Theories of Personality-I

UNIT 2 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF

PERSONALITY (BANDURA)

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Social Cognitive Theory
2.2.1 Main Tenets of Social Cognitive Theory
2.3 Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
2.3.1 Reciprocal Determinism
2.3.2 Self-system
2.3.3 Principles of Observational Learning
2.3.4 Vicarious Learning
2.3.5 Evaluation of Bandura’s Theory
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Unit End Questions
2.6 Glossary
2.7 Suggested Readings and References

2.0 INTRODUCTION
A number of theories have been proposed to explain human personality. These
theories differ in the conception of human nature they adopt and what they regard
to be basic causes and mechanism of human motivation and behaviour. In the
present unit we will attempt to understand human personality from social cognitive
perspective. First we will briefly discuss the main features of social cognitive
theory. After that we will try to explain the social cognitive theory of Bandura in
detail. While explaining Bandura’s theory emphasis will be placed on his concepts
of reciprocal determinism, self system, and process of observational learning.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
• Define social cognitive approach to personality;
• Describe the characteristic features of social learning theory of Bandura;
• Explain the concept of reciprocal determinism;
• Analyse the development of self system;
• Explain the principle of observational learning;
• Elucidate the sources of self-efficacy; and
• Describe Bandura’s concept of vicarious learning.

2.2 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Social cognitive theory is basically a social leaning theory based on the ideas
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that people learn by watching what others do and that human thought processes
are central to understanding personality. While social cognitive theorists agree Social Cognitive Thoery of
Personality (Bandura)
that there is a fair amount of influence on development generated by learned
behaviour as a result of interaction with the environment in which one grows up,
they believe that the individual person (and therefore cognition) is just as important
as environment in determining moral development.

Social cognitive theory explains behaviour in terms of a continuous reciprocal

interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental determinants. It
emphasises that people learn by observing others. People’s interaction with the
environment, behaviour of others , and one’s own cognition etc. act as chief
factors in influencing the development of personality of an individual. These
three factors are not static or independent; rather, they are all reciprocal. For
example, each behaviour witnessed can change a person’s way of thinking
(cognition). Similarly, the environment in which one is raised may influence
later behaviours, just as a father’s mindset (also cognition) will determine the
environment in which his children are raised.

2.2.1 Main Tenets of Social Cognitive Theory

Expert opinions differ on exactly what separates social cognitive theory from
the more general social learning theory. In general, however, the following
principles can be used to define social cognitive theory
People learn by observing others, a process known as vicarious learning. Although
learning can modify behaviour, people do not always apply what they have
learned. Individual’s choice is based on perceived or actual consequences of the
concerned behaviour.
People are more likely to follow the behaviours modeled by someone with whom
they can identify. The more perceived commonalities and/or emotional
attachments between the observer and the model, the more likely the observer
will learn from the model.
Also, the degree of self-efficacy that a learner possesses directly affects his or
her ability to learn. Self-efficacy is a fundamental belief in one’s ability to achieve
a goal. If a person believes that he or she can learn new behaviours, that would
make the person much more successful in doing so.

