Presentation at

http://bit.ly/codemash-testing

Friday, January 14, 2011 1

 Are You Satisfied
with Your Tests?
-- or --
Why don't we do it like this ...

Jim Weirich
Chief Scientist / EdgeCase
jim@edgecase.com
@jimweirich

Friday, January 14, 2011 2

 Testing

Friday, January 14, 2011 3

 Your Doing it
All Wrong!!!!

Friday, January 14, 2011 3

 Survey ...

Friday, January 14, 2011 4

 Unit Tests?
Java VS .Net VS Functional?
Python VS Ruby Javascript?
Developers? End to end?

Testing:
TDD/BDD?
Unit Testing?
Any Testing?

Friday, January 14, 2011 5

 Unit Tests?
Java VS .Net VS Functional?
Python VS Ruby Javascript?
Developers? End to end?

Are you happy

with your testing?
Testing:
TDD/BDD?
Unit Testing?
Any Testing?

Friday, January 14, 2011 5

 Slow Tests

Friday, January 14, 2011 6

 Jeff Nielsen
Psychology of Build Times

•Unit Tests

•Checkin Tests

Friday, January 14, 2011 7

 Jeff Nielsen
Psychology of Build Times

•Unit Tests <10 seconds

•Checkin Tests

Friday, January 14, 2011 7

 Jeff Nielsen
Psychology of Build Times

•Unit Tests <10 seconds

•Checkin Tests <10 Minutes

Friday, January 14, 2011 7

 Blasé Attitude
toward Failing Tests

Friday, January 14, 2011 8

Friday, January 14, 2011 9
 Fear leads to anger,
anger leads to hate,
hate leads to suffering.
-- Yoda
Friday, January 14, 2011 10
 Failing tests lead to anger,
anger leads to hate,
hate leads to suffering.
-- Yoda
Friday, January 14, 2011 11
Friday, January 14, 2011 12
 Over Mocking

Friday, January 14, 2011 13

 When to Mock

• Using an external service

• Verifying a protocol
• Objects are complicated to create

Friday, January 14, 2011 14

 When to Mock

• Using an external service

• Verifying a protocol
• Objects are complicated to create

Friday, January 14, 2011 14

 External Service

Your Auth Client Auth

Application Lib Service

Friday, January 14, 2011 15

 External Service

Your
Application
X
Auth Client
Lib
Auth
Service

Mocked
Authorization
Client Lib

Friday, January 14, 2011 16

 Verifying a Protocol
Client
Software

get_connection
(many times)

Connction Pool
get_connection
release_connection

get_connection
(once)

DB
get_connection
release_connection

Friday, January 14, 2011 17

 Verifying a Protocol
Client
Software

get_connection
(many times)

Connction Pool
get_connection
release_connection

get_connection
(once)

X
Mock DB
get_connection get_connection
release_connection release_connection

Friday, January 14, 2011 18

 Verifying a Protocol
Client
Software

get_connection
(many times)
Code Under Test
Connction Pool
get_connection
release_connection

get_connection
(once)

X
Mock DB
get_connection get_connection
release_connection release_connection

Friday, January 14, 2011 19

 Verifying a Protocol
Client
Software

get_connection
(many times)
Code Under Test
Connction Pool
get_connection
release_connection
Mock
get_connection
(once)

X
Mock DB
get_connection get_connection
release_connection release_connection

Friday, January 14, 2011 19

 Overmocking Clues

• You create mocks returning mocks

• You have fantasy tests

Friday, January 14, 2011 20

 price
Service Trip
Contract
discount
price
amount_charged * 1

Friday, January 14, 2011 21

 test "applies discounts to service price" do
contract = flexmock(:model, Contract,
:price => 100.0)
trip = Factory.build(:service_trip,
:discount => 0.30,
:contract => contract)

assert_equal 70.00, trip.amount_charged

end

Friday, January 14, 2011 22

 Mocked to return value

test "applies discounts to service price" do

contract = flexmock(:model, Contract,
:price => 100.0)
trip = Factory.build(:service_trip,
:discount => 0.30,
:contract => contract)

assert_equal 70.00, trip.amount_charged

end

Friday, January 14, 2011 22

 Refactor!

