions that social workers deal with have clear physiological dimensions; for instance, although the effects of the environment appear to be ‘important determinants ofthe course and severity of schizophrenia, the underly- ing processes involved are usually biological in nature. The extent and nature of the iological basis of the disorder is not yet entirely clear, however, and serious ‘issues exist regarding the diagnosis (Bola & Pitts, 2005; Wong, 2006). In another ‘example serious depression is associated with changes in the level and actions of HO Foundations of Soci Werk Practice: A Grate Tet certain neurotransmitters inthe brain (Sadock & Sadock, 2007). That psychologi- ‘al interventions are nonetheless effective for many cases of depression (Nathan, & Gorman, 2007) demonstrates the essential unity of the human organism, Many psychophysiological connections exist in substance abuse (Miller & Carroll, 2006; Sadock ée Sadock, 2007), For example, children of people with severe addiction to alcohol are at substantially increased risk for alcohol problems themselves, There- fore, knowledge of biological and medical information in whatever area the socal ‘worker i practicing is essential Famed biologist and naturalist E.O. Wilson (1992) noted that Inumanity is part of nature, a species that evolved among other species. ‘The more closely we identify ourselves with the rest af life, the more quickly we will be able to discover the sources of human sensibility and Acquire the knowledge on which an enduring ethic, a sense of preferred direction, can be built. (p. 348) Since the 1960s, social workers have recognized that ecological science has ‘much tooffer them for understanding practice in a complex iaterconnected world, First, human beings are literally patt of the natural world and, like other ani ‘mals, need tobe able to obtain certain resources, including food, shelter, and social interaction, from their environments to survive, (Those basic needs are missing fof at continuous risk for many homeless and poor people} The connectedness among people and other parts of the natural world isan estential underpinning, of shared power in social work practice, which requires recognizing that service is not about doing something for someone else but rather about contributing to the interconnected web within which each person is simply «nexus. Ecofeminists have emphasized that ecological connectedness isnot just a metaphor but the reality othe human species (Besthorn & MeMillen, 2002; Data, 2011), An eco- logical perspective profoundly changes the definition of practice and clarifies the Importance of exploring the interlocking environmental event, human actions, and cultural practice within which client struggles occur. Ecological science is one ‘of the theoretical roots ofthe ecosystems perspective that has proven important, {or conceptualizing practice. Social workers draw on a tremendous wealth of information from the behav- {oral and socal sciences; most graduate programs include substantial coursework focused on human behavior inthe socal environment. Knossledge from psychol- ogy, behavior analysis social psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, demography, epidemiology, and political science, as wells from professions such as medline, psychiatry, and family therapy, is critical for eifective practice. For ‘example, work in the analysis of cultural practices can be useful for determining, ‘what needs to change in an ecological field to reduce the incidence of socal prob lems such as youth and collective violence (Mattaini, 2001, 2013) and to increase Foundstins of Socal Werk racice the rates of prosocal acts such as effective parenting ata community level (vine, Biglan, Smolcowski, Metzler & Ary, 1999) Practice Approaches Iti essential to be forthright in representing social work to graduate students ‘The profession is currently fragmented on several dimensions; one of the most potentially divisive has todo wit practice approaches (or practice models) which Feflet different and often conflicting worldviews. Although individual cases, and, therefore, specific interventions, are unique, the social worker seldom mus: or should, develop intervention strategies de novo, Practice approaches are organ zed systems of imervention designed to be applied in relatively consistent ways across ‘multiple cases (including groups and communities). Practice approaches not only, ‘permit social workers to apply what has been learned from other cass tothe :ur= rent one, but also are valuable in making explicit how the worker understands the case situztion and what is to be done about it In other words, when using a practice approach, the worker doesnot depend primarily on amorphous, unaricu- lated intuition—hich is no doubt always present —but engages in critical analysis consistent with a coherent conceptual framework ‘Social work practice like that of other helping professions, is grounded in the practitioner's understanding ofthe phenomena involved, inchiding individual ‘experiences and action, social phenomena, and the environmental context within ‘which they occur Inthe roughly 100 years during which the profession has evolved, many different practice approaches have emerged. A few key clusters, however, ‘encompass most practice