Connectives The main connectives are grouped below according to the similarity of their meaning with the three basic connectives and, or, but. For information about their use in sentences, you should look in a good dictionary. 1 enumeration A. listing a reinforcement 2 addition | huni land B transition summation D_ apposition E_ result F inference 2 G reformulation me: H replacement ab I contrast J concession I and A Listing: 1 Enumeration indicates a cataloguing of what is being said. ‘Most enumerations belong to clearly defined sets: first, furthermore . .. ) [finally, one, ... )[two,... )[three, . firstly), ... )[second(ly),... )[third(ly), . -..) above all ‘at bar not lease} ark the end of an ascending order first and foremost first and most important(ly) } mark the beginning of a descending order to begin/start with, in the second place, . moreover, .. and to conclude, next, 5 then, ... ) [afterward, . lastly/finally, . . .2. Addition, to what has been previously indicated. a Reinforcement (includes confirmation): also again furthermore further moreover what is more then in addition besides above all too as well (as) b Equation (similarity with what has preceded): equally likewise similarly correspondingly in the same way Note: 1 From the point of view of meaning the following are often the negative equivalents of and: either; neither; nor; not only (but) also...; neither....nor... Neither leaves the series open for further additions, whereas nor concludes it. 2 The truth of a previous assertion may be confirmed or contradicted by: indeed; actually; in (actual) fact; really; in reality ‘Transition can lead to a new stage in the sequence of thought: now with reference/respect/regard to regarding let us (now) turn to... as for ’ often used when discussing something briefly as to incidentally by the way come to think of it indicates a digression and an afterthought spoken language talking/speaking of . . . (informal) apropos . . . (formal) that reminds me . . to introduce a digressionC Summation indicates a generalisation or summing-up of what has preceded: in conclusion to conclude to sum up briefly in brief to summarise altogether overall then therefore thus D Apposition is used to refer back to previous sentences or to parallel or related references: ie. that is, that’s to say viz. namely in other words or, or rather, or better and as follows e.g. for example, for instance, say, such as, including, included, especially, particularly, in particular, notably, chiefly, mainly, mostly (of) The relationships that these phrases can express include: reformulation (see 2A below), exemplification and particularisation. E_ Result expresses the consequence or result of what was said before: so therefore as a result/consequence the result/consequence is/was . . . accordingly consequently now then because of this/that thus hence for this/that reasonF Inference indicates a deduction from what is implicit in the preceding sentence(s): then in other words in that case else . otherwi equivalent to a negative condition that implies my conclusion is 2 or A. Reformulation, to express something in another way: better rather in other words in that case to put it (more) simply B_ Replacement, to express an alternative to what has preceded: again alternatively rather better/worse (still) on the other hand the alternative is... another possibility would be 3 but A Contrast, with what has preceded: instead conversely then on the contrary by (way of) contrast in comparison (on the one hand) . . . on the other handB_ Concession indicates the unexpected, surprising nature of what is being said in view of what was said before: besides yet (or) else in any case however at any rate nevertheless for all that nonetheless in spite offdespite that notwithstanding after all only at the same time still on the other hand while all the same (al)though even iffthough Based upon Chapter 10: ‘Sentence Connection’, in A Grammar of Contemporary English by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik (Longman).Expressing reasons and results study . 4 Reasons: because (of), as, since, due to, owing to Words like because, as, and since are used to give reasons for actions and events, Because is normally placed in the middle of the sentence, where it tends to introduce new or important information, + The company website failed because visitors found it too difficult to navigate As and since often come at the beginning of sentences, introducing a reason that may be known already, and leaving the more important information for the end of the sentence. + The frst fire occurred on a weekend. As/Since the office was empty at the time, there were no injuries. Before nouns you can use because of or, particularly at the beginning of sentences, due to and owing to. + The car was recalted because of a design foult in its braking system. * Owing to/Due to the recession, most retailers have a recorded a sharp downturn in quarterly projits. 