price
Service Trip
Contract
discount
price
amount_charged * 1

Friday, January 14, 2011 23

 Refactor!

price
Service Trip
Contract
discount
price_per_visit
amount_charged * 1

Friday, January 14, 2011 24

 Refactor!

price
Service Trip
Contract
discount
price_per_visit
amount_charged * 1

1 tests, 1 assertions, 0 failures, 0 errors, 0 skips

Friday, January 14, 2011 24

 Refactor!
Wrong method name!

price
Service Trip
Contract
discount
price_per_visit
amount_charged * 1

1 tests, 1 assertions, 0 failures, 0 errors, 0 skips

Friday, January 14, 2011 24

 Fix Service Trip
Correct Method Name

price_per_visit
Service Trip
Contract
discount
price_per_visit
amount_charged * 1

Friday, January 14, 2011 25

 Fix Service Trip
Correct Method Name

price_per_visit
Service Trip
Contract
discount
price_per_visit
amount_charged * 1

NoMethodError: undefined method `price_per_visit'

for "#<FlexMock>":Service
1 tests, 0 assertions, 0 failures, 1 errors, 0 skips

Friday, January 14, 2011 25

 Fantasy Tests

• Pass when the code is incorrect.

• Fail when the code is correct.

Friday, January 14, 2011 26

 Summary

• Use a mock to
• Mock an external service
• Verify a protocol
• Don't use a mock to:
• Avoid creating complex Objects

Friday, January 14, 2011 27

 Complex
Object Builds

Friday, January 14, 2011 28

 Customer Service Type
Service Tech
1 1
1
*
* *
* * 1
Service Trip Contract Sales Rep
1
* 1
1
1
Missed 1
* Schedule
Service Schedule
Template
Reason

Friday, January 14, 2011 29

 Customer Service Type
Service Tech
1 1
1
*
* *
* * 1
Service Trip Contract Sales Rep
1
* 1
1
1
Missed 1
* Schedule
Service Schedule
Template
Reason

Friday, January 14, 2011 29

 Customer Service Type
Service Tech
1 1
1
*
* *
* * 1
Service Trip Contract Sales Rep
1
* 1
1
1
Missed 1
* Schedule
Service Schedule
Template
Reason

Friday, January 14, 2011 29

 Customer Service Type
Service Tech
1 1
1
*
* *
* * 1
Service Trip Contract Sales Rep
1
* 1
1
1
Missed 1
* Schedule
Service Schedule
Template
Reason

Friday, January 14, 2011 29

 Customer Service Type
Service Tech
1 1
1
*
* *
* * 1
Service Trip Contract Sales Rep
1
* 1
1
1
Missed 1
* Schedule
Service Schedule
Template
Reason

Friday, January 14, 2011 29

 Customer Service Type
Service Tech
1 1
1
*
* *
* * 1
Service Trip Contract Sales Rep
1
* 1
1
1
Missed 1
* Schedule
Service Schedule
Template
Reason

Friday, January 14, 2011 29

 Customer Service Type
Service Tech
1 1
1
*
* *
* * 1
Service Trip Contract Sales Rep
1
* 1
1
1
Missed 1
* Schedule
Service Schedule
Template
Reason

Friday, January 14, 2011 30

 Factory.define :service_trip do |trip|
trip.association :service_tech
trip.association :missed_service_reason
trip.association :contract
trip.discount 0.0
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 31

 Create in Database

test "Time for Factory.create" do

bench("Factory.create") {
TIMES.times do
trip = Factory.create(:service_trip)
end
}
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 32

 Create in Database

test "Time for Factory.create" do

bench("Factory.create") {
TIMES.times do
trip = Factory.create(:service_trip)
end
}
end

Time: 4.75 Seconds

Friday, January 14, 2011 32

 Faster Database
(sqlite3)
test "Time for Factory.create" do
bench("Factory.create") {
TIMES.times do
trip = Factory.create(:service_trip)
end
}
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 33

