CONTROL VALVES

Functions of Control valve

The most common final control element in the process control industries is the control valve. The
control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical compounds, to
compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as close as possible
to the desired set point.

Different Parts of Control valve

The control valve assembly typically consists of:
i. The valve body. The most common valve body constructions are:
 single-ported valve bodies having one port and one valve plug;
 double-ported valve bodies having two ports and one valve plug;
 two-way valve bodies having two flow connections, one inlet and one outlet;
 three-way valve bodies having three flow connections, two of which can be inlets with one
outlet (for converging or mixing flows), or one inlet and two outlets (for diverging or
diverting flows).
The term valve body, or even just body, frequently is used in referring to the valve body
together with its bonnet assembly and included trim parts. More properly, they are called valve
body assembly.
ii. The internal trim parts, which includes the closure member,which opens, closes, or partially
obstructs one or more ports.
iii. An actuator to provide the motive power to operate the valve, and
iv. A variety of additional valve accessories, which can include positioners, transducers (Electro-
pneumatic etc.), supply pressure regulators, manual operators, snubbers, specified positioners
(Electro-pneumatic positioners etc.) or limit switches.
Process Control Terminology
Accessory: A device that is mounted on the actuator to complement the actuator’s function and make it
a complete operating unit. Examples include positioners, supply pressure regulators, solenoids, and
limit switches.
Actuator: A pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrically powered device that supplies force and motion to
open or close a valve.
Actuator Assembly: An actuator, including all the pertinent accessories that make it a complete
operating unit.
Capacity (Valve): The rate of flow through a valve under stated conditions.
Closed Loop or Control Loop or Loop: The interconnection of process control components such that
information regarding the process variable is continuously fed back to the controller set point to
provide continuous, automatic corrections to the process variable.
Controller: A device that operates automatically by use of
some established algorithm to regulate a controlled variable.
The controller input receives information about the status
of the process variable and then provides an appropriate
output signal to the final control element.
Control Range: The range of valve travel over which a control valve can maintain the installed valve
gain between the normalized values of 0.5 and 2.0.
Control Valve or Control Valve Assembly: Includes all components normally mounted on the valve: the
valve body assembly, actuator, positioner, air sets, transducers, limit switches, etc.
Dead Band: The range through which an input signal can be varied, upon reversal of direction, without
initiating an observable change in the output signal. For the control valve assembly, the controller
output (CO) is the input to the valve assembly and the process variable (PV) is the output as shown in
figure 1-1. Dead band is typically expressed as a percent of the input span.
Dead Time: The time interval (Td) in which no response of the system is detected following a small
(usually 0.25% - 5%) step input. It is measured from the time the step input is initiated to the first
detectable response of the system being tested. Dead Time can apply to a valve assembly or to the
entire process.
Disk: A valve trim element used to modulate the flow rate with either linear or rotary motion. Can also
be referred to as a valve plug or closure member.
Equal Percentage Characteristic: An inherent flow characteristic that, for equal increments of rated
travel, will ideally give equal percentage changes of the flow coefficient (Cv) (figure 1-2).
Final Control Element: The device that implements the control strategy determined by the output of
the controller. While the final control element can be a damper, a variable speed drive pump, or an on-
off switching device, the most common final control element in the process control industries is the
control valve assembly. The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gasses, steam, water, or
chemical compounds, to compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process variable
as close as possible to the desired set point.
Friction: A force that tends to oppose the relative motion between two surfaces that are in contact with
each other. The friction force is a function of the normal force holding these two
surfaces together and the characteristic nature of the two surfaces. Friction has two components:

i. static friction and

ii. dynamic friction.

