Chapter 4
Radiation Physics
PHY370
PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION
Outline
• Properties of ionizing radiation.
• Radiation Detection
• Radiation Safety
Properties of Ionizing
Radiation
Introduction
• Over a hundred years ago, in 1895, the
German Scientist Wilhelm Roentgen
discovered x-rays, and a few years later,
French scientists Marie and Pierre Curie
discovered radioactive radium.
• The various types of radiation around us
are indicated in the electromagnetic
spectrum below, ranging from radio
waves (low energy), to gamma radiation
(high energy). 4
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
5
Types of Radiation
Ionizing Radiation Non-ionizing Radiation
• wavelength shorter than 100 • that with wavelength longer
nm is classified. than 100 nm is classified
• x-rays and gamma rays • microwaves, radiowaves
6
Radiation
Ionizing Non-ionizing
Radiation Radiation
High Energy Low Energy
Particle
Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Ultrasound
Radiation
Wave Wave
Alpha Particle X-ray UV
Beta Particle Gamma Ray Visible Light
Neutron Infrared
Microwave
Radiowave
Ionizing Radiation
Ionization occurs This will cause the
when an electron in As a result of ionization,
formation of a characteristic radiation
the inner orbit of an positive ion and a (X- radiation) is emitted
atom receives negative ion. when an electron from
sufficient energy to an outer shell falls in to
escape from the take the place of the
influence of the electron that was
ejected. 8
nucleus.
Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing Alpha and beta particles and gamma rays are
radiations cause emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of
ionization when unstable atoms during radioactive
they pass disintegration (radioactive decay).
through matter.
Examples of In radioactive
ionizing radiation materials, radiation is
are alpha and emitted continuously
beta particles, in a regulated manner
gamma rays and and there is no way of
x-rays. stopping it. It cannot
9
be switched off.
Ionizing Radiation
• X-rays are produced by the
sudden deceleration of the
electron in the strong field of
the target nucleus.
• X-ray machines emit
radiation, only when the
machine is energized.
• When the high voltage is
disconnected, no x-rays are
10
emitted.
Properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Radiation
Alpha Particle Beta Particle Gamma Ray
• Strongly ionizing but can be • Beta particles are electrons - • Very poor at ionizing (about 1 to
stopped by paper or skin. but they are called beta 1) but very difficult to stop (they
particles to identify that are very penetrating).
• They have a strong positive they came from the nucleus
charge (+2) and a mass of 4 of the atom. • As they are not good ionizers,
(i.e. 4 times the mass of a • A neutron splits up and they are less dangerous to life.
proton) becomes a proton and an
electron. The proton
• An alpha particle is in fact remains behind in the
the same as a helium nucleus nucleus, the electron is
- 2 protons and 2 neutrons. emitted.
• Are also strongly ionizing
(perhaps 1 beta particle will
cause 100 ionizations).
• More penetration than alpha
particle.
Properties of Ionizing Radiation
12
Penetrating Power of Radiation
Radiation Detection
Radiation Detection
Ionizing radiations cannot be detected by the
human senses.
Appropriate instruments are necessary to
detect and measure them.
All methods of detection of ionizing radiation
are based on the ability of such radiation to
cause ionization, directly or indirectly.
4 types of Radiation Instrument
a) Portable b) Area c) Personal d) Monitors for
Radiation radiation Dosimeters Internal
Monitor monitors Radiation
Contamination
a) Portable Radiation Monitor
• These are battery operated hand held meters, such as Geiger counters
and scintillation counters.
Geiger counter Scintillation counters
• They are used at radiation facilities and work sites to ensure that the
radiation level is within the limits specified in the Radiation Protection
(Ionizing Radiation) Regulations 2000, “The radioactive source must be
return to its safe position or to check that contamination of surfaces has
not occurred.”
a) Portable Radiation Monitor
• Portable radiation monitors usually
consist of a probe or detecting head
and the associated electronic
circuitry.
• The probe contains the detector.
Such as A GM tube, ionization
chamber or sodium iodide crystal.
GM Tube Ionization Chamber Sodium Iodide Crystal
How GM Tube work?