 Faster Database
(sqlite3)
test "Time for Factory.create" do
bench("Factory.create") {
TIMES.times do
trip = Factory.create(:service_trip)
end
}
end

Time: 4.37 Seconds

Friday, January 14, 2011 33

 Factory In-Memory
test "Time for Factory.create" do
bench("Factory.create") {
TIMES.times do
trip = Factory.build(:service_trip)
end
}
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 34

 Factory In-Memory
test "Time for Factory.create" do
bench("Factory.create") {
TIMES.times do
trip = Factory.build(:service_trip)
end
}
end Build In Memory

Friday, January 14, 2011 34

 Factory In-Memory
test "Time for Factory.create" do
bench("Factory.create") {
TIMES.times do
trip = Factory.build(:service_trip)
end
}
end Build In Memory

Time: 3.98 Seconds

Friday, January 14, 2011 34

 Built In Memory

Customer Service Type

Service Tech
1 1
1
*
* *
* * 1
Service Trip Contract Sales Rep
1
* 1
1
1
Missed 1
* Schedule
Service Schedule
Template
Reason

Friday, January 14, 2011 35

 Built In Database

Customer Service Type

Service Tech
1 1
1
*
* *
* * 1
Service Trip Contract Sales Rep
1
* 1
1
1
Missed 1
* Schedule
Service Schedule
Template
Reason

Friday, January 14, 2011 36

 Using Mocks
test "Time for Mocking" do
bench("Flexmock") {
TIMES.times do
trip = Factory.build(:service_trip,
:missed_service_reason =>
flexmock(:model, MissedServiceReason),
:service_tech =>
flexmock(:model, ServiceTech),
:contract => flexmock(:model, Contract))
end
}
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 37

 Using Mocks
test "Time for Mocking" do
bench("Flexmock") {
TIMES.times do
trip = Factory.build(:service_trip,
:missed_service_reason =>
flexmock(:model, MissedServiceReason),
:service_tech =>
flexmock(:model, ServiceTech),
:contract => flexmock(:model, Contract))
end
}
end

Time: 0.59 seconds

Friday, January 14, 2011 37

Using Factory.attributes_for
test "Time for Custom Factory" do
bench("Factory attributes") {
TIMES.times do
attrs = Factory.attributes_for(:service_trip)
attrs.merge(
:missed_service_reason => ...,
:service_tech => ...,
:contract => ...)
trip = ServiceTrip.new(attrs)
end
}
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 38

Using Factory.attributes_for
test "Time for Custom Factory" do
bench("Factory attributes") {
TIMES.times do
attrs = Factory.attributes_for(:service_trip)
attrs.merge(
:missed_service_reason => ...,
:service_tech => ...,
:contract => ...)
trip = ServiceTrip.new(attrs)
end
}
end

Time: 0.30 seconds

Friday, January 14, 2011 38

 Custom In-Memory
test "Time for Custom Build" do
bench("Custom") {
TIMES.times do
trip = ServiceTrip.new(
:missed_service_reason =>
MissedServiceReason.new,
:service_tech => ServiceTech.new,
:contract => Contract.new)
end
}
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 39

 Custom In-Memory
test "Time for Custom Build" do
bench("Custom") {
TIMES.times do
trip = ServiceTrip.new(
:missed_service_reason =>
MissedServiceReason.new,
:service_tech => ServiceTech.new,
:contract => Contract.new)
end
}
end

Custom: 0.06 Seconds

Friday, January 14, 2011 39

 Timing Summary
Factory / mysql

Factory / sqlite3

Factory Build

Mocks d

Factory / Attrs

Raw New

0 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00

Seconds

Friday, January 14, 2011 40

 Gratuitous Use
of the Database

Friday, January 14, 2011 41

 def test_total_cost
order = Order.create(
:items => [Item.create(:cost => 10)])
assert_equal 10, order.total_cost
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 42

 In the Database?

def test_total_cost
order = Order.create(
:items => [Item.create(:cost => 10)])
assert_equal 10, order.total_cost
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 42

 def test_total_cost
order = Order.new(
Text
:items => [Item.new(:cost => 10)])
assert_equal 10, order.total_cost
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 43

 save VS valid?

