Design/Build of a

Concrete Canoe —
From Start to
Finish Line
Combining concrete technology with naval architecture.

BY MICHAEL CARNIVALE, III

T he Drexel University Concrete Canoe Teams have

participated in regional competitions since the
early 1980s, and we have represented the Pennsylva-
creativity, and spirit of a group of young men and women
who take extreme pride in their product and skills.

nia-Delaware Region at the National Concrete Canoe Hull design

Competition five times. A string of four consecutive With races that include straightaways, hairpin turns,
regional championships began with our 1998 entry, and even a slalom course, designers are faced with the
Rocky Canoa, which went on to finish 11th overall at inevitable task of developing a canoe that can achieve
the national competition. The Broad Street Bully conflicting objectives—namely the ability to travel
(1999), the Drexel Experiment (2000), and our 2001 straight and fast, but remain maneuverable enough to
entry, Obi-Wan Canoebi, finished in 8th, 13th, and 7th negotiate the turns. Obi-Wan Canoebi—our entry into the
place overall in the national competitions, respectively. 2001 ASCE/Master Builders Technologies (MBT) National
Throughout the years, our teams have taken valu- Concrete Canoe Competition (see the News section for
able learning experiences back from these competi- race results)—is nearly 21-ft (6.4 m) long and weighs
tions and incorporated them into the following year’s 140 lb (63.5 kg).
project. Success in this competition is based on a This canoe features a long, asymmetrical hull; its
combination of factors: the ability to combine recent length falls within the range proven by several of the
advances in concrete technology with the concepts of top schools in this event, such as Clemson, Alabama-
naval architecture; the use of effective management Huntsville, and Oklahoma State, to provide superior
for this unique design/build project; and the motivation, speed and maneuverability for the current race

Concrete international / NOVEMBER 2001 1

configuration. It features a sharp bow at the entry line absorption; high durability; and good workability and
and a small beam width of 28.5 in. (724 mm) just aft of finishing characteristics. Our team has relied on the use of
amidships. The sharp bow reduces the strike-through a polymer-modified concrete in our canoes for the past
resistance at the front of the canoe, enhancing stream- several years. From the research conducted by competition
lining. Most sophisticated racing hulls have their participants during the last decade and a half, teams can
fullness shifted to the rear, making the bow finer at the draw from an extensive database on lightweight concrete
expense of stern fineness and providing an efficient design. Typically, teams continually modify previous
design that balances speed, capacity, and stability. designs to enhance performance (such as a decrease in
A shallow arch cross-section provides a high resistance unit weight, an increase in tensile strength, etc.).
to capsizing. The surface-to-volume ratio decreases the During the 2000-2001 academic year, we focused our
wetted surface area and the resulting skin friction that is efforts on improving the workability of our concrete
the primary contributor to resistance at paddling speeds. mixture compared to the design of the previous year: a
The arched bilge (bottom of the canoe) combines the best 50 lb/ft3 (800 kg/m3) epoxy-modified concrete with a 7-day
attributes of flat-bottomed design (maneuverability) and compressive strength of 6.9 MPa (1000 psi). The epoxy-
rounded cross-sections (tracking and speed), providing a modified concrete was sticky and sometimes cumber-
structurally efficient and well-balanced design. The some to use for canoe construction, so we looked into
shallow arch tapers into a “whale tail” in the stern to making construction easier without compromising the
allow the paddler to sit further back for better handling of other concrete properties.
the canoe. In addition to the epoxy resin/curing agent system used
in previous mixture designs, various binders and admix-
Structural evaluation tures, including silica fume, fly ash, latex, high-range water
The structural analysis performed on our canoe is a reducers, and air-entrainment products, were evaluated
method commonly used by naval architects that takes and tested. We created 20 different mixture designs using
into account the weight of the canoe and paddlers and the Absolute Volume Method and tested them in accor-
buoyancy loads to determine the corresponding shear dance with the appropriate industry standards.
forces and bending moments. Designers generally look The optimum combination of desired properties was
at the worst-case loading conditions in the water (the found in a 50 lb/ft3 (800 kg/m3) latex-modified portland
absolute worst-case loading occurs when the canoe is cement concrete with 14-day compressive and tensile
simply supported). In our case, this condition occurred strengths of 6.5 MPa (940 psi) and 1.4 MPa (210 psi),
when we applied the load of the men’s tandem (assum- respectively. The mixture, which we named “Tatooine,” was
ing 185 lb [823 N]/paddler) to the canoe. composed of Type III portland cement (ASTM C 150), for
By making the conservative assumption that the high-early strength, which accelerated both the testing
concrete carries no tension and the selected reinforce- program and canoe construction; Laticrete® 333, an acrylic
ment would carry no compression, we checked the mortar latex that is 31% solids by weight, which enhanced
critical cross-sections in both bending and shear to the workability and durability, and reduced both the
determine the necessary concrete compressive and absorption and unit weight; Q-Cel®, a low-density, hollow,
reinforcement tensile strengths. Using the results of sodium borosilicate microsphere aggregate, which added
the structural analysis and incorporating a safety volume while reducing density; and polypropylene fibers to
factor of 2, the required compressive strength of 5.5 MPa prevent microcracking.
(800 psi) was computed. A 1100-lb (4.5 kN) tensile load This year’s design team believed that latex modification
in the gunwale was also determined from the analysis, provided the proper workability. Compared to last year’s
again with a safety factor of 2. design, the team achieved the same unit weight without a
The reinforced concrete composite is required to significant decrease in the compressive or tensile strength.
resist all shear forces and moments generated during While it took 14 days to reach the required strength rather
various loading conditions that occur while in trans- than the 7 days it took last year, this didn’t have any
port, on display, and in competition. Our goals were to significant impact on the construction schedule.
limit “hog” (negative moment) and “sag” (positive
moment) deformations; obtain considerable impact and Reinforcement
cracking resistance; maintain a thin, lightweight sec- Our designers evaluated the reinforcement available
tion; use reinforcing materials that are inert to reaction and selected a combination of fiberglass mesh and fiber-
with the concrete mixture; and ensure that all materials reinforced-plastic (FRP) reinforcing bars to serve as the
and the selected reinforcing scheme conformed with primary reinforcement. Polypropylene fibers dispersed
the rules. in the concrete served as secondary reinforcement. We
selected these materials based on their proven perfor-
The concrete mixture mance, the unquestionable satisfaction of all of the
In addition to the compressive strength requirement, design criteria as outlined in the rules and regulations,
our designers targeted several key properties including: a and the team’s familiarity with their use in construction.
maximum unit weight of 62.4 lb/ft3 (998 kg/m3); low water The hull skin is a composite of latex-modified con-