2.3 ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING

THEORY
Albert Bandura was born on December 4, 1925, in the small town of Mundare in
Northern Alberta, Canada. He received his bachelor’s degree in Psychology
from the University of British Columbia in 1949. He went on to the University
of Iowa, where he received his Ph.D. in 1952. After graduating, he took a
postdoctoral position at the Wichita Guidance Center in Wichita, Kansas. In
1953, he started teaching at Stanford University. Bandura was president of the
APA in 1973, and received the APA’s Award for Distinguished Scientific
Contributions in 1980.
Bandura has presented his theory in a series of books. With Richard Walters as
junior author, Bandura (1959) wrote Adolescent Aggression in which social
learning principles were used to describe the personality development. This was
followed by another book Social Learning and Personality Development (1963) 29
Theories of Personality-I in which Bandura and Walters presented the social learning principles they had
developed.
In 1969 Bandura published Principles of Behaviour Modification, in which he
explained application of behavioural techniques based on learning principles to
the modification of behaviour, and in 1973 he wrote Aggression: A social Learning
Analysis, in which he attempted to provide a unified theoretical framework for
analysing human thought and behaviour.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory of Personality is based on the premise that
human behaviour is largely acquired and that the principles of learning are
sufficient to account for the development and maintenance of behaviour. But the
earlier learning theorists were unable to pay sufficient attention about the social
context in which behaviour is taking place. Bandura has done a great deal of
work on social learning throughout his career and is famous for his “Social
Learning Theory” which he has recently renamed, “Social Cognitive Theory”.
Bandura is seen by many as a cognitive psychologist because of his focus on
motivational factors and self-regulatory mechanisms that contribute to a person’s
behaviour, rather than just environmental factors. This focus on cognition is
what differentiates social cognitive theory from Skinner’s purely behaviouristic
viewpoint.
Bandura theory of social learning can be explained under the following three
headings:
1) Reciprocal determinism
2) Self-system
3) Principles of observational learning

2.3.1 Reciprocal Determinism

Human behaviour has often been explained in terms of one-sided determinism.
In such modes of unidirectional causation, behaviour is depicted as being shaped
and controlled either by environmental influences or by internal dispositions.
Social cognitive theory favours a model of causation involving triadic reciprocal
determinism. In this model of reciprocal causation, behaviour, cognition and
other personal factors, and other environmental influences all operate as
interacting determinants that influence each other bidirectionally. Reciprocal
causation does not mean that the different sources of influence are of equal
strength. Some may be stronger than others. Nor do that the reciprocal influences
all occur simultaneously. It takes time for a causal factor to exert its influence
and activate reciprocal influences.
P

B E

Social Cognitive Theory: B represents behaviour, P represents personal factors

in the form of cognitive, affective, and biological events, and E represents the
external environment.
30 Source: Bandura (1986)
Let us consider briefly the major interactional links between the different Social Cognitive Thoery of
Personality (Bandura)
subsystems of influence. The P?B of reciprocal causation reflects the interaction
between thought, affect and action. Expectations, beliefs, self- perceptions, goals
and intentions give shape and direction to behaviour. What people think, believe,
and feel, affects how they behave (Bandura, 1986). The E?P segment of reciprocal
causation is concerned with the interactive relation between personal
characteristics and environmental influences. Human expectations, beliefs,
emotional bents and cognitive competencies are developed and modified by social
influences. The B?E segment of reciprocal causation in the triadic system
represents the two-way influence between behaviour and the environment. In
the transactions of everyday life, behaviour alters environmental conditions and
is, in turn, altered by the very conditions it creates. Because of the bidirectionality
of influence between behaviour and environmental circumstances, people are
both products and producers of their environment. They affect the nature of their
experienced environment through selection and creation of situations.

Thus a complete analysis of behaviour from reciprocal determinism requires

consideration of all three sets of behaviour – cognitive, behavioural, and
environmental – influence one another. Bandura discusses the personal
determinants of behaviour in terms of the self-system and the individual’s self
efficacy. Now we turn to consideration of these concepts.