def test_order_fails_with_bad_supplier
order = Order.new(:supplier => :bad)
assert ! order.save
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 44

 save VS valid?

def test_order_fails_with_bad_supplier
order = Order.new(:supplier => :bad)
assert ! order.valid?
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 45

 save VS valid?
def test_order_fails_with_bad_supplier
order = Order.new(:supplier => :bad)

assert ! order.valid?
assert model.errors.on(:supplier)
assert_match(/(invalid|bad).*supplier/i,
model.errors.on(field).to_s,
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 46

 Custom Assertions

Friday, January 14, 2011 47

 def assert_tween(min, max, actual, name)
assert actual >= min,
"#{name} must be >= #{min} (was #{actual})"
Text
assert actual <= max,
"#{name} must be <= #{max} (was #{actual})"
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 48

 should 'be randomly distributed' do
collect_face_counts.each do |face, count|
assert_tween 1, 6, face, "face"
Text
assert_tween 800, 1200, count, "count"
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 49

 def assert_validation_error_on(model,
field=nil,
pattern=//)
if field
assert ! model.valid?
assert model.errors.on(field)
assert_match(re,
model.errors.on(field).to_s)
else
assert ! model.valid?
assert_match(re,
model.errors.full_messages.join(", "))
end
end

(note: real version has custom error messages)

Friday, January 14, 2011 50
 Over Meta in Tests

Friday, January 14, 2011 51

 %w(name address).each do |feature|
it "clears the #{feature} field" do
@item.send("clear_#{feature}")
Text
assert_equal "", @item.name
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 52

 Explicit Reference

%w(name address).each do |feature|

it "clears the #{feature} field" do
@item.send("clear_#{feature}")
Text
assert_equal "", @item.name
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 52

 it "clears the name field" do
@item.clear_name
assert_equal "", @item.name
end
Text
it "clears the address field" do
@item.clear_address
assert_equal "", @item.address
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 53

 Testing Private Methods

Friday, January 14, 2011 54

 describe :load_personal_data do
before do
@entry = stubbed_entry
@entry.stub!(:owner).and_return(:owner_id)
controller.instance_variable_set('@entry', @entry)
end

it "loads the personal data from from the" do

Text
controller.stub!(:params).
and_return(:person => 'John Doe')
PersonalDataService.
should_receive(:get_personal_data).
with(:owner_id)

controller.send(:load_personal_data)
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 55

 describe :load_personal_data do
before do
@entry = stubbed_entry
@entry.stub!(:owner).and_return(:owner_id)
controller.instance_variable_set('@entry', @entry)
end

Pathelogical
it "loads the personal data Coupling
from from the" do
Text
controller.stub!(:params).
and_return(:person => 'John Doe')
PersonalDataService.
should_receive(:get_personal_data).
with(:owner_id)

controller.send(:load_personal_data)
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 56

 describe :load_personal_data do
before do
@entry = stubbed_entry
@entry.stub!(:owner).and_return(:owner_id)
controller.instance_variable_set('@entry', @entry)
end

it "loads the personal data from from the" do

Text
controller.stub!(:params).
and_return(:person => 'John Doe')
PersonalDataService.
More Pathelogical Coupling
should_receive(:get_personal_data).
with(:owner_id)

controller.send(:load_personal_data)
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 57

 describe :load_personal_data do
before do
@entry = stubbed_entry
@entry.stub!(:owner).and_return(:owner_id)
controller.instance_variable_set('@entry', @entry)
end

it "loads the personal data from from the" do

Text
controller.stub!(:params).
and_return(:person => 'John Doe')
PersonalDataService.
Bypass Normal Privacy Controls
should_receive(:get_personal_data).
with(:owner_id)

controller.send(:load_personal_data)
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 58

 In Campfire ...

Jim W: Move it to another class and test that class

Testing private controller methods via send
makes controller tests WAY too brittle.
d
Scott B: it also kills unicorns
so - congratulations. now they're extinct.

