Translation Practices Explained

Translation Practices Explained is a series of coursebooks designed to help self-

learners and teachers of translation. Each volume focuses on a specific aspect of
professional translation practice, in many cases corresponding to actual courses
available in translator-training institutions. Special volumes are devoted to well
consolidated professional areas, such as legal translation or European Union
texts; to areas where labour-market demands are currently undergoing consid-
erable growth, such as screen translation in its different forms; and to specific
aspects of professional practices on which little teaching and learning material
is available, the case of editing and revising, or electronic tools. The authors are
practising translators or translator trainers in the fields concerned. Although
specialists, they explain their professional insights in a manner accessible to the
wider learning public.

These books start from the recognition that professional translation practices
require something more than elaborate abstraction or fixed methodologies. They
are located close to work on authentic texts, and encourage learners to proceed
inductively, solving problems as they arise from examples and case studies.

Each volume includes activities and exercises designed to help self-learners

consolidate their knowledge; teachers may also find these useful for direct ap-
plication in class, or alternatively as the basis for the design and preparation of
their own material. Updated reading lists and website addresses will also help in-
dividual learners gain further insight into the realities of professional practice.

Sara Laviosa
Sharon O’Brien
Kelly Washbourne
Series Editors
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Scientific and Technical Translation
Explained

A Nuts and Bolts Guide for Beginners

Jody Byrne
First published 2012 by St. Jerome Publishing

Published 2014 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

 Jody Byrne 2012

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN 13: (pbk)

ISSN 1470-966X (Translation Practices Explained)

Typeset by
Delta Typesetters, Cairo, Egypt

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Byrne, Jody.
Scientific and technical translation explained : a nuts and bolts guide for beginners /
Jody Byrne.
p. cm. -- (Translation practices explained)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-905763-36-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Technology--Translating. 2. Communication of technical information. I. Title.
T11.5.B968 2012
418’.035--dc23
2011052578
For my beautiful daughter, Áine
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Contents

Acknowledgements xi
About this book xiii
Using this book xiv

1. Scientific and Technical Translation 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Some distinctions 2
1.1.2 Historical significance 3
1.1.3 Modern scientific and technical translation 5
1.1.4 Some legal dimensions 6
1.2 A place for translation theory? 8
1.2.1 Recreating the source text 8
1.2.2 Focusing on the target text 11
1.3 Tools of the trade 14
1.3.1 General tools 16
1.3.2 Text processing tools 16
1.3.3 Translation tools 17
1.4 Who’s who in scientific and technical translation? 18
1.4.1 The translator 20
1.4.2 The clients 23

2. Translation and Technical Communication 25

2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 What is technical communication? 25
2.2.1 Generic features of technical communication 27
2.3 Who reads technical documentation? 30
2.3.1 Understanding audiences 30
2.3.2 Finding out who the audience is 35
2.3.2.1 Asking the right questions 37
2.4 Knowing what you’re talking about 42

3. Understanding Technical Documentation 47

3.1 Introduction 47
3.1.1 Specific features of technical documentation 47
3.1.1.1 Language 48
3.1.1.2 Facts and specifications 52
3.1.1.3 References 53
3.1.1.4 Graphics 54
3.1.1.5 Formulae, equations and scientific notation 56
3.2 Typical text types 58
 3.2.1 Manuals 59
3.2.2 Applications and proposals 62
3.2.3 Reports and scientific papers 63
3.2.4 Presentations 65
3.2.5 Regulatory documents 67
3.2.6 Popular science 68
3.2.7 A word on how texts are structured 69
3.2.8 Making sense of text types in translation 70

4. Case Studies 74
4.1 Introduction 74
4.2 Scientific Journal Paper 74
4.3 Technical Data Sheet (TDS) 82
4.4 Creating your own document profiles 89
4.4.1 Document Profile Sheet 90
4.5 Test Instructions 91
4.6 Expert Technical Report 94
4.7 User Guide 101
4.8 Popular Science Book 106
4.9 Certificate of Conformity 111
4.10 Technical Case Study 114

5. Basic Translation Techniques 118

5.1 Introduction 118
5.2 The basics 118
5.2.1 Direct translation 118
5.2.1.1 Literal translation 119
5.2.1.2 Borrowing 120
5.2.1.3 Calque 120
5.2.2 Oblique translation 120
5.2.2.1 Equivalence 121
5.2.2.2 Transposition/Recategorization 121
5.2.2.3 Modulation 122
5.2.2.4 Adaptation 123
5.2.3 Expansion and contraction 124
5.2.3.1 Recycling information 125
5.2.4 Generalizing and particularizing 127
5.2.5 Compensation 128
5.2.6 Restructuring 129
5.2.7 Iconic Linkage 130
5.3 What type of translation are you producing? 132
5.3.1 Instrumental and documentary translations 134
5.3.2 Producing a translation brief 137
 5.3.3 When not to translate 138
5.3.3.1 Official translations and proper names 140
5.3.3.2 Laws 140
5.3.3.3 European Directives 141
5.4 Writing within limits 142
5.4.1 Terminology 144
5.4.2 Clarity, readability and usability 145
5.4.3 Editing and proof-reading 147
5.4.3.1 Reviewing the work of another translator 147
5.4.3.2 General hints for editing and reviewing
translations 148
5.5 When in doubt 148