approaches. Each of these foundational approacheshas contributed something to professional practice, and the graduate social worker should certainly have some exposure to each, if for no other reason than to beable to communicite with colleagues. [At the same time, its critical to avoid an eclectic stew that randomly mxes concepts from multiple approaches. Different approaches often sce the multple tases af hiiman action in different and, te some extent incompatible ways. A ‘moral model for understanding addictions, for example, would indicate the need for anact of will onthe part ofthe person with alcoholism while denying much of ‘what has been learned about substance abuse in recent decades. A disease medel would suggest the need to acknowledge powerlessness as an early step toward recovery Viewing addiction asa “complex self-organizing system” (a science-based model by Bickel & Potenza, 2006) opens a range of new and promising altema- tives. A social worker's basic cognitive framework for understanding human action {is unlikely to change from moment to moment and person to person, although :much can be sai for taking a fresh perspective at times. Given the crucial impor- tance of pracie approaches for providing effective service, those grounded in the most adequate and well-established underlying conceptual understandings should be privileged, 12. Foundations of Soil Work Practice: A Graduate Tent Psychosocial Practice ‘The oldest professional practice framework in social work is the psychosocial approach, which has continually evolved since Richmond's (1917) Social Dignoss, ‘This approach has, for at least seven decades, relied primarily on psychodynamic theory (inchuding modern developments in ego psychology, self psychology, object relations, and relational work). The key to understanding human behavior and ‘emotion inthis approach isthe developmental process aver the life course, much of Which is wen as outside ofthe client's conscious awareness. Because development ‘occurs primarily through experience, this approach has a place for the socal and physical environment, but that place has usually been primarily historical. Cur- rent environmental forces are certainly recognized by psychosocial social workers Dut often receive limited attention because they can be difficult to week into the underlying framework, In recent years, the emphasis in psychosocial social work has shifed toward relational models that emphasize the mutuality of interaction between client and social worker. There has been considerable reluctance to evaluate the outcomes ‘of psychosocial practice until recently, ut emerging research has generally been, supportive (Borden de Clark, 2012), at least for use in psychotherapeute practice. Among the best contemporary statements ofthis approach, both of which have attempted to adress the historical limitations of the model, are those of Goldstein, ‘Michls, ard Ringel (2009) and Borden and Clark (2012) Ecological Practice Partly in response to the bias that is often found in psychosocial work toward identifying individual dysfunction rather than transactional isues, the ecological approach, particularly the life model (Gitterman & Germain, 2008), emphasizes ‘mutual adaptation between person and environment. The life model applies eco- logica corstructs such as habitat, niche, parasitism, and stress and coping directly to the social world. (Note the overlap with the ecosystems perspective Its possible, however io practice ecosystemically from any practice approach.) This approach is also grounded in process, including human development over the life course and the process of helping over time. The mactl focuses particularly on certain, classes of problems, including life transitions traumas, dysfunctional rdationship patterns, and coping with environmental stressors Early versions ofthe approach were often criticized for being too optimistic about the potential to achieve balance in an often oppressive and exploitative envi ronment. Recent statements of the life model, however, have directly addressed structural injustice and oppression and emphasized the need for political ation Related approaches include person-enwironment practice (Kemp, Whittaker, & ‘Tracy, 1997), which heavily emphasizes assessing and enriching sociel support ‘networks and is based on both wellexplicated theory and emerging research Founctons of Soci Work Pracice 13 Ecobehavioral Practice ‘A third major cluster of practice approaches is the ecabehavioral approach, ‘which encompasses traditional behavioral, cognitive, and cognitive-behavioral approaches. In most contemporary social work variants, ecobehavioral practice pays extensive attention to the socal, cultural, and physical contexts of practice rather than focusing mostly on client behavior (whether overt or cognitive). Early behavioral models intially focused on direct work with overt client behavior; similarly, early cognitive-behavioral approaches tended to focus narrowly on client self-talk without adequately addressing environmental transactions. Both approaches emphasized the importance of well-supported theory and research, however, which led to their expansion. ‘There are now ecobehavioral approaches to work with individual, group, family, organizational, and community