Friday, January 14, 2011 59

Friday, January 14, 2011 60
Friday, January 14, 2011 61
Friday, January 14, 2011 62
 Incorrect use of
Describe / Context

Friday, January 14, 2011 63

 it "clears the name field" do
@item.clear_name
assert_equal "", @item.name
end
Text
it "clears the address field" do
@item.clear_address
assert_equal "", @item.address
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 64

 describe Item do
describe "#clear_name" do
it "clears the name field" do
...
end
end
Text
describe "#clear_address" do
it "clears the address field" do
...
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 65

 describe "#score" do
before { @bowling = BowlingScorer.new }
context "with no throws" do
before { @throws = [] }
it "returns zero" do
@bowling.score(@throws).should == 0
end
end Text
context "with one throw" do
before { @throws = [9] }
it "returns the throw" do
@bowling.score(@throws).should == 9
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 66

 describe "#score" do
before { @bowling = BowlingScorer.new }
context "with no throws" do
before { @throws = [] }
it "returns zero" do
@bowling.score(@throws).should == 0
end
end Text
context "with one throw" do
before { @throws = [9] }
it "returns the throw" do
@bowling.score(@throws).should == 9
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 67

 describe "#score" do
before { @bowling = BowlingScorer.new }
context "with no throws" do
before { @throws = [] }
it "returns zero" do
@bowling.score(@throws).should == 0
end
end Text
context "with one throw" do
before { @throws = [9] }
it "returns the throw" do
@bowling.score(@throws).should == 9
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 68

 describe "#score" do
before { @bowling = BowlingScorer.new }
context "with no throws" do
before { @throws = [] }
it "returns zero" do
@bowling.score(@throws).should == 0
end
end Text
context "with one throw" do
before { @throws = [9] }
it "returns the throw" do
@bowling.score(@throws).should == 9
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 69

 Guidelines

• Use describe with ...

• Things
• (class names, method names)
• Use context with ...
• Situations
• (when ..., with ...)

Friday, January 14, 2011 70

 Refactoring Tests

Friday, January 14, 2011 71

 describe "#score" do
before { @bowling = BowlingScorer.new }
context "with no throws" do
before { @throws = [] }
it "returns zero" do
@bowling.score(@throws).should == 0
end
end Text
context "with one throw" do
before { @throws = [9] }
it "returns the throw" do
@bowling.score(@throws).should == 9
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 72

 describe "#score" do
let(:bowling) { BowlingScorer.new }
context "with no throws" do
let(:throws) { [] }
it "returns zero" do
bowling.score(throws).should == 0
end
end Text
context "with one throw" do
let(:throws) { [9] }
it "returns the throw" do
bowling.score(throws).should == 9
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 73

 describe "#score" do
let(:bowling) { BowlingScorer.new }
context "with no throws" do
let(:throws) { [] }
it "returns zero" do
bowling.score(throws).should == 0
end
Lazy Initialization
end Text
context "with one throw" do
let(:throws) { [9] }
it "returns the throw" do
bowling.score(throws).should == 9
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 74

 describe "#score" do
let(:bowling) { BowlingScorer.new }
context "with no throws" do
let(:throws) { [] }
it "returns zero" do
bowling.score(throws).should == 0
end
Lazy Initialization
end Text
context "with one throw" do
let(:throws) { [9] }
it "returns the throw" do
bowling.score(throws).should == 9
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 75

 describe "#score" do
let(:bowling) { BowlingScorer.new }
context "with no throws" do
let(:throws) { [] }
it "returns zero" do
bowling.score(throws).should == 0
end
end Text
Using Lazy Initializations
context "with one throw" do
let(:throws) { [9] }
it "returns the throw" do
bowling.score(throws).should == 9
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 76

 it "should return the throw" do
bowling.score(throws).should
Text == 9
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 77

 it "should return the throw" do
bowling.score(throws).should
Text == 9
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 77

 it "returns the throw" do
bowling.score(throws).should
Text == 9
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 78

 describe Stack do
context "stack with one item" do
let(:stack) { a_stack_with_one_item }
context "when popped" do
before { stack.pop }
it "is empty" Text
do
stack.should be_empty
end
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 79