Static friction is the force that must be overcome before there is any relative motion between the two
surfaces. Once relative movement has begun, dynamic friction is the force that must be overcome to
maintain the relative motion.
Running or sliding friction are colloquial terms that are sometimes used to describe dynamic friction.
Stick/slip or “stiction” are colloquial terms that are sometimes used to describe static friction. Static
friction is one of the major causes of dead band in a valve assembly.
Gain: An all-purpose term that can be used in many situations. In its most general sense, gain is the
ratio of the magnitude of the output change of a given system or device to the magnitude of the input
change that caused the output change. Gain has two components: static gain and dynamic gain.
Static gain is the gain relationship between the input and output and is an indicator of the ease with
which the input can initiate a change in the output when the system or device is in a steady-state
condition. Sensitivity is sometimes used to mean static gain.
Dynamic gain is the gain relationship between the input and output when the system is in a state of
movement or flux. Dynamic gain is a function of frequency or rate of change of the input.
Hysteresis: The maximum difference in output value for any single input value during a calibration
cycle, excluding errors due to dead band.
Inherent Characteristic or Flow Characteristic: The relationship between the flow coefficient and the
closure member (disk) travel as it is moved from the closed position to rated travel with constant
pressure drop across the valve. Typically these characteristics are plotted on a curve where the
horizontal axis is labeled in percent travel and the vertical axis is labeled as percent flow (or Cv)
(figure 1-2). Because valve flow is a function of both the valve travel and the pressure drop across the
valve, conducting flow characteristic tests at a constant pressure drop provides a systematic way of
comparing one valve characteristic design to another. Typical valve characteristics conducted in this
manner are named Linear, Equal-Percentage, and Quick Opening (figure 1-2).
Inherent Valve Gain: The magnitude ratio of the change in flow through the valve to the change in
valve travel under conditions of constant pressure drop. Inherent valve gain is an inherent function of
the valve design. It is equal to the slope of the inherent characteristic curve at any travel point and is a
function of valve travel.
Installed Characteristic: The relationship between the flow rate and the closure member (disk) travel
as it is moved from the closed position to rated travel as the pressure drop across the valve is
influenced by the varying process conditions.
Installed Valve Gain: The magnitude ratio of the change in flow through the valve to the change in
valve travel under actual process conditions. Installed valve gain is the valve gain relationship that
occurs when the valve is installed in a specific system and the pressure drop is allowed to change
naturally according to the dictates of the overall system.
The installed valve gain is equal to the slope of the installed characteristic curve, and is a function of
valve travel.
I/P: Shorthand for current-to-pressure (I-to-P). Typically applied to input transducer modules.
Linearity: The closeness to which a curve relating to two variables approximates a straight line. (Linearity
also means that the same straight line will apply for both upscale and downscale directions. Thus, dead band as defined above, would typically be
considered a non-linearity.)
Linear Characteristic: An inherent flow characteristic that can be represented by a straight line on a
rectangular plot of flow coefficient (Cv) versus rated travel. Therefore equal increments of travel
provide equal increments of flow coefficient, Cv (figure 1-2).
Loop Gain: The combined gain of all the components in the loop when viewed in series around the
loop. Sometimes referred to as open-loop gain. It must be clearly specified whether referring to the
static loop gain or the dynamic loop gain at some frequency.
Open Loop: The condition where the interconnection of process control components is interrupted such
that information from the process variable is no longer fed back to the controller
set point so that corrections to the process variable are no longer provided. This is typically
accomplished by placing the controller in the manual operating position.
Packing: A part of the valve assembly used to seal against leakage around the valve disk or stem.
Positioner: A position controller (servomechanism) that is mechanically connected to a moving part of
a final control element or its actuator and that automatically adjusts its output to the actuator to
maintain a desired position in proportion to the input signal.
Process: All the combined elements in the control loop, except the controller. The process typically
includes the control valve assembly, the pressure vessel or heat exchanger that is being controlled, as
well as sensors, pumps, and transmitters.
Process Gain: The ratio of the change in the controlled process variable to a corresponding change in
the output of the controller.
Process Variability: A precise statistical measure of how tightly the process is being controlled about
the set point. Process variability is defined in percent as typically (2s/m), where m is the set point or
mean value of the measured process variable and s is the standard deviation of the process variable.
Quick Opening Characteristic: An inherent flow characteristic in which a maximum flow coefficient is
achieved with minimal closure member travel (figure 1-2).
Relay: A device that acts as a power amplifier. It takes an electrical, pneumatic, or mechanical input
signal and produces an output of a large volume flow of air or hydraulic fluid to the actuator. The relay
can be an internal component of the positioner or a separate valve accessory.
Resolution: The minimum possible change in input required to produce a detectable change in the
output when no reversal of the input takes place.
Resolution is typically expressed as a percent of the input span.
Second-Order: A term that refers to the dynamic relationship between the input and output of a device.
A second-order system or device is one that has two energy storage devices that can transfer kinetic
and potential energy back and forth between themselves, thus introducing the possibility of oscillatory
behavior and overshoot.
Sensor: A device that senses the value of the process variable and provides a corresponding output
signal to a transmitter. The sensor can be an integral part of the transmitter, or it may be a separate
component.
Set Point: A reference value representing the desired value of the process variable being controlled.
Shaft Wind-Up: A phenomenon where one end of a valve shaft turns and the other does not. This
typically occurs in rotary-style valves where the actuator is connected to the valve closure member by
a relatively long shaft. While seal friction in the valve holds one end of the shaft in place, rotation of
the shaft at the actuator end is absorbed by twisting of the shaft until the actuator input transmits
enough force to overcome the friction.
Sizing (Valve): A systematic procedure designed to ensure the correct valve capacity for a set of
specified process conditions.
Time Constant: A time parameter that normally applies to a first-order element. It is the time interval
measured from the first detectable response of the system to a small (usually 0.25% - 5%) step input
until the system output reaches 63% of its final steady-state value. When applied to an open-loop
process, the time constant is usually designated as τ (Tau). When applied to a closed-loop system, the
time constant is usually designated as λ (Lambda).
Transmitter: A device that senses the value of the process variable and transmits a corresponding
output signal to the controller for comparison with the set point.
Travel: The movement of the closure member from the closed position to an intermediate or rated full
open position.
Travel Indicator: A pointer and scale used to externally show the position of the closure member
typically with units of opening percent of travel or degrees of rotation.
Trim: The internal components of a valve that modulate the flow of the controlled fluid.
Booster or Volume Booster: A stand-alone relay is often referred to as a volume booster or simply
booster because it boosts, or amplifies, the volume of air supplied to the actuator.