6. Pitfalls, Problems and How to Deal with Them 152

6.1 Introduction 152
6.2 Abbreviations and acronyms 152
6.3 Formulae and Equations 154
6.4 Quantities and units of measure 155
6.5 Currencies 158
6.6 Culture and Familiarity 159
6.7 Errors in the Source Text 161
6.8 Sample text and computer code 162
6.9 Graphics, screenshots and menus 165
6.10 Product names 167
6.11 Contact details 168
6.12 Scenarios and examples 170
6.13 Giving warnings and advice 171
6.14 References to other documents 174
6.15 Partially translated source texts 174
6.16 Latinisms and scientific nomenclatures 175
6.17 Instructions that do not make sense 180
6.18 Tables of contents and indices 182
6.19 Formatting and layout 183
6.20 Managing and naming files 184
6.21 Using the Internet 185

Bibliography 190

Appendix 1. Glossary of Terms 196

Appendix 2. Scientific Notation & Units of Measure 202
Appendix 3. Hazard, Risk and Safety Phrases 206
Appendix 4. Sample Document Profiles 212

Index 226
List of Figures
Figure 1: Sample reader roles and their needs 32
Figure 2: High and Low Context Cultures (Katan 1999:183) 40
Figure 3: Worksheet for profiling a target audience (Hoft 1995:61) 41
Figure 4: Example of a screenshot for a software application 54
Figure 5: Technical diagram with labels 55
Figure 6: Examples of equations 57
Figure 7: Schematic diagram with labels and measurements 58
Figure 8: Document Profile Sheet 90
Figure 9: Example of a table of contents modified for two different
audiences 130
Figure 10: Sample translation brief form 139
Figure 11: Example of a style rule from the Apple Publications Style Guide
(Apple 2003:103) 143
Figure 12: Sample assessment criteria for evaluating texts 151
Figure 13: Menu bar from a software interface with hotkeys
underlined 163
Figure 14: Postcard with hidden message 170
Figure 15: European hazard warning symbols and accompanying
indications 173
Figure 16: Directional terms for human anatomy 176
Figure 17: Part 1 of Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum Animale) from
Carolus Linnaeus’s first edition of Systema Naturae (1735) 177
Figure 18: Part 2 of Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum Animale)
from Carolus Linnaeus’s first edition of Systema
Naturae (1735) 178
Figure 19: Confusing instructions for a child’s toy (Michael O’Mara
Books 2004:87) 180
Figure 20: Diagram for Practical Exercise 25 189
Acknowledgements
This book is based on my experience over many years as a technical translator,
technical writer, trainer and researcher and it draws on various aspects of my
work with numerous translation agencies, localization vendors, translators and
academics to provide what is, hopefully, a useful and accessible resource on
scientific and technical translation. In particular, the many students I have taught
at Dublin City University and the University of Sheffield as well as the people
who asked insightful questions at conferences and guest lectures have played a
vital role in determining which information is included in this book and how it
should be presented.
I am particularly grateful to the series editors who provided helpful comments
on the various drafts of this book. My sincerest thanks go to John Kearns and to
Kerry and Rick Gilchrist who, despite their heavy workloads, read sections of this
book and provided invaluable comments, suggestions and feedback. I would also
like to acknowledge and thank the SCIgen group, Oxford University Press, Henkel
Ltd., Avocent and Elaine McAndrew at Merrill Brink International for their kind
support for reproducing some of the texts used in Chapter 4.
My undying gratitude goes to my wife, Janice, for her eternal patience, sup-
port and love during this project. Thank you (again)!
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About this book
The purpose of this book is to introduce you to the issues involved in translating
scientific and technical texts and to provide you with the skills and knowledge
to deal with them. Despite varying estimates as to the true monetary value of
scientific and technical translation, few people could deny that it is one of the
most important areas of translation, both from a professional and, increasingly,
from a training point of view. In this book, you will gain an overview of scientific
and technical translation, explore its origins and its professional context and
develop the knowledge and skills necessary to deal with a wide range of texts.
One of the main difficulties for anyone interested in scientific and technical
translation has always been the chronic lack of resources on the subject. This has
been an issue since I was an undergraduate translation student and unfortunately,
if comments from students and trainers are anything to go by, the situation has
improved very little since then. This book is aimed, therefore, at students who
are interested in scientific and technical translation, both as a career choice and
as a research area, but who have found it difficult to find sufficient information
to help them get started. This book is also aimed at anyone who simply wants
to learn more about the area.
In writing this book, I had three main aims. The first was to provide as broad
and holistic an introduction to scientific and technical translation as possible
so as to give a better understanding of this complex interdisciplinary area.
By positioning scientific and technical translation within the field of technical
communication, it will be apparent that communicating technical information
between languages requires more than just a good dictionary and an ability to
write clearly. This approach will also highlight areas of common interest between
translation and other aspects of communication, and hopefully stimulate ideas
for further research.
My second aim was to provide practical advice to help those starting out or
intending to work as technical translators. While it is not possible to prepare
translators for every eventuality, it is possible to highlight some of the more com-
mon scenarios and provide suggestions on how to deal with them. This means
novice translators will not find themselves completely unprepared for the reality
of professional scientific and technical translation.
Finally, I wanted to provide a range of practical activities to help students prac-
tise their skills and to familiarize them with the processes in scientific and technical
translation. These activities can be found at various points in each chapter.
By presenting typical translation strategies drawn from professional practice
and from various other sources, this book will help you to explore scientific and
technical translation in more detail and develop your own translation strategies.
The learning activities in particular are intended to inspire and encourage trainers
and students to develop their own learning and teaching methods.
xiv Jody Byrne