2.3.2 Self-System
It is evident from the reciprocal determinism that all the three segments are
mutually interactive. Now the question arise that do they have some starting
point? Bandura answered in yes and that point is self system. “In social learning
theory, a self-system is not a psychic agent that controls behaviour. Rather it
refers to cognitive structures that provide reference mechanisms to set of functions
for perception, evaluation and regulation of behaviour”. An understanding of
self-generated influences subsumed in the self-system is necessary for the
explanation and prediction of human behaviour. According to Bandura the three
component processes involved in self regulation of behaviour through the
activation of self-prescribed contingencies. The three components involved in
self-system are self-observation, judgmental processes and self –response.
1) Self-observation: We look at ourselves, our behaviour, and keep tabs on it.
2) Judgment: We compare what we see with a standard. For example, we can
compare our performance with traditional standards, such as “rules of
etiquette.” Or we can create arbitrary ones, like “I’ll read a book a week.”
Or we can compete with others, or with ourselves.
3) Self-response: If you did well in comparison with your standard, you give
yourself rewarding self-responses. If you did poorly, you give yourself
punishing self-responses. These self-responses can range from the obvious
(treating yourself to a sundey or working late) to the more covert (feelings
of pride or shame).
4) Self efficacy: A very important concept in psychology that can be understood
well with self-regulation is self-efficacy. If, over the years, you find yourself
meeting your standards and life loaded with self-praise and self-reward,
you will have a strong sense of self-efficacy If, on the other hand, you find
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Theories of Personality-I yourself forever failing to meet your standards and punishing yourself, you
will have a poor sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy plays an important role
in the Bandura’s theory of self-system.
According to Bandura self-efficacy is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organise
and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations”
(1995). In other words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to
succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants
of how people think, behave, and feel (1994). Since Bandura published his seminal
paper, “Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioural Change,” the
subject has become one of the most studied topics in psychology. Why has self-
efficacy become such an important topic among psychologists and educators?
As Bandura and other researchers have demonstrated, self-efficacy can have an
impact on everything from psychological states to behaviour to motivation.

The Role of Self-Efficacy

Virtually all people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they would
like to change, and things they would like to achieve. However, most people
also realise that putting these plans into action is not quite so simple. Bandura
and others have found that an individual’s self-efficacy plays a major role in
how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached.
People with a strong sense of self-efficacy have the following characteristics:
• They view challenging problems as tasks to be mastered.
• They develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate.
• They form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities.
• They recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments.
On the other hand, people with a weak sense of self-efficacy show the following
characteristics:
• They avoid challenging tasks.
• They believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities.
• They focus on personal failings and negative outcomes.
• They quickly lose confidence in personal abilities (Bandura, 1994).
Sources of Self-Efficacy
How does self-efficacy develop? These beliefs begin to form in early childhood
as children deal with a wide variety of experiences, tasks, and situations. However,
the growth of self-efficacy does not end during youth, but continues to evolve
throughout life as people acquire new skills, experiences, and understanding
(Bandura, 1992).
According to Bandura, there are four major sources of self-efficacy.
i) Mastery Experiences: The most effective way of developing a strong sense
of efficacy is through mastery experiences. (Bandura 1994). Performing a
task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to
adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-
efficacy.

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ii) Social Modeling: Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is Social Cognitive Thoery of
Personality (Bandura)
another important source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, when a
person sees another person or persons similar to oneself succeeding by
one’s sustained efforts, makes the person raise the belief that they too
possess the capabilities that could help them master comparable activities
and succeed.
iii) Social Persuasion: Bandura also asserted that people could be persuaded to
believe that they have the skills and capabilities to succeed. Consider a time
when someone said something positive and encouraging that helped you
achieve a goal. Getting verbal encouragement from others helps people
overcome self-doubt and instead focus on giving their best effort to the task
at hand.
iv) Psychological Responses: Our own responses and emotional reactions to
situations also play an important role in self-efficacy. Moods, emotional
states, physical reactions, and stress levels can all impact how a person
feels about their personal abilities in a particular situation. A person who
becomes extremely nervous before speaking in public may develop a weak
sense of self-efficacy in these situations.

2.3.3 Principles of Observational Learning

Bandura’s social cognitive theory emphasises the social origins of behaviour in
addition to the cognitive thought processes that influence human behaviour and
functioning. Bandura’s social-cognitive approach represents a break from
traditional theories by proposing that cognitive factors are central to human
functioning and that learning can occur in the absence of direct reinforcement.
That is, learning can occur simply through observation of models and in the
absence of reinforcement.

Bandura argued that some of the traditional principles of learning such as the
laws of reinforcement and punishment are more relevant to performance than to
acquisition. According to Bandura, learning can occur outside the boundaries of
pleasure and pain. Thus, people learn a great deal simply by watching or observing
others, by reading about what people do, and by making general observations of
the world. This learning may or may not be demonstrated in the form of behaviour.