2 NOVEMBER 2001 / Concrete international

Fig: 1: 3-D exploded view of the reinforced concrete composite Fig. 2: Mold composed of cross-sectional templates and EPS
section of the hull skin block mounted on a wooden strongback

Fig. 3: The finished mold ready

for concrete placement. The mold
was refined and faired with
spackling compound and sealed
with an epoxy resin

crete sandwiched between layers of specially-treated Construction

glass fiber mesh at both the interior and exterior Mold making for Obi-Wan Canoebi began with 24 cross-
surfaces (Fig. 1). Wide-width tensile strength tests sectional templates and two longitudinal templates for the
(ASTM D 4595) conducted on specimens of the glass bow and stern sections, cut out of masonite, and aligned
fiber mesh indicated that a single layer could withstand along a wooden strongback (Fig. 2). Blocks of expanded
an average tensile load of 200 lb/in. (35 kN/m), which polystyrene (EPS) foam were cut using the templates as
correlated well with the strengths reported by the guides. The naval architecture software used to analyze
manufacturer. The gunwale includes lengths of 0.25-in the hull geometry also generated the final full-scale plans.
(6.4 mm) diameter FRP reinforcing bars strategically We inserted the templates into dadoes cut into the
placed at sections with high tensile forces. The strongback 12 in. (305 mm) on center, with the exception
precast thwarts are solely reinforced with the FRP bars. being at the last 3 ft (0.9 m) of both the bow and stern,
Based on the ultimate tensile strength of 140,000 lb/in2 where the templates were 6 in. (152 mm) on center. We
(950 MPa) for the 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) diameter FRP bar, the then inserted and secured the EPS blocks in between the
total tensile load capacity is nearly 6900 lb (30.7 kN), and templates, filled in mold imperfections with drywall
exceeds the required tensile force determined from the compound, and faired the mold by sanding with long-
structural analysis. boards. On achieving the desired contours, our team
To evaluate the strength and bond effectiveness of sealed the mold and hardened it with an epoxy resin
the reinforced concrete composite, we applied a line (Fig. 3). We cut and bent aluminum sheeting to the
load at the center of the simply supported plate. We desired dimensions of the gunwale and attached it to
measured load and deflections and computed the the plywood guide with rivets to serve as a form.
flexural rigidity of the plate using principles from the Finally, after six coats of mold release wax, the mold
mechanics of materials. Coupled with the past perfor- was ready for concrete casting.
mance and structural integrity of our previous canoes, Construction of the canoe began at the interior surface
the tests indicated that the composite could easily by placing a skim coat of concrete on the mold followed
withstand the loads applied by the paddlers. by the two layers of the glass fiber mesh that compose