Thin Mica Central Wire
Window (Anode)
Meter
Metal Tube Low Pressure
(Cathode) Gas (Argon)
Power Supply
How GM Tube work?
Thin Mica Central Wire
Window (Anode)
Meter
1) Radiation
enters tube
through the Thin
Mica window Metal Tube Low Pressure
(Cathode) Gas (Argon)
Power Supply
How GM Tube work?
Thin Mica Central Wire
Window (Anode)
Meter
2) Radiation
collides with gas
molecules in the
tube, it causes
ionization: some of
the gas molecules
are turned into
positive ions (red)
Metal Tube Low Pressure
and electrons (Cathode) Gas (Argon)
(yellow).
Power Supply
How GM Tube work?
Thin Mica Central Wire
Window (Anode)
Meter
3) Positive ion
attract to the
metal tube
(Cathode) while
electron attract to
the Central Wire Metal Tube Low Pressure
(Anode)
(Cathode) Gas (Argon)
Power Supply
How GM Tube work?
Thin Mica Central Wire
Window (Anode)
Meter
4) Many electrons
travel down the
wire making a
burst of current in
a circuit connected
to it. The electrons
make a meter
Metal Tube Low Pressure
needle deflect (Cathode) Gas (Argon)
Power Supply
How GM Tube work?
Thin Mica Central Wire
Window (Anode)
Meter
5) Before the
counter can detect
any more
radiation, it needs
to be restored to
its original state,
electron will flow Metal Tube Low Pressure
to the metal tube
and neutralize it.
(Cathode) Gas (Argon)
Power Supply
a) Portable Radiation Monitor
• Most portable survey meters are intended for dose
rate measurements, while some have integrating
facilities, which enable the total dose in a given time
to be recorded.
• Portable radiation monitors must be calibrated at
periodic intervals in a radiation calibration
facility.
b) Area radiation monitors
The prime purpose of this type of monitoring instrument is
to give an indication of the external radiation levels
present in an area where ionizing radiations are present.
In some cases, it sound an alarm if the level exceeds a
predetermined value.
Area radiation monitoring systems usually are designed to
respond to gamma radiation and may use either GM tubes or
ionization chambers in the detecting heads.
b) Area radiation monitors
• Example or areas radiation monitors.
c) Personal Dosimeters
• To determine how much radiation is receive by a radiation
worker in the course of his work.
Thermoluminescent Quartz fibre electroscope
Beeper
Dosimeter (TLD) badge (QFE) dosimeter
c) Personal Dosimeters - TLD badge
Consists of two Lithium Fluoride (LiF) chips
mounted on a card and encased in a special holder.
Worn like a badge on the body for one month or two
months depending on the nature of work.
During this time, the amount of radiation which the
worker received is recorded on the TLD chips.
After one/two months, the used card is exchanged
for a fresh card.
c) Personal Dosimeters – TLD badge
The used card is heated up in the TLD Reader
and the amount of light emitted is
proportional to the amount of radiation
absorbed by the card.
This is considered to be the amount of
radiation to which the wearer has been
exposed.
c) Personal Dosimeters - TLD badge
• Why use LiF?
• Can store energy during exposure of ionizing
radiation and subsequently release it as light when
heated.
How does TLD work?
A plot of light
TLDs work by Until they are On heating the
intensity emitted
storing the energy heated to high absorbed energy is
against temperature
they receive from temperature released in the form
is know as a glow
ionizing radiation (~250oC) of visible light
curve.
c) Personal Dosimeters – QFE Dosimeter
• For workers involved in Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
• work.
• The QFE dosimeter or pen dosimeter, contains a quartz
electroscope in a small ionization chamber.
• It is provided with an optical system.
• The advantage of this dosimeter is that it gives an
immediate reading of the dose received by the wearer.
• It is very useful for individuals who need to enter a
33
radiation area to do a particular job.
c) Personal Dosimeters – QFE Dosimeter
• QFE provide convenient direct readings of exposure.
• QFE are less accurate than other dosimeters and easily affected by shock.