Sliding-Stem Control Valve Terminology

The following terminology applies to the physical and operating characteristics of standard sliding-
stem control valves with diaphragm or piston actuators. Some of the terms, particularly those
pertaining to actuators, are also appropriate for rotary-shaft control valves.
Actuator Spring: A spring, or group of springs, enclosed in the yoke or actuator casing that moves the
actuator stem in a direction opposite to that created by diaphragm pressure.
Actuator Stem: The part that connects the actuator to the valve stem and transmits motion (force) from
the actuator to the valve.
Actuator Stem Extension: An extension of the piston actuator stem to provide a means of transmitting
piston motion to the valve positioner (figure 1-7)

Actuator Stem Force: The net force from an actuator that is available for actual positioning of the
valve plug.
Bonnet: The portion of the valve that contains the packing box and stem seal and can guide the stem.
It provides the principal opening to the body cavity for assembly of internal parts. It can also provide
for the attachment of the actuator to the valve body. Typical bonnets are bolted, threaded, welded,
pressure-seals, or integral with the body. (This term is often used in referring to the bonnet and its
included packing parts.
Bonnet Assembly or Bonnet: An assembly including the part through which a valve stem moves and a
means for sealing against leakage along the stem. It usually provides a means for mounting the
actuator and loading the packing assembly.

Bushing: A device that supports and/or guides moving parts such as valve stems.
Cage: A part of a valve trim that surrounds the closure member and can provide flow characterization
and/or a seating surface. It also provides stability, guiding, balance, and alignment, and facilitates
assembly of other parts of the valve trim. The walls of the cage contain openings that usually
determine the flow characteristic of the control valve. Various cage styles
are shown in figure 1-8.

Closure Member or Plug or Valve Plug: The movable part of the valve that is positioned in the flow
path to modify the rate of flow through the valve.
Plug: A term frequently used to refer to the closure member.
Cylinder: The chamber of a piston actuator in which the piston moves (figure 1-7).
Diaphragm: A flexible, pressure responsive element that transmits force to the diaphragm plate and
actuator stem.
Diaphragm Actuator: A fluid powered device in which the fluid acts upon a flexible component, the
diaphragm.
Diaphragm Case: A housing, consisting of top and bottom section, used for supporting a diaphragm
and establishing one or two pressure chambers.
Diaphragm Plate: A plate concentric with the diaphragm for transmitting force to the actuator stem.
Globe Valve: A valve with a linear motion closure member, one or more ports, and a body
distinguished by a globular shaped cavity around the port region. Globe valves can be further classified
as: two-way single-ported two-way double-ported (figure 1-9); angle-style (figure 1-10); three-way
(figure 1-11); unbalanced cage-guided (figure 1-3); and balance cage-guided (figure 1-12).
Piston: A movable pressure responsive element that transmits force to the piston actuator stem (figure
1-7).
Piston Type Actuator: A fluid powered device in which the fluid acts upon a movable piston to
provide motion to the actuator stem. Piston type actuators (figure 1-7) are classified as either double-
acting, so that full power can be developed in either direction or as spring-fail so that upon loss of
supply power, the actuator moves the valve in the required direction of travel.
Port: The flow control orifice of a control valve.
Seat: The area of contact between the closure member and its mating surface that establishes valve
shut-off.
Seat Ring: A part of the valve body assembly that provides a seating surface for the closure member
and can provide part of the flow control orifice.
Stem Connector: The device that connects the actuator stem to the valve stem.
Trim: The internal components of a valve that modulate the flow of the controlled fluid. In a globe
valve body, trim would typically include closure member, seat ring, cage, stem, and stem pin.
Valve Body Assembly or Valve Body or Valve: An assembly of a valve, bonnet assembly, bottom
flange (if used), and trim elements. The trim includes the closure member, which opens, closes, or
partially obstructs one or more ports.
Valve Stem: In a linear motion valve, the part that connects the actuator stem with the closure member
(Plug).
Yoke: The structure that rigidly connects the actuator power unit to the valve.