Using this book

This book is designed to provide knowledge and skills that can be applied in
practical translation scenarios. It is not intended solely as a theoretical exercise,
although it does draw, where necessary, on theory to provide a context for the
practical strategies proposed. It also explains that scientific and technical transla-
tion is highly interdisciplinary, both as an activity and as a field of study.
This book can be used in a number of ways. It can be used in conjunction
with classroom-based practical translation courses with individual sections and
chapters being referred to as necessary. Chapters 1 to 3 can also be used as ini-
tial reading at the start of a semester. Individual students will also find that the
various activities are useful as self-study strategies as part of their independent
learning.
Chapter 1 begins by identifying scientific and technical translation and by
describing what it is and, more importantly, what it is not. We will then examine
the professional, organizational and theoretical context within which scientific
and technical translation operates.
Chapter 2 introduces the idea that scientific and technical translation should
not be regarded just as a type of translation but as part of the broader field of
technical communication. This is necessary not simply because technical com-
munication is the traditional source of the texts which we will translate, but
because of the shared interests and, in many respects, the overlap in activities and
skills. This chapter introduces you to technical communication and emphasizes
the role of scientific and technical translation as a communicative process that
is aimed at specific audiences. Given the overwhelming importance of the audi-
ence in the translation process, it is important to understand their needs, their
expectations and even their idiosyncrasies so that we can tailor our translations
accordingly. The chapter concludes with some suggestions on how to go about
gaining a better understanding of audiences.
Chapter 3 examines the typical features of scientific and technical language
before examining several main categories of texts. This is important if we are
to understand the ways in which audiences’ needs are met by particular types
of text. For each main category, a discussion of the main features and content
is provided with observations as to how some of these factors may affect the
translation process. The chapter concludes by looking at how Translation Stud-
ies can help us to categorize and make sense of the various text types we will
encounter.
After the preparatory background information provided in the previous
chapters, Chapter 4 looks at some of the main types of text you may be asked to
translate. The first two examples are accompanied by document profiles, which
highlight the main features of the text as well as a list of problems you are likely
to face and how to deal with them. To help develop your text analysis skills, you
will need to produce profiles for the remaining text types yourself, although Ap-
pendix 4 contains sample profiles, which you can consult if you need to.
Scientific and Technical Translation Explained xv

Chapter 5 looks at some of the general translation approaches, which may

come in useful when translating scientific and technical texts. Starting with
generic translation strategies with which most translators are familiar, the book
looks at how strategies such as modulation, recategorization (which was once
known as transposition) and borrowing are used in the context of scientific and
technical translation.
We will also look at other more radical strategies such as restructuring,
recycling information, expansion and contraction, again illustrating how they
are applied to the translation of technical documentation. Next, we look at the
different types of translation you may be expected to produce. Understanding
what each type of translation involves will help you decide which translation
macrostrategy is the most appropriate for a given project. This chapter also
draws on the idea of the translation brief proposed by Skopos theory as a way
of identifying what it is your translation is supposed to achieve. Again, this will
help you decide how you need to tackle a particular translation.
Chapter 6 is perhaps the most practice-orientated chapter and in it we look
at specific aspects of scientific and technical texts and the challenges they can
pose for translators. These aspects cover a range of areas such as culture-specific
features, errors in the source text, authoritative translations, and formatting
issues that will require either a cautious approach, direct action or even no
action at all. Finally, a glossary of key terms and other useful resources are also
provided as appendices at the end of the book.
I hope that the topics covered in this book, together with the practical strat-
egies and learning activities will do justice to what is an interesting, rewarding
and demanding field of translation.

Jody Byrne

Dublin, May 2011

www.jodybyrne.com

Find out more on Facebook

facebook.com/ScitechExplained
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1. Scientific and Technical Translation

In this chapter

This chapter introduces you to scientific and technical translation and explains its
origins and its importance both from a historical perspective and in terms of its
current position within the language and other industries. This chapter will also
show that while scientific translation and technical translation are closely related
fields, they are not identical and the terms scientific and technical cannot be
used interchangeably. We will discuss the significance of this type of translation
before examining how theories of translation can help the translator. You will
also learn about who is involved in scientific and technical translation and gain
an overview of the typical tools you will need to use as a translator. This chapter
will discuss your responsibility as a scientific and technical translator from a legal
and ethical point of view before presenting some practical activities to help you
practise what you have learned.

1.1 Introduction
Scientific and technical translation is part of the process of
disseminating information on an international scale, which is
indispensable for the functioning of our modern society.
(Pinchuck 1977:13)

Translation is an important driving force of modern society. It facilitates the flow

of ideas, expertise, values and other information between different cultures. It is
also essential for scientific and technological advancement. In today’s informa-
tion age, the role of scientific and technical translation is more important than
ever. It has facilitated some of the most significant scientific and technological
advances of recent decades. These advances have transformed our daily lives
to the extent that the world around us is virtually unrecognizable from fifty, or
even twenty, years ago. Virtually every aspect of our lives from education and
work to entertainment, shopping and travel has been swept along by a seemingly
unstoppable wave of new inventions and technological advances. What many
people do not realize is that these inventions and advances are accompanied
at almost every step of the way by translation in its capacity as a vehicle for dis-
seminating scientific and technical knowledge.
Although in terms of translation studies, scientific and technical translation
is just one of a number of fascinating areas of study, it is, however, an area of
translation which has had a profound impact on society. Furthermore, as a field
of translation activity, it is one which will have most impact on the vast majority
of translation students, as it is here that many translators find a sizeable amount
of their income.
 Jody Byrne

1.1.1 Some distinctions

Despite their similarities, technical and scientific translation are not interchange-
able terms.