levels of practice (many are discussed later in this volume). Modern ecobehavioral practice encompasses both overt action and private experiences (cognitive and emotional), recognizes historical origins ‘of human challenges (as does the psychosocial model), and typically works inten- sively with current environmental influences (as does the ecological model) that shape human experience, including the dynamics of oppression and exploitation, In its contemporary manifestations, ecobehavioral practice places a heavy focus on shared power and on the co-construction ofan improved realty (in contrast to treating problems) (Mattaini & Moore, 2004), but also on the exercise of strategic nonviolent power to challenge injustice when necessary (Mattani, 2013), Berlin's (2002) cognitive-integrative approach, one ecobchavioral variation, attends not only to cognitive factors, bu also to environmental events and conditions and overt behavioral work. Ecobehavioral practice is deeply grounded in behavioral, cogni- tive, and cultural analytic science and in recent years has incorporated significant elements from structural practice (discussed next) ‘Structural Practice Rooted in critical theory, structural social work focuses on the socioeconomic and politcal organization of society (Mullaly, 2007). Social problems are understood as the direct resultof the inherent inequality and oppression created by unconstrained capitalism, and their solutions, therefore, must be found in working toward the transformation ofthe current socal order. Evolving from a socialist ideology, the structural appreach to social work practice emerged inthe 1970s in response tocon- cern that traditional models of practice pathologized clients whose circumstances ‘were not the result of their own deficiencies but rather were directly caused by inadequate and unjust socal structures (Middleman & Goldberg, 1974; Morea, 1979). At the core of a structural approach isthe belief that society is currently ‘organized to marginalize and exploit people along the lines of class, gender, race, sexual identity religion, ability, and so forth, and itis the duty of social workers to V4 Foundations of Seca Werk Practice: A Grate Text ject the status quo and work to eliminate power and resource disparities (Mul- aly, 2007; Weinberg, 2008). Structural social work is concerned with both “liberating persons and liber: ating structures" (Carniol, 1992), It calls for the transformation of current social, ‘economic, and political institutions as well as caze for those victimized by them (Gully, 2007). Structural social work is part of a larger collection of antioppres- sive approaches (fer example, ferninist and antiraiatfasstenrks) that seek £0 intervene atthe levels at which the privilege, domination, and exploitation atthe root of socal problems exist (Dominelli 2002; Robbins, 2011). Practice methods are centered on consciousness raising and finding resilience in the context of dialogic rlationships as well as empowering collective challenges to systemic inequalities toachieve structural change. Indigenous and Ethnically Specific Practice Secial work has struggled with cultural competence ever since the recognition of diversity among client groups, Even the phrase “cultural competence” has repeat- edly been contested. A continuing dialectic between professionaization and rec- cognition of the depths of cultural differences is now creating new and valuable conflicts and struggles. In the context of globalization, contemporary efforts to establish standards for social work around the globe have been viewed by many indigenous groups, both in the United States and globally, and by theorists of indigenous practice as a new form of colonialism and professional territoriality that may in fact cause further damage. The extent to Which conceptual and practice approaches (and research) developed in Western countries ("from the West tothe res") can be helpful in entirely different cultural setting is therefore being chal- lenged (Gray etal, 2008; Tuhiwai Smith, 2012), ‘As a result, movement toward indigenous practice and research models as forms of political resistance is emerging (Gray et al, 2008; Tuhiwai Smith, 2012), These approaches emphasize decolonization and rely on identifying and inte- grating traditional values and traditional modes of helping into practic from the ground up, rather than on adapting what are basically Western practices. Such approaches often focus more on collective and spiritual practices than on psycho logical theory. For example, Western social workers seldom turn to shamanistic practices, bringing private troubles into the public square in the context of mutual aid, the use of drumming and sweats, or referral tothe extended family in cases of intimate partner violence, but each ofthese occurs in indigenous practices in some cultures. Simply training local social workers in Wester practices does not produce indigenous practice; rather, the practice itself emerges from local cultures, Ethnically specific approaches in the United States are related For example, Afrocentric models structure practice according to traditional African valtes and ‘cultural practices (Gilbert, Harvey, & Belgrave, 2009; O'Donnell & Karan, 2000), FounditensofSocalWorkPacice 1S Other models