2 Results: as a result, consequently, therefore Asc result, consequently, and therefore all have the same meaning. They are used to introduce the results of actions, decisions, etc. + The government was hoping that listeners would switch from analogue to digital radio well in advance of the deadline of 2012. As a result/Consequently/ Therefore, a series of advertisements were planned to highlight the advantages of digital transmission. * Sales rapidly declined and as a result/consequently/ therefore Bailey Brothers were forced to close their factories. Note that itis also possible to place consequently and therefore in the middle of sentence. In the example above, you could write... the deadline of 2012. A series of advertisements were consequently/therefore planned .. See unit 12 Cause and effect for more examples of as a result, consequently, and therefore. (TF There are more emphatic alternatives to some of the words and phrases above: 1 As, since, and because may be replaced by due to the {fact that or owing to the fact that. 2 Asa result, consequently, and therefore may be replaced by for this reason and thatis why. Itis advisable, however, not to overuse these alternatives. 3 Results: so... (that)..., such ... (that) ‘You can use both of these structures to express results; ‘so comes before an adjective or a quantifier (e.g. many, few), and such before a noun, or adjective + noun. *+ The discussion on the location of the new factory took so long that there was no time left to agree on its design. * The conference organizers emplayed so few staff that delegates had to queue for at least an hour to register *+ The online ordering system created such confusion that a consultant was brought in to redesign it. + There was such a high demand for the new product that supplies to retailers soon ran out. It’s also possible to use so on its own, but it may sound a little informal in the context of an essay. Here is an example from a presentation, + @ Mn fect, the first attempt to change the law on copyright was unsuccessful, so the Labour ‘government of the time redrafted their bill | test yourself | ‘A Complete each sentence with one or two words. 1 Rises in the price of oil cause inflation and, as__ there is upwards pressure | oe | 2 Due the inctease in rents, many of the area's tenants are being forced to move out. 3 Older information is stored offsite of a lack of space within the main office. 4 A small business might not have an HR department; the owner may to take care of personnel issues, 5 Internet marketing can automatically measure | have its own success __. websites provide convenient access data, 6 Owing to that the first few performances attracted very small audiences, the show was cancelled at the end of its first week.| the connecting word(s) in brackets. 4 The pressure of water was very great. The dam broke. (so ... that) 2 The nuclear facility was damaged by the tsunami, The local area had to be evacuated. (for this reason) 3. Most of the bridges in the region have a very strong structure. They can survive serious. | earthquakes. (such) | 4 The business had made a late surge in sales. The redundancy programme was cancelled. (since) 5 Her first novel was very successful. She immediately gave up her job. (such) 6 There were many complaints. The company withdrew the product. (so .. that) B Rewrite the information as one sentence, using | | | Expressing purpose study You can use all of the following structures to express purpose: to + infinitive, in order (not) to + infinitive, 0 as (not) to + infinitive, and so (that) + clause. To + infinitive can be used in the middle of a sentence, and also, in spoken English, at the beginning. In written English, however, in order (not) to is preferred at the beginning of a sentence * The expedition was equipped with tools to build bridges across the smaller rivers. + @ P demonstrate the decline in the rate of these major illnesses, I'm going to show you two graphs. + In order to understand the causes of the infection, a team of scientists began a series of laboratory tests. In order (not) to and so as (not) to are often used in spoken and written English as more formal and emphatic connectors than to. So as not to is less common. + We need to develop a new product in order to extend cour market reach. (=... so as fo extend ...) * You will need to wear a mask and gloves in order not to contaminate the evidence. (= so as not to contaminate ...) You can use s0 that .., often with a modal verb such as can, could, will or would, to replace any of these structures with no change in meaning. Note that the subject needs to be restated and can change after so that. + We will need to launch the product by October in order to gain an edge on our competitors. = We will need to launch the product by October so that we can gain an edge on our competitors. + @M finish my presentation by 10.45 so that yout be able to start the meeting at 11.00. fFIP When using in order to when there is a change of subject, for goes before the subject. * Tillfinish my presentation by 10.45 in order for you to beable to start the meeting at 11:00) test yourself Correct each sentence by adding one word. 1 Paper files need to be organized and labelled that staff can find what they need easily. 2 Moresby has taught two chimpanzees sign Janguage in to communicate with them. 3 Meerkats use a special type of call let other members of the group know that a predator is nearby. 