The aim of this book is to introduce the fundamental features of scientific

and technical translation and the skills needed to engage in this type of activity.
It is important to realize, however, that the terms scientific and technical are
not identical and that the expression scientific and technical is not a tautological
reference to the same type of translation. Part of the decision to group these
areas together has to do with the way in which these subjects are traditionally
taught, rather than any similarity between the two. The majority of translator
training institutions offer modules with titles such as “Scientific & Technical
Translation” or “Advanced Translation – Scientific & Technical” and presumably,
this is a convenient way of organizing teaching provision.
Another reason is that the lines separating scientific and technical texts are
becoming increasingly blurred. As we will discuss later, it is not uncommon for
texts to combine elements of both scientific and technical texts and all of the
issues that this entails. So, while the two areas are separate in many ways, the
ways in which they appear in the real world mean that they need to be consid-
ered together.
Pinchuck (1977:13) identifies three key categories of information, which
provide the materials for scientific and technical translation:

1. The results of pure science;

2. The results of applied scientific research carried out in order to solve a
particular problem; and
3. The work of technologists, which is intended to result in an industrial
product or process, which can be sold.

Pinchuck quite rightly points out, though, that there is always a significant amount
of overlap between these categories and that the work of today’s scientists, i.e.
theoretical scientific information, is likely to become tomorrow’s technology and
as such give us various tangible products, devices, services and so on. From this
perspective, it is worth remembering this relationship as we examine scientific
and technical translation in this book; while the texts may differ and the informa-
tion may take different forms, their foundations are ultimately built upon largely
the same information. However, the way in which this information is presented
and used varies quite significantly between scientific and technical translation. So,
while a technical text is designed to convey information as clearly and effectively
as possible, a scientific text will discuss, analyze and synthesize information with
a view to explaining ideas, proposing new theories or evaluating methods. Due
to these differing aims, the language used in each type of text, and consequently
the strategies needed to translate them, may vary significantly.
It could even be said that scientific translation has just as much to do with
literary translation as it does with technical translation. While the common view
of scientific writing is that it is dry, highly objective and impartial, with all traces of
Scientific and Technical Translation 

style and linguistic creativity chased from the discourse like a fox from a chicken
coop, the reality is quite different. Locke (1992) comprehensively dismantles
the idea that there is no place for individualism, style, metaphor and creativity
in scientific discourse. Indeed, he argues that the very nature of science means
that individual style and creativity are intrinsic parts of the scientific process. He
cites, for example, the use of metaphors as a foundation of scientific language
with terms such as the Big Bang and the Greenhouse Effect owing their existence
to the creativity of scientists and writers. The implication of this for translators,
then, is that they must be able to recognize and negotiate culture-bound meta-
phors in much the same way as literary translators must.

1.1.2 Historical significance

Technical translation’s long and colourful history helps us understand its impor-
tance today.

Translation is practically as old as writing itself and for almost as long as humans
have been writing they have been translating. Indeed, evidence of this can be
found in ancient clay tablets containing bilingual Sumerian-Eblaite glossaries
(Deslisle & Cloutier 1995:7). Some have gone so far as to say, rather humorously,
that translation is the “second oldest profession” known to humanity (Baer &
Koby 2003:vii). To many, translating sacred texts such as the Bible or Koran imme-
diately springs to mind when we speak of translation in historical terms. However,
the translation of scientific and technical texts has a history, which is as long as
that of religious translation, if not longer. That translation has accompanied virtu-
ally every significant scientific and technological discovery throughout the ages
is well documented and it is difficult, if not impossible, to find a single example
of an invention or discovery which was not exported to another language and
culture by means of translation.
While translation has always facilitated the dissemination of knowledge, it
was not until the 15th century that it really came into its own. In 1447, Johannes
Gutenberg developed what is widely credited as being the first moveable type
printing system which revolutionized printing and made it much easier to produce
and, indeed, own books. That this invention had such an impact on translation
and the dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge is due to the ensu-
ing explosion in the number of books produced in Europe. Tebeaux (1997:14-30)
describes how, during the English Renaissance, countless books were written on
topics such as medicine, farming methods, animal husbandry, fishing, gardening,
household management, horse riding, falconry, fencing, military science, navi-
gation, road building, carpentry, stained glass making and so on. Gutenberg’s
press permitted unprecedented levels of distribution for these books thanks to
the relative ease and cost-effectiveness with which they could be produced. Not
only did this make it easier to distribute original language texts, it also made it
easier to disseminate information in translation.
And so, translation, newly empowered by widespread printing, continued
to play a central role in the dissemination of scientific and technical information
for centuries. However, it was only during the last 100 or so years that translation
 Jody Byrne

really made its mark on science and technology. This was a time when scientists
were making countless new discoveries and writing about their findings in their
own native languages. With other researchers eager to acquire new knowledge and
learn new techniques, the demand for translations of these scientific texts was un-
precedented. This translation activity in turn fuelled new research, which resulted
in even more new discoveries. Imagine how under-developed science would be,
were it not for translation; each language area would be intellectually isolated and
each language community would have to discover the entire body of scientific and
technical knowledge for itself. This would not simply be a case of reinventing the
wheel, but of reinventing the wheel dozens, if not hundreds, of times.
The following are just a few examples of significant scientific pioneers and
the languages in which they published their work:

▪ Physics: Max Planck and Albert Einstein (German), Nils Bohr (Danish),
Robert Boyle (English), Hideki Yukawa (Japanese);
▪ Biology and genetics: Camillo Golgi (Italian), Tang Dizhou (Chinese);
▪ Radiology and medical diagnostics: Pierre and Marie Curie (French),
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (German);
▪ Bacteriology: Alexander Fleming (English), Louis Pasteur (French);
▪ Psychiatry: Sigmund Freud (German).