Rotary-Shaft Control Valve:

A valve style in which the flow closure member (full ball, partial ball, disk or plug) is rotated in the
flowstream to control the capacity of the valve (Details: Control Valve Handbook, Emerson Process
Management; Page: 13-16).
Control Valve Functions and Characteristics Terminology
Capacity: Rate of flow through a valve under stated conditions.
Diaphragm Pressure Span: Difference between the high and low values of the diaphragm pressure
range. This can be stated as an inherent or installed characteristic.
Double-Acting Actuator: An actuator in which power is supplied in either direction.
Fail-Closed: A condition wherein the valve closure member moves to a closed position when the
actuating energy source fails.
Fail-Open: A condition wherein the valve closure member moves to an open position when the
actuating energy source fails.
Fail-Safe: A characteristic of a valve and its actuator, which upon loss of actuating energy supply, will
cause a valve closure member to be fully closed, fully open, or remain in the last position, whichever
position is defined as necessary to protect the process. Fail-safe action can involve the use of auxiliary
controls connected to the actuator.
Flow Coefficient (Cv): A constant (Cv) related to the geometry of a valve, for a given travel, that
can be used to establish flow capacity. It is the number of U.S. gallons per minute of 60°F water
that will flow through a valve with a one pound per square inch pressure drop.
Flow Coefficient (Kv): A constant (Kv) related to the geometry of a valve, for a given travel, that
can be used to establish flow capacity. It is the number of Meter³ per hour of 20°F water that will
flow through a valve with a one psi pressure drop. Kv = (0.865)(Cv )
Rated Flow Coefficient (Cv): The flow coefficient (Cv) of the valve at rated travel.
Rated Travel: The distance of movement of the closure member from the closed position to the rated
full-open position. The rated full-open position is the maximum opening recommended by the
manufacturers.
Relative Flow Coefficient: The ratio of the flow coefficient (Cv) at a stated travel to the flow
coefficient (Cv) at rated travel.
Vena Contracta: The portion of a flow stream where fluid velocity is at its maximum and fluid static
pressure and the cross-sectional area are at their minimum. In a control valve, the vena contracta
normally occurs just downstream of the actual physical restriction.

Some Important Terminology

Feedback Signal*: The return signal that results from a measurement of the directly controlled
variable. For a control valve with a positioner, the return signal is usually a mechanical indication of
closure member stem position that is fed back into the positioner.
Controller: A device that operates automatically to regulate a controlled variable.
Instrument Pressure: The output pressure from an automatic controller that is used to operate a control
valve.
Loading Pressure: The pressure employed to position a pneumatic actuator. This is the pressure that
actually works on the actuator diaphragm or piston and it can be the instrument pressure if a valve
positioner is not used.
Operating Medium: This is the fluid, generally air or gas, used to supply the power for operation of
valve positioner or automatic controller.
Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output magnitude to the change of the input that causes it after
the steady-state has been reached.
Span: The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values (for example: Range = 0 to
150°F; Span = 150°F; Range = 3 to 15 psig, Span = 12 psig).
Supply Pressure: The pressure at the supply port of a device. Common values of control valve supply
pressure are 20 psig for a 3 to 15 psig range and 35 psig for a 6 to 30 psig range.
Zero Error: Error of a device operating under specified conditions of use when the input is at the
lower range value. It is usually expressed as percent of ideal span.