Concrete international / NOVEMBER 2001 3

 Finishing included providing a 20-in. (508 mm) wide
continuous band of exposed concrete on the canoe,
required by the rules. The interior portion of the band was
left uncoated, while the exterior portion was coated with a
polyurethane water sealant. The remainder of the canoe
was finished with several layers of the water sealant,
automotive primer, paint, and clearcoat. The final touches
to the canoe were the application of stenciled vinyl letter-
ing and decals (Fig. 5). The paint scheme represented a Star
Wars Jedi knight light-saber.
In total, 1510 hours of labor went into this project from
the late summer of 2000 through the final preparations for
the 2001 national competition.
Fig. 4: Hand placement of a 0.2-in. (5.1 mm) thick layer of
concrete. Flexible plastic tubing (next to hand) was used to What’s in store for the Drexel team?
gauge the thickness Drexel’s 7th place finish resulted in part from a well-
rounded effort in the academic portion of the competition,
which included top 10 finishes in the technical paper, display
board, oral presentation, and final product categories. While
our paddlers performed admirably, improvements in this
portion of the competition could vault us higher.
Preparations already have begun for the 2002 team,
including the construction of a new strongback, prelimi-
nary concrete testing, and an evaluation of hull-design
performance, while we wait for the 2002 edition of the rules
and regulations to be published (where changes could
entirely change the face of the competition).
We look forward to defending our regional champion-
ship and possibly participating in the 15th ASCE/MBT
Fig 5: The final product included several layers of water sealant, National Concrete Canoe Competition, to be hosted by the
automotive primer, paint and clearcoat, and stenciled vinyl
lettering (photo courtesy of ASCE/MBT) University of Wisconsin-Madison. We don’t plan to underes-
timate the participants in the regional competition, all who
have shown significant improvement in recent years, and
the interior reinforcement layer. The team rolled the we hope that no one at the national level underestimates
mesh into the concrete skim coat using paint rollers the ability of Drexel University’s up-and-coming Concrete
fitted with PVC pipe. We then applied a 0.2-in. (5.1 mm) Canoe Team.
thick layer of concrete by hand (Fig. 4), using flexible
plastic tubing to gauge and control the thickness. This Selected for reader interest by the editors.
layer of concrete made up the core of the composite
section. After two additional layers of the glass fiber
mesh were applied, an exterior skim coat of concrete
provided full coverage over the reinforcement. When
concrete was placed in the aluminum gunwale form,
two 8-ft (2.45 m) lengths of FRP rebar, one for either
side of the canoe, became encased. Throughout the
casting process, we made unit weight determinations of ACI member MicMichh ael C arniv
Carniv
arnivalal e, III
ale, III, is a
the fresh concrete, and quality control cylinders and civil engineer with the Geotechnical Section,
cubes were obtained from each batch for testing Engineering and Construction Division, U.S.
purposes. Army Corps of Engineers, Philadelphia
Obi-Wan was moist cured continuously for 14 days District. He holds a BS in civil engineering
from Drexel University, has completed
by placing burlap under polyethylene sheeting. After
graduate coursework at the University of
curing took place and it was released from the mold,
Rhode Island (URI), and is currently enrolled
the canoe was sanded to a smooth, curvilinear finish. in the PhD program at Drexel University.
We applied thin patches of concrete to fill imperfec- Carnivale participated in the National
tions; two thwarts were installed into notches cut in the Concrete Canoe Competition with URI, and
gunwale by tying the bar in the thwart to the bar in the has served as a technical advisor to the
gunwale, then filling the notches with concrete. Drexel Concrete Canoe Team since 1997.

4 NOVEMBER 2001 / Concrete international