The advent of printing also marked the start of a new era in translation itself,
which, it could be argued, saw the way in which translation was viewed and
carried out change quite significantly. In the centuries before printing, there
existed a manuscript culture with texts being handwritten, fragile and almost
ephemeral objects. Texts, usually of a scientific or technical nature, were copied
by scribes and were often modified, whether intentionally or unintentionally,
through the addition, omission or modification of information. This resulted in
variability and uncertainty with regard to texts and the problem became even
more pronounced when translation was added to the mix. At the time, translat-
ing lacked the standards of accuracy and quality that we expect today with the
result that mistranslations or even omissions of difficult passages were common
(Montgomery 2002:178).
Indeed, such was the extent of the problem it was not uncommon for copies
of the same work held, for example, in libraries in Paris and Oxford to differ quite
significantly in terms of content (Grant 1992:367). As Grant points out: “knowl-
edge was as likely to disappear as to be acquired” as a result of the translation
process. This was made all the more problematic when we consider that there
might only have been one copy of the source text and this would have been
written on fragile vellum or papyrus. This trend can be traced back to ancient
Rome and Greece where the concept of intellectual property as we currently
know it simply did not exist. In Greece, for example, the demand for knowledge,
particularly of a scientific and technical nature, gave rise to what we now call
compilers. These compilers, whose name comes from the Latin “to plunder”,
effectively “misappropriated” whole chunks of texts, usually through translation
and presented them as their own work (Stahl 1962:55). Translators at the time
Scientific and Technical Translation 

used source texts as the basis for new books and combined the ideas of the
original with their own ideas, opinions and suggestions.
Consequently, many of the great works by some of the most important
scholars such as Posidonius or Ptolomy have effectively been lost; despite nu-
merous publications purporting to contain the writings of these scholars, there
is no trace of their actual writings left as a result of countless publications which
combined, modified, assimilated or falsified their work. Roman translators were
no less cavalier in their approach to scavenging knowledge and passing it off as
their own. Indeed, the Romans described these practices as inventio (invention),
which involved the rewriting or rewording of the original during translation, and
contaminare (contamination), which involved combining translations together
from different sources to form an entirely new work.
This changed quite significantly, however, with the advent of relatively high
volume printing as facilitated by Gutenberg’s invention. Texts became fixed
– objects to be respected rather than ragged scraps of vellum, which could be
written and copied by anyone. The process of printing texts on paper and binding
them gave the knowledge they contained a legitimacy and permanency which
had rarely existed previously. In the case of translation, the existence of a fixed
and standardized source text made translators more accountable for omissions
and mistranslations because it was easier to consult the original source text.
We could argue that printing raised standards within scientific and technical
translation and that, ultimately, it was instrumental in the emergence of various
translation theories and concepts such as equivalence, faithfulness or loyalty
and later concepts such as adequacy.

Practical Exercise 1: The language of science

Think of three major scientific discoveries and find out who are the
main scientists associated with them. What is the nationality and
working language of each scientist? Now identify three products or
inventions that make use of one or more of these discoveries and
find out in which country they were made.

1.1.3 Modern scientific and technical translation

Various factors over the centuries have changed the way we look at technical
translation today.

In today’s globalized economy, scientific and technical translation in many respects

represents the backbone of international trade and the scientific endeavour which
fuels it. Virtually every product sold or specialized service provided – whether MP3
players, telephone conferencing systems, luxury cars, flame retardant cladding for
use in the construction industry, online shopping websites, mobile phone services
or designing a steel mill – will require the involvement of scientific and technical
translators at some point in its lifecycle. This involvement may come as early on
as the design and consulting phase, during development and manufacture, as part
of sales and marketing activities or to provide support to customers and users.
 Jody Byrne

It has been estimated that scientific and technical translation now accounts
for some 90% of global translation output (Kingscott 2002:247). Of course, this
figure is unlikely to be completely accurate for a number of reasons – one of
which relates to how we define scientific and technical translation (see Byrne
2006:3). However, even assuming that the figure is exaggerated due to various
confounding variables, this figure is unlikely to be too far off the mark. This is all
the more likely when we consider that the localization industry, which tradition-
ally makes extensive use of scientific and technical translators, is estimated to
be worth around US$12 billion (DePalma & Beninatto 2006:4).
Indeed, scientific and technical translation forms such a crucial part of mod-
ern industry and society that it is the subject of numerous laws, regulations
and directives and many international scholarly scientific journals, even those
which publish papers in various languages, require translations of abstracts at
the very least.

Practical Exercise 2: Exporting languages

Make a list of the electrical appliances you have in your home and
note the countries in which they were designed and/or built. With
your national language at the centre, draw a diagram illustrating the
languages from which documents relating to your appliances have
been translated.

Try to find some of the documentation that came with these appli-
ances. Are there any features, for example style, subject, language
or formatting which you think would pose problems for a translator?
If you had to translate one document yourself, how would you ap-
proach these features?

1.1.4 Some legal dimensions

Understanding how various legal factors affect how and why we do our work.

One of the most compelling reasons for studying scientific and technical transla-
tion is that in many cases the translation of documents in these domains is an
activity which is required by law. In Europe, EU Council Resolution C411 specifi-
cally states that in order to be able to legally sell or distribute technical products
and appliances, all technical documentation relating to the product must be
translated into the language(s) of the country where the product is to be sold
(Council of the European Union 1998). A result of the Directive is that products
are only regarded as being complete when they are accompanied by full operating
instructions in the users’ own language; if there are problems or inaccuracies in
the instructions, the whole product can be regarded as defective. To put this into
perspective, any product that involves some form of technology, be it electronic,
electrical, mechanical, chemical etc., must be accompanied by documentation
in a variety of languages. Assuming that few companies have the resources to
Scientific and Technical Translation 