To illustrate that people learn from watching others, Albert Bandura constructed
an experiment entitled “Bobo Doll Behaviour: A Study of Aggression.” In this
experiment Bandura exposed a group of children to a video, featuring violent
and aggressive actions. For the experiment Bandura made of film of one of his
students, a young woman, essentially beating up a bobo doll. Bobo doll is an
inflatable, egg-shape balloon creature with a weight in the bottom that makes it
bob back up when you knock him down.

The woman punched the clown, shouting “sockeroo!” She kicked it, sat on it,
hit with a little hammer, and so on, shouting various aggressive phrases. Bandura
showed this film to groups of kindergartners who, as you might predict, liked it
a lot. They then were let out to play. In the play room, of course, were several
observers with pens and clipboards in hand, a brand new bobo doll, and a few
little hammers.

33
Theories of Personality-I The observers recorded that a lot of little kids beat the daylights out of the bobo
doll. They punched it and shouted “sockeroo,” kicked it, sat on it, hit it with the
little hammers, and so on. In other words, they imitated the young lady in the
film, and quite precisely at that.

This might seem like a real nothing of an experiment at first, but consider:
These children changed their behaviour without first being rewarded for
approximations to that behaviour! And while that may not seem extraordinary
to the average parent, teacher, or casual observer of children, it didn’t fit so well
with standard behaviouristic learning theory. Bandura called this phenomenon
as observational learning or modeling, and this theory is usually called social
learning theory.

Bandura did a large number of variations on the study: The model was rewarded
or punished in a variety of ways, the kids were rewarded for their imitations, the
model was changed to be less attractive or less prestigious, and so on. Responding
to criticism that bobo dolls were supposed to be hit, he even did a film of the
young woman beating up a live clown. When the children went into the other
room, what should they find there but — the live clown! They proceeded to
punch him, kick him, hit him with little hammers, and so on.

All these variations allowed Bandura to establish that there were certain steps
involved in the modeling process:
1) Attentional Processes: In order to learn, you need to be paying attention.
Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on
observational learning. If the model is interesting or there is a novel aspect
to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to
learning. Thus if you are going to learn anything, you have to be paying
attention. Likewise, anything that puts a damper on attention is going to
decrease learning, including observational learning. If, for example, you
are sleepy, groggy, drugged, sick, nervous, or “hyper,” you will learn less
well.
Some of the things that influence attention involve characteristics of the
model. If the model is colorful and dramatic, for example, we pay more
attention. If the model is attractive, or prestigious, or appears to be
particularly competent, we will pay more attention. And if the model seems
more like ourselves, we will pay more attention. These kinds of variables
directed Bandura towards an examination of television and its effects on
kids.
2) Retentional Processes: The ability to store information is also an important
part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors,
but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational
learning. Thus you must be able to retain and remember what you have
paid attention to. This is where imagery and language come in. We store
what we have seen the model doing in the form of mental images or verbal
descriptions. When so stored, we can later “bring up” the image or
description, so that we can reproduce it with our own behaviour.
3) Reproduction Processes: Once you have paid attention to the model and
retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behaviour you
observed. Further practice of the learned behaviour leads to improvement
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 and skill advancement. Through the reproduction processes you have to Social Cognitive Thoery of
Personality (Bandura)
translate the images or descriptions into actual behaviour. So you have to
have the ability to reproduce the behaviour in the first place. Another
important tidbit about reproduction is that our ability to imitate improves
with practice at the behaviours involved. And also it has been noted that
our abilities improve even when we just imagine ourselves performing!
Many athletes, for example, imagine their performance in their mind’s eye
prior to actually performing.
4) Motivational Processes: And yet, with all this, you’re still not going to do
anything unless you are motivated to imitate that is, until you have some
reason for doing it. Hence in order for observational learning to occur and
be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behaviour that has
been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in
motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective,
one can also observe other experiences such as some type of reinforcement
or punishment that others are being subjected to. For example, if you see
another student rewarded with extra credit for coming to class on time, you
might start to show up a few minutes early each day.
In the theory of observational learning Bandura mentions a number of motives,
which are:

a) past reinforcement, ala traditional behaviourism.

b) promised reinforcements (incentives) that we can imagine.

c) vicarious reinforcement — seeing and recalling the model being reinforced.