4 In order demonstrate the safety of a new car, a number of tests are carried out 5 The machinery was switched off in order mechanics to repair a number of minor faults, | 6 The team had to carry out their observation. with caution so as to disturb the nesting birds. Expressing contrast study 1 But, although, even though, though Although and even though link ideas that seem to contrast with each other. They are both more emphatic ‘than but. + The team carried out a series of experiments, but they were unable to isolate the genetic material, + Although/Even though the company has expanded, it hasn’t yet increased its profit margin. * Our staff is having difficulty with the new computer program, although/even though they have received extensive training.In written English, though is normally only used in the middle of a sentence. In spoken English though can goat the beginning, middle, or end of sentence. When it goes at the end, the two contrasting ideas occur in separate sentences. + Strindberg is mainly known as a playwright, though he also produced a number of innovative paintings. + @® Though 1'm enjoying my course, it’s hard work, = I'm enjoying my course, though it's hard work. = I'm enjoying my course. I's hard work, though. 2 In spite of, despite In spite of and despite are similar in meaning and position (beginning or middle of a sentence) to although/even though/though, but the grammar is different. You can use them with a noun/pronoun or -ing form of a verb. + Aaron Brothers are on track to break even despite/in spite of making losses in the first quarter. Despite/In spite of the evidence presented by expert scientists, some commentators still question the existence of global warming. However, you can make them act in the same way as although by adding the fact that + In spite ofthe fact that/Although he was already profoundly deaf, Beethoven continued to compose. * The company made an overall profit despite the fact that sales fell sharply in the autumn, 3 However, while/whereas However is useful at the beginning or the end of a sentence in writing or formal speaking to present an argument against something. + The Dictionary of the English Language was not ‘Samuel Johnson's only major work, however. ‘More than twenty-five years after it appeared, for example, Johnson published the six-volume Lives of the Great Poets. * The UK has certainly built more roads. However, itis the train system that has a greater need for new investment. Note that it is also possible to place however in the middle of a sentence. In the example above, you could write The UK has certainly built more roads. It is the train system, however, that has While and whereas are both rather formal, and are often used for making comparisons. * While/Whereas NATO was created as an alliance against Communist power, the UN was established to hreep the peace between nations. See unit 2 Comparing and contrasting for words and phrases for expressing contrast, including dissimilar, differ, difference, in contrast to, and on the contrary. | test yourself | Circle the correct option | 1 In spite of although we doubled our order from |__ the wholesaler, we still ran out of supplies, | 2 Official attendance figures for the protest stand at 5,000. It is clear, whereas /however, that the true figure is much higher. 3 Despite/Even though the product winning design awards, few people seemed to know about it. 4 Several economists have recommended a cut in interest rates, however/though this may cause inflation. 5 While/However children clearly incur medical costs to the state, the care of the oldest members of the community is considerably ‘more expensive. 6 A number of breach of copyright cases have been brought to court. Although/Despite this, the amount of illegal online copying seems to be rising, ? The interest rate on UK government bonds is 2.2% even though/whereas the rate for French bonds currently stands at 3.2%. | 8 Some people refuse to accept that global ‘warming is a threat to our wellbeing, in spite | of/however the scientific evidence. Expressing time study 1 Time words and phrases ‘The time words when, whenever, while, before, after, until, as, as soon as, once, by the time, by/in + date, and since come at the beginning or in the middle of sentence. + Whenever there is excess supply ina market, we expect to see prices ating. + Van Gogh painted many of his masterpieces while he was living at Arles in Provence. + As soon as the strength of the bridge has been tested, ‘we can begin planning the opening ceremony.In sentences referring to the future with two clauses you must use a present, not a future, tense after the time words. + We will try to set up some meetings when we wil get to New York tomorrow morning. + As the public wil! leave the museum, they will be asked to make a small contribution to its upkeep. Note that when the word since expresses time (rather than a reason, see page 063), you will normally have to use a present perfect tense before it, * This hospital was-inspeeted has been inspected five times since it was opened in 1994. 