employ technical writers to produce documentation in each of the languages

concerned, it is fair to say that there is a huge demand for translators (usually
freelancers) who can translate this documentation into different languages.
The translation of technical documentation is also subject to a range of other
laws, regulations and directives. Another provision of Resolution C411 is that
instructions must be clear, comprehensible and must provide clear warnings to
prevent misuse of products and to advise users of possible risks and hazards.
Since in practice these translations are not regarded as translations per se, but
rather as original target language documents, the regulations regarding technical
writing and documentation will apply.
Other pieces of legislation which affect scientific and technical translation
include Directive 2001/95/EC, which deals with general product safety, and
Directive 88/378/EEC, which deals with the safety of toys. Both state that clear
warnings about possible risks must be given in the users’ own language. Similarly,
Directive 90/385/EEC, which deals with medical devices, and Directive 76/768/
EEC, which relates to cosmetics, state that documentation must be translated
and it must anticipate potential risks (Byrne 2007:16). But even after translations
have been produced, the law still plays an important role because translators can
be held liable for mistakes in their texts as a result of contractual obligations or
as a result of other liabilities arising from tort law (ibid.).

Practical Exercise 3: Translation and liability

Consider the following scenario: When translating an installation man-
ual for a gas heater, a translator notices that the source text contains
a serious factual error. It says that the gas supply must not be turned
off before starting work. It should have said that the gas supply must
be turned off. However, the translator retains this incorrect informa-
tion in the target text. An engineer installing a gas heater follows the
instructions and as a result, the heater explodes, killing the engineer
and three other people who were working nearby.

What are the key issues to be considered in this case? Who do you
think is responsible for the deaths? Should the translator be found neg-
ligent and fined/imprisoned? Why? Are there any mitigating factors?

Practical Exercise 4: Finding legal resources

An important aspect of law is that in many jurisdictions it is constantly
evolving as a result of new court rulings, laws and legislation. Web-
sites such as EUR-Lex [http://eur-lex.europa.eu] provide a wealth of
information on legislation in the EU.

Using the Internet, your local library or whatever information sources

are available to you, find three sources of national case law and
legislation for your own country and three sources of international
legislation. Try to identify any cases or laws which relate to transla-
tion or the provision of specialized technical information.
 Jody Byrne

1.2 A place for translation theory?

What can translation theory tell us about translating technical documentation?

Translation theory has always been a problematic area of study. Part of the
problem is that it seeks to understand and explain translation, which is itself a
complex and notoriously difficult concept to pin down. In the rush to explain the
various facets of translation - and possibly to justify translation as a discrete field
of study - a plethora of theories, models and approaches have emerged, some
of which are extremely insightful and useful, but amidst the noise created by so
much work it is sometimes difficult to make sense of it all.
An introductory book intended to explain the practice of scientific and tech-
nical translation is not the place for a lengthy discussion of translation theory,
although it is necessary to mention briefly some of the more relevant theoreti-
cal approaches which relate to this area. The following paragraphs will provide
a very brief outline of how translation theory can be applied to scientific and
technical translation.
One of the most difficult aspects of translation theory is that scientific and
technical translation have traditionally been neglected by scholars and none of
the mainstream theories really addresses scientific and technical translation
specifically. Some models have been developed as general theories of translation
while others have emerged from particular types of translation, such as literary
translation or bible translation. As a result, applying any of the available theories
to scientific and technical translation is fraught with difficulty.
Difficulties also arise because, as Chesterman (2000:49) points out, many
theories of translation adopt a binary approach to translation consisting of dia-
metrically opposed extremes. Some examples of this include formal vs. dynamic
equivalence (Nida & Taber 1964), semantic vs. communicative (Newmark 1977)
and covert vs. overt (House 1977). While this approach certainly serves to make
the theories neater and easier to describe, it represents a rather oversimpli-
fied vision of the translation process. Translation inevitably involves shades of
grey – new scenarios, unusual combinations of factors and so on – which means
that trying to shoe-horn a translation into one category or the other is often un-
comfortable, if not impossible. Conversely, having too many categories or options
can make classifying a particular translation scenario equally challenging.
While a lot of valuable work has been done in the field of LSP (Language for
Special Purposes) and text typologies, which help us to understand why and
how texts are produced in specific communicative contexts, there is still a lot to
be done before we can comfortably apply a theoretical model to scientific and
technical translation. Typologies are discussed in Chapter 3 but for more infor-
mation see, for example, Göpferich (1995) and Trosborg (1997).

1.2.1 Recreating the source text

Traditionally, the source text has been regarded as the most important element
in translation, particularly as it is the starting point for the whole process and
Scientific and Technical Translation 