are specific to single indigenous nation (for example, a Lakota- specific approach as described by Voss, Douville, Little Soldier, é Twiss, 1999), Many such approaches incorporate a heavy focus on family and community con- text end de-emphasize individual, pathology-focused diagnosis. A single indig {enous approach that becomes foundational will not emerge, because indigenous, approaches are by definition local. Given an emphasis on empowerment and rec Cognition of the new colonialism and structural injustice, itis likey that a highly diverse set of indigenous approaches will be developed around the world—and this wil be progress for socal work Given the diversity present, how is a practitioner to decide what practice approach or approaches to rely on? Up to a point, a disciplined eclecticism in Which techniques and strategies drawn from multiple approaches are selected on the basis of their empirical support can be useful. Random eclecticism, however, in ‘which practice is not shaped by any coherent understanding but simply emerges {rom momentary preference, intuition, or personal belief, is neither professional nor likely to be effective—and therefore poses serious ethical problems. When social workers engage, for example in reparative therapies that claim to change sexual orientation despite overwhelming scientific evidence that such treatment is not only ineffective but can cause serious harm, the importance of eriical thinking and accurate knowledge is clear. Established knowledge and research certainly can help. The evidence-guided practice process can guide the socal work practitioner toward locating and relying ‘on intervention strategies that have withstood rigorous, critical evaluation, tothe exten that such strategies are known, If what works is atleast pastially known, the social worker has an ethical imperative to attend to that knowledge. Some authors (for example, Thyer, 2012) involved in the movement toward evidence- {guided practice believe that it could eventually replace concern with models and approaches and that social workers will then simply do what has been shown to ‘be mest effective. Unique problems and situations will always require comprehen sive theoretical frameworks to decode and understand them, however, and those frameworks must be broad enough to take the crucial dimensions of oppression, and justice into account. Practice Processes Practise is nonlinear, but itis not ranclom or chaotic. Certain processes must occur if socal workers are to be helptul. Those processes tend to occur in a systematic bbut not invariant order. They are also recursive, and social workers will often find themlves cycling back to move ahead, First, the social worker must be able to engage the cent in a genuine human, sclaionship of shared power—not asa separate process, but organically throughout ‘the work. A good deal of research supports what every skilled social worker knows 16 Fourdaton of Soci Werk Pace: A Grate Tet ‘The facilitating conditions of empathic communication, warmth and respect, and authenticity are crucial. Those principles were first elaborated by Car! Rogers and were subsequently explicitly adopted and adapted by social workers (for example, Hepworth, Rooney, Rooney, & Strom-Gottried, 2013), who had for many years recognized the centrality ofthe helping relationship (Perlman, 1979). The worker who cannot achieve those necessary (but not sufficient) conditions will fail with ‘most clients, A complication is that people are often not the best judges of their ‘own interpersonal skills, so supervised practice, including feedback, is essential to ensuring competence Social work practice in many situations calls not just for maintaining a rela- tionship with a cient, but instead building one together that is transformational Roca, a community-based youth organization near Boston, describes the transfor- ‘ational relationships among its community of staff and young people as long term, trusting relationships characterized by high accountability and unconditional love and support Boyes-Watson, 2008). They are relationships defined by accom- paniment rather than simply by aid that for many ofthe young people who are a part of Roca “function asa catalyst for change" (Boyes-Watson, 2008, p. 48) Finally, a sodal worker must know how to intervene to help. Intervention is always rooted in data about a particular case that are uncovered during explora- tion and organized in a coherent way in an individualized assessment, Because not everything tried works, an integrated process of monitoring and evaluation is also core to practice. These processes, which are central to effective practice, are emphasized in subsequent chapters, partculatly chapter 11 CONTEXTS OF PRACTICE All practice occurs in a context that shapes the practice. “Context” as used here refers to the systems and conditions that constitute the envionment ofthe case, sometimes ata substantial distance. The results of welfare reform and the changing economy, for example, have had major effects on the way in which social workers ‘work with clients and communities. In health and, increasingly, in other fields of practice, managed care networks have become the norm, and there is much less emphasis on a private entrepreneurial model of