2 Sequencing events You can use a number of words to order information by time. Some of the most common are: first(ly), second(ly), etc., then, next, after that, at the same time, finally/lastly. + First, you start the engine. Then/Next you press the accelerator. Then/Next, you press the clutch pedal with your left foot, and hold it fully down. After that, ‘you move the gear lever into first gear, and let the ‘clutch pedal up until you hear the engine noise change slightly, This change means that you are at the biting point. Finally, after checking that it is safe to move, ‘you release the handbrake and, at the same time, let the clutch pedal come up a little more. The vehicle will begin to move off. 3 Other words and phrases In the meantime (which is common in spoken English) and meanwhile both mean ‘while something else is happening’. Afterwards and subsequently mean ‘after that! and eventually means ‘after a longer period of time’. + @ Leff will now prepare the room for his presentation. In the meantime, shall we take a coffee break? * Caroline Carman became the Marketing Director in 2005, and the CEO shortly afterwards, overseeing the merger with Stapleton plc. Subsequently, she was appointed as a non-executive director of several charities. Eventually, on retirement, she began a second career as an author and management guru, (ie At first (= in the beginning) is different from firsyly (= first in a list). * First At first the company’s prospects looked good, but things rapidly began to go wrong. Atlast (= after a long delay) is different from lastly (= lastin a list) * When technicians were lastly at last able to identify the computer virus, the network could be protected. Finally can mean ‘at last’ or ‘lastly’ test yourself AA Circle the correct option, 1 The engineering team continued to test the engine by the time/until they found the fault. 2 We will have a question-and-answer session. before we finish/will finish, 3 The government received/has received six offers since the centre was turned over to the private | sector. | 4 Elcron’s sales figures declined in the UK during | the second quarter. Subsequently, /Meanwhile, | export income for the same period rose | dramatically 5 The construction of the new museum was eventually/afterwards completed in 2009. 6 When the new wing of the hospital will be/ {is opened, it will provide bed space for 300 additional patients. B Complete the text, using one of the words or the phrase in the box in each space. One word/phrase is not needed. atlast then next after same first lastly ‘From wood chips to paper Z , the wood chips are mixed with water and acid. 2, they are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp. * that, the wood pulp is cleaned, and, at the «_______ time, chemically bleached to whiten it. © it is passed through rollers to flatten it, producing sheets of wet paper. «___, the sheets are dried to make the finished paper.Expressing additional information study 4 Apart from and, the commonest words which express additional information are also, as well (as), and too. ‘The most frequent of these in writing is also. + We will discuss the decline in Britain’s manufacturing base, and we will also consider some of the measures the government is taking to arrest this decline. As well and too are normally used at the end of sentences in spoken English. + @ Although most of my presentation wil focus on English cathedrals, I'll discuss one or two examples from France as well/too. The phrases as well as and in addition to are followed by the ing form of a verb or by a noun. + As well as/In addition to eating smaller fish, the tiger shark has been known to consume weaker members of its own family. Barrow and Wilson sells antique furniture as well as/ in addition to rare and frst edition books. 2 These other connectors all have the same basie meaning, and can add emphasis and variety te your writing: in addition, moreover, furthermore, what is more, not only ... (but) also. Learners of second languages often have to fit classes around their full-time jobs. In addition,/Moreover/ Furthermore,/What is more, they may be required to show evidence of their progress by taking exams. Fridtjof Nonsen was not only an explorer and scientist, but also a renowned humanitarian. In order to give greater emphasis, you can begin your sentence with not only’... If you do this, you need to invert (= change the order of) subject and verb and, if there is no auxiliary verb (be, have, will, etc.) present, you must use a form of do. * Not only was Fridtjof Nansen an explorer and scientist, but also a renowned humanitarian. Or... (but) he was also a * Not only sueeeeded-Nensen did Nansen succeed in crossing Greenland from east to west, (but) he also managed to gather information on the Eskimos. (See page 076 in unit 8 Being emphatic for more information on emphatic inversion.) test yourself |_ Rewrite the sentences, following the instructions. | in brackets. | 4 Charles I lost the Battle of Naseby, and was | also forced to give up his crown. (start with |. As well as...) | |_ 2 The company was declared bankrupt, and the | CEO was imprisoned for fraud. (use moreover and write two sentences) 3 Edison patented many new inventions, and he also developed systems for the mass distribution of electricity. (start with Not | only...) | | 4 The University of Nottingham has its main site | | in the UK, and campuses in Semenyih, Malaysia | and in Ningbo, China. (start with In addition | to its ...) 