 describe Stack do
context "stack with one item" do
let(:stack) { a_stack_with_one_item }
context "when popped" do
before { stack.pop }
it "is empty" Text
do
stack.should be_empty
end
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 79

 describe Stack do
context "stack with one item" do
let(:stack) { a_stack_with_one_item }
context "when popped" do
before { stack.pop }
it "is empty" Text
do
stack.should be_empty
end
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 79

 describe Stack do
context "stack with one item" do
let(:stack) { a_stack_with_one_item }
context "when popped" do
before { stack.pop }
it "is empty" Text
do
stack.should be_empty
end
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 79

 describe Stack do
context "nearly empty" do
subject { a_stack_with_one_item }
context "when popped" do
Text
before { subject.pop }
it { should be_empty }
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 80

 Declare Subject
describe Stack do
context "nearly empty" do
subject { a_stack_with_one_item }
context "when popped" do
Text
before { subject.pop }
it { should be_empty }
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 81

 Explicit Use
describe Stack do
context "nearly empty" do
subject { a_stack_with_one_item }
context "when popped" do
Text
before { subject.pop }
it { should be_empty }
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 82

 describe Stack do
context "nearly empty" do
subject { a_stack_with_one_item }
context "when popped" do
Text
before { subject.pop }
it { should be_empty }
end
end Implicit Use
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 83

 What Code is Under Test?

describe Stack do
context "nearly empty" do
Text
subject { a_stack_with_one_item }
context "when popped" do
before { subject.pop }
it { should be_empty }
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 84

 What Code is Under Test?
What Code is Setup?
describe Stack do
context "nearly empty" do
Text
subject { a_stack_with_one_item }
context "when popped" do
before { subject.pop }
it { should be_empty }
end
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 85

 gem rspec-given

describe Stack do
context "nearly empty" do
Given(:stack) { a_stack_with_one_item }
When { stack.pop Text
}
Then { stack.should be_empty }
end
end

Friday, January 14, 2011 86

 Specifications
(not tests)

Friday, January 14, 2011 87

 TDD BDD

Friday, January 14, 2011 88

 Testing Specifying
Code Behavior

Friday, January 14, 2011 89

 RSpec != Specifying
Behavior

Friday, January 14, 2011 90

 Two Questions

Friday, January 14, 2011 91

 (1)
If I wanted to use this
software in my project,
what behaviors are
important to me?

Friday, January 14, 2011 92

 (1)

Necessary

Friday, January 14, 2011 93

 (2)
Could I write this
software from scratch
using only the tests/
specs as guidance?

Friday, January 14, 2011 94

 (2)

Sufficient

Friday, January 14, 2011 95

 Things that are
Important ...

Friday, January 14, 2011 96

 public methods
(names, args, contract)

Friday, January 14, 2011 97

 public protocols

Friday, January 14, 2011 98

 Things that are
NOT Important ...

Friday, January 14, 2011 99

 private methods

Friday, January 14, 2011 100

 Ancillary Objects

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 Summary

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 (1) Tests are Code
Treat them with the same respect
as the rest of your source code.

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 (2) Tests are
Specifications
Focus on the What,
Not the How

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 Questions?

Jim Weirich
Chief Scientist / EdgeCase
jim@edgecase.com
@jimweirich

(photo by James Duncan Davidson)

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 Image Attributions
cables: Scott the (angrykeyboarder on Flickr)
snail: http://photozou.jp/photo/show/38290/21923871
data center: Christopher Bowns (cbowns on Flickr)
report card: (amboo who? on Flickr)
giraffe: (Kurt Thomas Hunt on Flickr)
custom guitar: (The Creamery on Picasa)
escher mirror: (Bert K on Flickr)
privacy: Rob Pongsajapan (rpongsaj on Flickr)
russian dolls: (frangipani photograph on Flickr)
shuttle specs: Tom Peck (ThreadedThoughts on Flickr)
bubble wrap: GNU Free Documentation License.
questions: (Rock Alien on Flickr)

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 License

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