care, Therefore, the importance of focused, shorterm work—which has been growing for some time—continues, to grow. In child welfire, heterosexst laws that in some states prohibit same-sex cou ples from adoptirg not only violate fundamental human rights, but also further restrict the already limited options for socal workers seeking permanent homes {or children. The work of community building in resource-deprived neighborhoods {is too frequently interrupted by a criminal justice system that continues to incar- cerate young blacc men at rates astronomically disproportionate to those of theit white peers. These are examples of some ofthe contexts of social work practice. Foundatens Soca! Work rate 17 ‘They include policy and funding mechanisms, the physical environment, natural networks, institutions, cultures and the profession itself, They are the social, co- ‘nomic, physical and political conditions and structures in which clients, workers, agencies, and service systems are embedded, Social work's mission draws attention to the severe social problems with which peopl, families, and communities grapple, from ameliorating (or prevent ing) dificulties to intervening in crises. Issues such as violence (domestic and nondomestc), the maltreatment of children, addictions, homelessness, poverty, racism, natural and manmade disasters, effects of war and terrorism (and theit complex roots), isolation, and mental and physical illnesses constitute both the ‘content and the context of social work practice. Many of these issues are at root structural. Many natural disasters are at root manmade, in that the damage people ‘experience is often highly correlated with race and class, with inadequate protec- tions in place for the poor. A FINAL WORD ‘Thsbook recognizes that social work sa complex professional field and dale with. that complexity. The central purpose of tis book is to suport courses focused on. the foundations of practice by (a) introducing graduate students tothe core knowl- edge and values of professional practice and (b) encouraging the development of prectcal skis consistent with that knowledge and those values while () view ing the work of social work as supporting social justice within the web of human and wider environmental connectedness. Specialized knowledge and experience accumulated beyond this course will then strike a familiarnote, Because the broad. contours of practice have been sketched here. SAMPLE LAB ACTIVITY Using a simplified talking circle format, pose a series of serious questions to the class such as "What do you believe are the most important ideas from this chap- ter? What had the greatest impacton you while you were reading?” “What do you think willbe the most challenging thing about working in your field placement?” and "What are you most excited about?” ‘Tobegin the circle, students and instructor should be seated ina single circle, and the process should be introduced, including the use of a talking piece (which ‘may be somethirg meaningful or a card stating the frst question). While holding the talking piece, the instructor (ora student, once students have experience with circles) asks the frst question, provides an answer, and passes the talking piece to the person on the left. That person answers the question and passes the talking, piece on. Participants may pass but must then wait until the talking piece comes 1B Foundations of Soci Werk race: A Grade Text arouncl again o speak. Only the person holding the talkirg piece may speak Each, time the talking piece travels around the circle, a new question can be introduced. ‘The instructor should model speaking from the heart end going progressively. deeper throughout the exercise. (See content on circle processes in chapter 8 for further information.) [Note to instructors: All exercises inthis book should be adapted or replaced to fit instructor style and class readiness REFERENCES Berlin, S. B. (2002). Clinical socal work practice: A cagitie-integrtive perspective ‘New York: Oxford University Press. Besthora, FH, & McMillen, D. P. (2002). The oppression of women and nature: Ecofeminism asa framework for an expanded ecological social work. Fimilies in Society 833), 221-232, Bickel, W. K, ée Potenza, M.N. (2006). The forest and the tees: Addiction as a com- plex self-organizing system. In W. R. Miller & K. M. Carroll (Eds), Rethinking substance abuse: What te science shows, and what we shaud do about i! (pp. 8-21). [New York: Guilford Press. Bola, J. , ée Pitts, D.B. (2005). Assessing the scientific status of “schizophrenia.” ‘in S.A. Kisk (Ed), Mental disorders in the socal enironnent (pp. 120-136). New York: Columbia University Press. Borden, W. & Clark, J.J. 2012). Contemporary psychodynamic theory, research, and practice: Implications for evidence-based intervention. In. L. Rzepnicki, 5.G.MeCracken, é HE. Briggs (Eds), From task-centeredsoia work fo evidence- bse and integrative practice (pp. 65-87). Chicago: Lyceum Books. Boyes-Watson, C. (2008). Peacemaking circles and urban yout: Bringing justice home. Saint Paul, MN: Living Justice Press. Brace, C.L. (1973). The dangerous classes of New York, and tventy years’ work among. then, Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Sccial Workers. 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