All the above three are, traditionally, considered to be the things that “cause”
learning. Bandura states that they do not so much cause learning as they cause us
to demonstrate what we have learned. That is, Bandura sees them as motives.
Of course, the negative motivations are there as well, giving you reasons not to
imitate someone. These are listed below:

d) past punishment.

e) promised punishment (threats).

f) vicarious punishment.

Like most traditional behaviourists, Bandura says that punishment in whatever

form does not work as well as reinforcement and, in fact, has a tendency to
“backfire” on us.

2.3.4 Vicarious Learning

Closely related to observational learning is vicarious learning, another distinctive
feature of Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Vicarious learning, or the process
of learning from other people’s behaviour, is a central idea of Social Cognitive
Theory. This idea asserts that individuals can witness observed behaviours of
others and then reproduce the same actions. As a result of this, individuals refrain
from making mistakes and can perform behaviours better if they see individuals
complete them successfully.

35
Theories of Personality-I Psychological theories have traditionally emphasised learning through the effects
of one’s actions. If knowledge and skills could be acquired only by direct
experience, the process of cognitive and social development would be greatly
retarded. The abbreviation of the acquisition process is vital for survival as well
as for human development because natural endowment provides few inborn skills.
Humans have evolved an advanced capacity for observational learning that
enables them to expand their knowledge and skills on the basis of information
conveyed by modeling influences. Indeed, virtually all learning phenomena
resulting from direct experience can occur vicariously by observing people’s
behaviour and its consequences for them (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal &
Zimmerman, 1978).

Much of social learning occurs either deliberately or inadvertently by observing

the actual behaviour of others and the consequences for them. However, a great
deal of information about behaviour patterns and the effects they have on the
environment is gained from models portrayed symbolically through verbal or
pictorial means.

A major significance of symbolic modeling lies in its tremendous multiplicative

power. Unlike learning by doing, which requires altering the actions of each
individual through repeated trial-and-error experiences, in observational learning
a single model can transmit new ways of thinking and behaving simultaneously
to many people in widely dispersed locales.

There is another aspect of symbolic modeling that magnifies its psychological

and social effects. During the course of their daily lives, people have direct contact
with only a small sector of the environment. Consequently, their conceptions of
social reality are greatly influenced by vicarious experiences—by what they see
and hear—without direct experiential correctives.

2.3.5 Evaluation of Bandura’s Theory

The theory of Bandura has been demonstrated to make powerful predictions and
has generated useful applications in a large number of areas of human behaviour.
Bandura’s theory is well grounded in research. Its terms are very tightly and
clearly defined and so they lend themselves well to empirical research.
Probably the most significant contribution of social cognitive theory is its applied
value.
However in spite of the above merits Bandura’s theory has some limitations.
These limitations are given below:
Behaviour has been found to be more consistent than is argued by Bandura’s
theory which focuses a great deal on the situation. Some researchers have argued
that the theory lacks attention to biological or hormonal processes.
Probably of most significance is the criticism that the theory is not unified.
Concepts and processes such as observational learning and self-efficacy have
been highly researched but there has been little explanation about the relationship
among the concepts.

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 Social Cognitive Thoery of
2.4 LET US SUM UP Personality (Bandura)

Social cognitive theory of Bandura is based on the idea that people learn by
watching what others do and that human thought processes are central to
understanding personality. Social cognitive theory approaches the explanation
of behaviour in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive,
behavioural, and environmental determinants. It identifies human behaviour as
an interaction of personal factors, behaviour, and the environment. These three
segments are mutually interactive. Now the question arise that do they have
some starting point? Bandura answered in yes and that point is self-system. “In
social learning theory, a self-system is not a psychic agent that controls behaviour.
Rather it refers to cognitive structures that provide reference mechanisms to set
of functions for perception, evaluation and regulation of behaviour”. The three
components involved in self-system are self-observation, judgment and self –
response. Self-efficacy is another important concept in Bandura’s theory. Self-
efficacy is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organise and execute the courses of
action required to manage prospective situations”. There are four major sources
of self-efficacy. These sources are mastery experiences, social modeling, social
persuasion, and psychological responses.