• Cylindrical and about the size of a pen, a QFE contains:
Spring-loaded Reticle
charging pin
Quartz Lens
Fibre System
Repellor
34
c) Personal Dosimeters – QFE Dosimeter
• Reading Dosimeter – Just point it at light source so that we can look
through it and see the scale.
• Arrow-tech dosimeters use an extremely sensitive fiber electrometer
type voltmeter and a small volume of air to measure the total amount of
radiation to which the instrument has been exposed.
c) Personal Dosimeters - Beeper
• Miniature GM tubes in small instruments which are
carried in the pocket.
• They produce an audible “beep” warning sound, at a
rate dependent on the radiation level.
• When a predetermined dose rate is exceeded, it will
give a warning note which increases in frequency with
dose rate.
36
Instruments for measuring External Exposure
d) Monitors for Internal Radiation Contamination
• External vs Internal Radiation Exposure
d) Monitors for Internal Radiation Contamination
• Measurements for internal contamination can be done
on body excretions.
• Urine and feces are collected to measure excreted
radioactivity.
• Excretion rates are calculated to determine the
total intake.
d) Monitors for Internal Radiation Contamination
• Comparison of Methods of Assessing Internal Radioactivity
Direct Counting Bioassay
Directly measure the human body Indirect measurement
Need to spare time to receive direct Submit samples (urine, feces, etc)
measurements
Mainly target materials that emit gamma- Able to measure all radioactive materials
rays
Short measuring time using the apparatus Chemical analysis takes time
Accurate dose assessment Large margin of error in results of dose
assessment
d) Monitors for Internal Radiation Contamination
• Instruments for Measuring Internal Exposure
Radiation
Safety
Radiation Safety
Occupational Exposure Limits
• The dose limits for radiation workers and for members of
the public, as specified in the Radiation Protection
(Ionizing Radiation) Regulations 2000, follow the
Recommendations of the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (ICRP).
• In recommending individual dose limits, the ICRP
recognizes two categories of persons:
1) adults who are exposed in the course of their work
2) members of the public.
43
Dose limit for radiation workers
• The dose limit is designed to prevent the
incidence of deterministic effects by keeping the
dose limit below the threshold values for
deterministic effects.
• The dose limit recommended by ICRP in 1990.
• 20 mSv a year, averaged over defined periods of
5 years and with the further provision that the
effective dose shall not exceed 50 mSv in any
single year.
• The aim is not to just keep within the dose limit,
but to ensure that protection is optimized and
the exposures are all kept as low as reasonably
achievable, economic and social factors being
taken into account (ALARA principle). 44
Dose limit for Public
• For members of the public, the dose
limit is 1 mSv per year.
• A higher value of effective dose could
be allowed in a year provided that the
average over 5 years does not exceed
1 mSv per year.
• ALARA principle also applies here.
• The occupational dose limit for women
who are not pregnant shall be the same
as that of men.
• Once pregnancy has been declared, the
equivalent dose limit to the surface of
the woman’s abdomen shall be 2 mSv
for the remainder of the pregnancy. 45
Radiation Accidents
• A radiation accident shall be considered to have occurred if:
An unexpected, Radioactive
uncontrolled high level material is
of ionizing radiation There is a loss of The skin or accidentally
An individual control of unsealed
occurs as in the case of clothing of an released into the
loss, by damage, of enters a high radioactive material
the radiation causing a spillage or individual environment in
radiation field excess of the
shielding of a sealed leakage of the becomes
radioactive source or by accident radioactive material discharge level
of irradiating contaminated
permitted by the
apparatus
Regulations
46
Emergency Procedures
When any radiation accident occurs, the licensee, the radiation safety
officer or the individual in charge of the area at the time shall:
Evacuate all individuals from the affected area
Block off the affected area (including all locations where the radiation level
exceeds 25 Sv/hr) and post warning signs at all its entrances
Take immediate action to reduce the hazards caused by the radiation
accident;
Make arrangements to provide temporary shielding, monitor and
decontaminate any affected individual and the area and take all other
actions necessary, to return the situation to normal
Ensure that any contamination in excess of the permitted limit for skin and
clothing of any individual is removed before the individual leaves the47
premises;