5 The centre's research will increase our understanding of the brain, and it may also | help to fight diseases such as cerebral palsy. | (start with Not only...) 6 The National Theatre's production of Hamlet ran for two years in the West End, and it toured in India, Australia, end Canada, winning several awards. (use what is more and write two | sentences) Using participles to connect ideas study For economy, and to maintain the flow of your sentences, you can use participle clauses to link two ideas that have the same subject. * Lincoln's Blectricals needed to expand abroad to maintain their market share. They bought a small factory outside Paris. —+ Needing to expand abroad to maintain their market share, Lincoln's Electricals bought a small factory outside Paris + Lab workers began their tests, hoping that they would find the source of the food poisoning by the weekend. ‘The perfect participle is used for completed actions. + Having read out a statement, the Chief Superintendent invited questions from journalists.You can use a past participle to replace a passive verb. * Penicillin was discovered in 1929. It provided a cure for many serious diseases. ~» Discovered in 1929, penicillin provided a cure for many serious diseases. + Written around 1600, Hamlet became Shakespeare's most famous tragedy. Present participles can replace subject + main verb after the time words after, before, since, and while, + After investigating (= after they had investigated) the causes of the accident, flight engineers recommended withdrawing the remaining Concordes from service. * You should talk to the tutor before changing (= before you change) your course again. + Since leaving (= since they left) college, 20% of graduates have been unable to find work. + While travelling (= while he was travelling) with the British navy, on the ship HMS Surprise, the naturalist Maturin was able to collect rare species of witd plant. If the meaning is clear, you can also replace connecting words such as because, so, and therefore with a participle * Not being (= Because it isn’t) far from the centre of the city, the museum attracts many visitors. + The new model of bank opens on a Sunday, making (= 50 it makes) it easier for customers to visit. + A video link may be set up in court for vulnerable witnesses such as children, preventing them (= and therefore they are prevented) from having to give evidence in person. test yourself Rewrite the sentences, using the present, past, or perfect participle of the underlined verb. 1 The Democrats needed to regain California, so they launched a series of aggressive TV ads. 2 Before he began his expeditions, Amundsen always made meticulous preparations. 3 Hans Blix and his team were refused access to the nuclear facility, so they had to return to their hotel. 4 Because Professor Ancram had worked through the night, she was able to'announce her results before the midday deadline. | 5 After they had exploited known reserves around the world, oil companies began to look to the Arctic for new sources of petroleum, | 6 The bridge rises automatically on the approach | of tall ships, and therefore allows them to pass |. safely through. Giving examples and rephrasing study Some connecting words and phrases may be useful to you in indicating that the next part of the text will give an example, an explanation, a paraphrase, or a summary, 4 You can use for example, for instance, eg., and such as to introduce an example or examples. For example is more common than for instance; e.g. tends to be used for a series of short examples. Grierson ple made many attempts to enter the American market. For instance, it acquired a small ‘mail order company in Wisconsin in 2009. Another solution is to digitize information, and give coded access to those who need it. This would mean, or example, that the sales team would have access to all the information they might need while on the road contacting clients. + One can save files on a physical object such as a hard drive or on a memory stick, or one can save them on a server hosted elsewhere. Micronutrients (e.g. chromium, iodine, and zinc) are found in such small quantities in the body that their presence may need to be detected by spectrographic methods. 2 That is to say, ie., in other words, and namely are sometimes used to introduce a definition, paraphrase or a particular example. * Many countries depend on primary industries, that is to say, industries that take directly from the earth or sea The kangaroo is a marsupial, ie. an animal that suckles its young in a pouch on the mother’s belly. Cars contribute to, and are symbolic of, what has come to be called the ‘obesogenic’ environment we now find ourselves in. In other words, society and our cities are now shaped in a way that makes us likely to become fat We will look at four management models, and we will then examine how they fit, or fail to fit, one organization, namely a university.3 In brief, to sum up, and in conclusion can be used to introduce restatements in summarized form, in a presentation) ... and these are no more than «a few examples of the airborne pollution that now officts the mega-cities we have allowed to develop. We are, in brief, poisoning the very air that sustains our urban lives. + In conclusion, it seems clear that in times of recession a significant proportion of investors will revert to traditionally safer holdings such as gold. test yourself Circle the correct option. | 4 The first works of many writers, that is to say/ such as D. H. Lawrence and James Joyce, derive almost entirely from the experience of their own carly lives. 2 The list price, i./e.g. the price of an article as listed by the manufacturer, may be subject to discount by the retailer. 3 Some peoples, for example/in other words, the | French, are renowned for the quality of their restaurants. | 4 An individual has two options when confronted with a problematic situation, for instance/ | namely to change the situation, or to change themselves so that the situation becomes tolerable, | 5 Namely/To sum up, authenticating paintings has become a much more reliable process, but can perhaps never be perfected.