the basis upon which target texts are produced. The prevailing view has been
that, for a translation process to exist there has to be a source text, otherwise
we would not be translators, we would be writers. In recent years, however,
the focus of translation theory has, particularly in non-literary spheres, shifted
away from frameworks based on the source text towards a more communica-
tive approach. This means that translation is increasingly being regarded as a
communicative process and, as such, the guiding factors are the message and
recipient, i.e. the content and the target audience. This change of focus has
made the study of translation clearer in that we can relate it to actual real-world
events with real participants.
The emphasis on the source text is perhaps most apparent in the numerous
definitions and types of equivalence, which all rely on one thing: a link or bond
of some sort between the source text and the target text. It is this relationship
that, according to Kenny (1998:77), allows the target text to be considered a
translation of the source text. As Catford (1965:49) explains, “the TL text must
be relatable to at least some of the situational features to which the SL text is
relatable”.
The focus in equivalence theory on the need to have a strong link between
the source and target texts is unfortunately taken to extremes, however, with the
result that the source text can erroneously be regarded as the most important
component in the translation process, with translators striving to create as close
a replica of the source text as possible. Indeed, some would argue that it should
be the sole guiding principle for translators. Taking this approach to its natural
conclusion, we would have a situation where we could never separate the source
text and target text; the target text could not function as a translation without
the ever-present source text.
While this is clearly problematic in many ways, to deny that there must be
at least some link would also be misguided. Quite simply, without the source
text there can be no translation. While this relationship can, to a certain extent,
be abused through, for example, an insistence on excessively literal translations
motivated out of an unquestioning and sometimes misguided loyalty to the au-
thor, often to the detriment of the target language (TL) reader, the fact remains
that the source text forms the basis for the translation.
Perhaps the most well known types of equivalence are formal and dynamic
equivalence proposed by Nida in 1964. Formal equivalence is concerned with
the message in terms of its form and content. With this type of equivalence the
message in the TL should match the different elements in the source language
as closely as possible, be they lexical, syntactic, stylistic, phonological or ortho-
graphic. According to Catford, a formal correspondent (or equivalent) is “any TL
category (unit, class, structure, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to
occupy, as nearly as possible, the ‘same’ place in the ‘economy’ of the TL as the
given SL [source language] category occupies in the SL” (Catford 1965:27).
Dynamic equivalence, on the other hand, is based on the notion that the TT
should have the same effect on its audience as the ST had on its own audience.
With dynamic equivalence, the emphasis is not so much on finding a TL match for
10 Jody Byrne

an SL message but rather on creating the same relationship between the target
audience and the message as that which existed between the SL audience and
the message (Nida 1964:159). The aim here is to produce a target text which is
natural and idiomatic and which focuses on the TL culture. According to dynamic
equivalence, a successful translation needs to capture the sense of the ST and
not just the words. As such, it can only be regarded as a successful piece of com-
munication if the message is successfully transmitted to the target audience.
Nida & Taber make the point, however, that eliciting the same response from
two different groups of people can be difficult, particularly when we consider that
no two people from the same language group will understand words in exactly the
same way (1969:4). This sentiment is also expressed by Steiner (1975:28). What
we are left with, therefore, is an approach which is theoretically quite desirable
but difficult to implement and imprecise in practice. Applying the idea of formal
and dynamic equivalence to any type of translation, not just to scientific and
technical translation, rarely produces anything tangible or specific for a translator
to make use of because they are such vague and subjective concepts.
There are a number of systems, which have been put forward to examine
the levels of equivalence (see, for example, Komissarov 1977, Koller 1979, Baker
1992). One of the most enduring of these is the scheme proposed by Koller
(1979:188-189), according to which equivalence can occur on the following
levels:

▪ Denotational meaning, namely the object or concept being referred to;

▪ Connotational meaning, which is, according to Koller divided into lan-
guage level, sociolect, dialect, medium, style, frequency, domain, value
and emotional tone;
▪ Textual norms, which are typical language features of texts such as le-
gal documents, business letters etc.;
▪ Pragmatic meaning, which includes reader expectations;
▪ Linguistic form, namely devices such as metaphors, rhyme and so on.

Each of these levels then gives rise to a particular type of equivalence, which
can be used to describe the relationship between the ST and TT. In scientific and
technical texts, achieving equivalence on any of these levels might require the
translator to focus more on the information being communicated (denotational
meaning) in the case of an instruction manual, on the way in which information
is expressed (linguistic form) in a popular science article or on set phrases and
document conventions (textual norms) in the case of a certificate of conformity
(see Chapter 4). In order to emphasize equivalence on one of these levels, transla-
tors may find themselves having to settle for lower levels of equivalence on one
or more of the remaining levels.
It has become rather fashionable to dismiss equivalence when discussing
professional translation (Pym 1995 & 2010). The insistence of equivalence-based
approaches on maintaining what some would regard as excessively close links
between the target text and the source text and its original audience seems
incongruous when the point of translation is to communicate to a new audi-
Scientific and Technical Translation 11

ence. Equivalence can also be criticized for its general difficulty in incorporating
real-world, extratextual issues such as time constraints, preferred terminology
and style, reader expectations, etc. However, to dismiss equivalence out of hand
because it appears old-fashioned, excessively concerned with the source text and
isolated from the world in which translation takes place is like saying that walking
is not as useful as running and should be banned. In reality, both running and
walking have their advantages and their disadvantages, it all depends on what
it is you are trying to achieve.
These levels of equivalence give us, in theory at least, the ability to compare
source and target texts, once a translation has been produced. However, we
need to be wary of trying to use the various types of equivalence to dictate
how a translation should be produced and how the ST and TT should relate to
one another. They are simply not designed to do this; equivalence cannot tell us
which of its various levels should be used, primarily because it has difficulty tak-
ing account of the fact that, as Toury (1995:26) says, a translation is a fact of the
target language that hosts it. This means that scientific and technical translations
will be governed and judged in the context of the norms, expectations and rules
of the target text. In other words, they will be treated as if they were originally
produced in the target language and not as translations. Moreover, equivalence
does not take into account those real-world issues which play as much a role in
shaping the translation process as the source and target languages, the text and
its content etc. All that we can realistically expect to achieve using the various
levels of equivalence is describe how the source and target texts relate to one
another after the translation has been completed. A more helpful way of using
equivalence is to employ its levels and types during the translation process as a
set of tools or policies which can be selected in order to achieve some translation
goal. In practice, this might mean that when translating an instruction manual,
for instance, we would decide that denotational equivalence is more important
than equivalence of linguistic form or connotational equivalence and that we
would concentrate on conveying the information rather than on recreating the
particular stylistic features of the source text.
The difficulty in adopting this type of approach, as hinted at above, is that we
do not know which of the various levels of equivalence and, by extension, which
aspects of the source text, are the most appropriate for a particular context.
Simply knowing the different ways in which a source text and target text can be
equivalent does not mean that a translator will choose the most appropriate
one for a particular project. As a result, translators are usually left to their own
devices in choosing the most appropriate translation strategy and may or may
not choose the right one.