Bandura’s social-cognitive approach represents a break from traditional theories

by proposing that cognitive factors are central to human functioning and that
learning can occur in the absence of direct reinforcement. That is, learning can
occur simply through observation of models and in the absence of reinforcement.
Through a series of investigations, Bandura and Walters demonstrated that
modeling is not merely a process of behavioural mimicry. Rather, through
modeling people learn the value of particular behaviour with regard to goal
achievement or outcomes.

Bandura proposed a four step conceptual scheme of the process involved in

observational learning: The first step incorporates the attentional processes that
are involved including certain model characteristics which may increase the
likelihood of the behaviour being attended to. It also includes observer
characteristics such as; sensory capacities, motivation and arousal levels,
perceptual set and past reinforcement.

The second step refers to retention processes including the observer’s ability to
encode, to remember and to make sense of what has been observed.

The third step refers to motor reproduction processes including the capabilities
that the observer has to perform the behaviour being observed. Specific factors
include; physical capabilities, and availability of responses.

The final step refers to motivational processes including external reinforcement,

vicarious reinforcement, and self-reinforcement. If the behaviour is to be imitated,
an observer must be motivated to perform that behaviour. Vicarious learning, or
the process of learning from other people’s behaviour, is a central idea of social
cognitive theory. This idea asserts that individuals can witness observed
behaviours of others and then reproduce the same actions. As a result of this,
individuals refrain from making mistakes and can perform behaviours better if
they see individuals complete them successfully. Vicarious learning is a part of
social modeling which is one of the four means to increase self-efficacy. Social
37
Theories of Personality-I modeling refers not just observing behaviour but also receiving instruction and
guidance of how to complete a behaviour

2.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss main features of social cognitive theory of personality.
2) What do understand by reciprocal determinism? Discuss its importance in
the light of Bandura’s theory.
3) Critically evaluate the development of self-system as proposed by Bandura.
4) Write an essay on self-efficacy (500 words).
5) What is observational learning? Discuss the main processes involved in
observational learning.
6) What do you mean by vicarious learning. What role does it play in Bandura’s
social learning?

2.6 GLOSSARY
Reciprocal determinism : In social learning theory reciprocal determinism
is used to indicate that personal influences,
environmental forces, and behaviour function as
interdependent rather than autonomous
determinants.

Self-efficacy : The person’s confidence in performing a

particular behaviour; Approach behavioural
change in small steps to ensure success.

Observational learning : Behavioural acquisition that occurs by watching

the actions and outcomes of others’ behaviour;
Include credible role models of the targeted
behaviour.

Reinforcements : Responses to a person’s behaviour that increase

or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence;
Promote self-initiated rewards and incentives

Self-efficacy : The person’s confidence in performing a

particular behaviour; Approach behavioural
change in small steps to ensure success.

Vicarious leaning : Vicarious learning is the process of learning from

observing other people’s behaviour

2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Hall, C.S., Lindzey, G. and Campbell, J.B. (2004).Theories of Personality (Fourth
Edition). New York: Wiley
References
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1959). Adolescent Aggression. New York: Ronald
38 Press
Bandura, A. & Walters, R.H. (1963). Social Learning and Personality Social Cognitive Thoery of
Personality (Bandura)
Development. New York :Holt, Rinehart, & Winston

Bandura, A. (1964). The stormy decade: Fact or fiction? Psychology in the

Schools, 1, 224-231.

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behaviour Modification. New York :Holt,

Rinehart, & Winston

Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive

theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall, Inc.

Bandura, A. (Ed.) (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies. New York:

Cambridge University Press

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

Rosenthal, T. L., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1978). Social learning and cognition.

New York:

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