Valve and Actuator Types

Control Valves can be categorized according to different valve body types:
a. Angle Valves
i. Cage-style valve bodies
ii. DiskStack style valve bodies
b. Angle seat piston valves
c. Globe valves
i. Single-port valve bodies
ii. Balanced-plug cage-style valve bodies
iii. High capacity, cage-guided valve bodies
iv. Port-guided single-port valve bodies
v. Double-ported valve bodies
vi. Three-way valve bodies
d. Diaphragm Valves
e. Rotary valves
i. Butterfly valve bodies
ii. V-notch ball control valve bodies
iii. Eccentric-disk control valve bodies
iv. Eccentric-plug control valve bodies
f. Sliding cylinder valves
i. Directional control valve
ii. Spool valve
iii. Piston valve
g. Air-operated valves
i. Air-operated valve
ii. Relay valve
iii. Air-operated pinch valve
Actuators
Pneumatically operated control valve actuators are the most popular type in use, but electric, hydraulic, and
manual actuators are also widely used.
The spring-and-diaphragm pneumatic actuator is most commonly specified due to its dependability and
simplicity of design.
Pneumatically operated piston actuators provide high stem force output for demanding service conditions.
Adaptations of both spring-and-diaphragm and pneumatic piston actuators are available for direct installation
on rotary-shaft control valves.

Different types of actuators:

a. Diaphragm Actuators: Pneumatically operated diaphragm actuators use air supply from
controller, positioner, or other source.
b. Piston Actuators: Piston actuators are pneumatically operated using high-pressure plant air to
150 psig, often eliminating the need for supply pressure regulator.
c. Manual Actuators: Manual actuators are useful where automatic control is not required, but
where ease of operation and good manual control is still necessary (figure 3-37). They are often
used to actuate the bypass valve in a three-valve bypass loop around control valves for manual
control of the process during maintenance or shutdown of the automatic system.
d. Electrohydraulic Actuators: Electrohydraulic actuators require only electrical power to the
motor and an electrical input signal from the controller.
 e. Rack and Pinion Actuators: Rack and pinion designs provide a compact and economical
solution for rotary shaft valves.
f. Electric Actuator: Traditional electric actuator designs use an electric motor and some form of
gear reduction to move the valve.
Control Valve Accessories
Positioners
Pneumatically operated valves depend on a positioner to take an input signal from a process controller
and convert it to valve travel. These instruments are available in three configurations:
1. Pneumatic Positioners—A pneumatic signal (usually 3-15 psig) is supplied to the positioner. The
positioner translates this to a required valve position and supplies the valve actuator with the
required air pressure to move the valve to the correct position.
2. Analog I/P Positioner—This positioner performs the same function as the one above, but uses
electrical current (usually 4-20 mA) instead of air as the input signal.
3. Digital Controller—Although this instrument functions very much as the Analog I/P described
above, it differs in that the electronic signal conversion is digital rather than analog. The digital
products cover three categories.

a. Digital Non-Communicating—A current

signal (4-20 mA) is supplied to the positioner,
which both powers the electronics and
controls the output.
b. HART—This is the same as the digital
non-communicating but is also capable
of two-way digital communication over
the same wires used for the analog signal.
c. Fieldbus—This type receives digitally
based signals and positions the valve
using digital electronic circuitry coupled
to mechanical components. An all-digital
control signal re equipped with a digital
controller. Most importantly, it allows
two-way communication for process, valve,
and instrument diagnostics.
Other Control Valve Accessories
 Hand Wheel
 Limit Switches
 Solenoid Valve Manifold
 Supply Pressure Regulator
 Fail-Safe Systems for Piston Actuators
 Pneumatic Lock-Up Systems
 Electro-Pneumatic Transducers: Figure 4-12 illustrates an electro-pneumatic transducer. The
transducer receives a direct current input signal and uses a torque motor, nozzle-flapper, and
 pneumatic relay to convert the electric signal to a proportional pneumatic output signal. Nozzle
pressure operates the relay and is piped to the torque motor feedback bellows to provide a
comparison between input signal and nozzle pressure. As shown, the transducer can be
mounted directly on a control valve and operate the valve without need for additional boosters
or positioners.

Figure 4-12. Electro-Pneumatic

Transducer Mounted on a Dia-
phragm-Actuated Control Valve

 Electro-Pneumatic Valve Positioners: Electro-pneumatic positioners (figure 4-13) are used in

electronic control loops to operate pneumatic diaphragm control valve actuators. The positioner
receives a 4 to 20 mA DC input signal, and uses an I/P converter, nozzle-flapper, and
pneumatic relay to convert the input signal to a pneumatic output signal. The output signal is
applied directly to the actuator diaphragm, producing valve plug position that is proportional to
the input signal. Valve plug position is mechanically fed back to the torque comparison of plug
position and input signal. Split-range operation capability can provide full travel of the actuator
with only a portion of the input signal range.