1.2.2 Focusing on the target text

Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in 1978 and was the first theory
to fully recognize the professional reality of translation and that, unlike equiva-
lence, the target text, or more precisely the purpose of the target text, is the
1 Jody Byrne

most important in determining the way we should translate texts (Vermeer 1982;
1987a). This theory is based on the principle that translation is a communicative
activity, which is performed for a specific reason; a text is written for a specific
purpose and it is translated for a specific purpose. It is this purpose, which is
known as the Skopos, which governs the translation process, unlike equivalence,
where the ST and its effects on the SL audience determine the translation process,
or for that matter functionalism, where the ST function defines the TT function
and the translation process.
Skopos theory maintains that the translation process is determined by the
Skopos of the TT as specified by the commissioner and the translator. A text, ac-
cording to Skopos theory, is an offer of information, i.e. the raw materials from
which any number of possible translations can be produced (Vermeer 1987b).
The way in which a translator selects the “correct” translation depends on the
intended purpose of the translation being known. While this may seem rather
vague, it does in fact reflect the reality of translation. For example, the way in
which we translate a document will depend on who is going to read it, how they
are going to use it, the way in which the text will be distributed and so on. These
factors do not necessarily remain constant between source and target text and
they are particularly important in scientific and technical translation.
Take, for example, a situation where we are asked to translate the user guide
for a toaster. In both languages, such texts are expected to have an informative
function so the primary function will not change. In the original source lan-
guage culture, it is normal for such documents to adopt a tone which emulates
an expert “speaking down” to a layperson who is instructed to follow certain
procedures. However, target language readers would react quite badly to what
they would perceive as a patronizing and demeaning, almost insulting, tone. If
this document were being translated for distribution in the target country, the
appropriate course of action would be to translate the text in such a way that this
expert-layperson register is replaced by a peer-to-peer register where the reader
is advised to follow certain procedures. A translator would be entirely justified in
making such changes, as the translation would fail in its purpose otherwise.
However, if the user guide is simply being translated for use by a service
engineer, the emphasis will be on the information and the reader is unlikely to
be “offended” by harsh orders and will not need to have the translator explain
every concept in simple terms. Ultimately, we would have two quite different
translations originating from the same source text. But if, according to Vermeer,
an ST is an offer of information and can give rise to any number of potential
translations (Nord 1991:23), how is the translator to know which one is the most
appropriate one? If it were left to chance, there is the risk that the translator
may pick the wrong one, i.e. translate the text in a way that does not meet the
client’s requirements.
Rather than leave such an important strategic decision to chance, Skopos
theory introduces the notion of the translation brief, which is defined as a form
of project specification which sets out the requirements for the translation (Byrne
2006:39). This brief is intended to form the basis for identifying the Skopos of the
translation and is supposed to, among other things, clearly define what the trans-
Scientific and Technical Translation 1

lation is to be used for and who will use it. In his definition of translation, Sager
(1993:116) acknowledges the need for some form of brief or instructions “from
a third party” on the basis of which the translation is carried out. Unfortunately
however, producing a translation brief is quite a hit and miss affair with clients
rarely able to provide anything more relevant or specific than “I have a 7,500
word document that I need translated. It’s got something to do with electronics
and I need it by the end of the week.”1 In such cases, the translator generally
needs to ask certain probing questions such as “is the text for publication?” etc.
and on this basis construct some form of translation brief. This unfortunately
weakens the effectiveness of Skopos theory somewhat.
This problem is compounded by the fact that nobody seems to know exactly
what should go into a translation brief although the general consensus seems to
be that it should provide some form of information about the target audience,
intended purpose of the text and any stylistic or terminological requirements.
Sunwoo (2007), in her paper “Operationalizing the translation purpose (Skopos)”,
seeks to address this problem and presents a detailed “model for constituting
the translation purpose from the translation commission” and a way of situating
the text. The result is a very detailed analysis although it is probably much too
complex for practical use.
Skopos theory can be tricky to use in practice because of the vagueness of the
notion of the translation brief and also because it does not actually say how we
are to fulfil a particular Skopos. But it does help us to concentrate on the most
important aspects of the translation process.
From this very brief description, we can see certain limitations which are also
indicative of other theoretical approaches to translation. For example, while
equivalence gives us theoretical criteria with which to compare translations
against their originals and which can be used as strategies if needed, it cannot
account for the numerous factors which exist outside texts but which nonethe-
less play a crucial role in translation. Nor for that matter does equivalence tell us
which of the various levels and types of equivalence is the most appropriate for
a given translation scenario. Equivalence frequently places too much emphasis
on the role of the source text to the detriment of all other factors.
While the introduction of functionalism (see House 1977, for example) was
a groundbreaking step in that it lessened the emphasis of translation on purely
textual factors, it still, unfortunately, maintained the excessive importance at-
tached to the source text. Skopos theory, on the other hand, is valuable in that
it explicitly addresses the professional context of translation and takes a more
holistic approach.
Unfortunately, it can be problematic from the point of view that the Skopos
of a translation is based on the undefined notion of the translation brief, which
is open to interpretation and may, in some cases, be very difficult to formulate

1
I once received an email asking whether I would be available to translate a medical text.
Before agreeing to take the job I asked to see the text first, whereupon it emerged that the text
was actually about guns, not medicine. The company for whom the text was to be translated
normally made medical devices but had diversified into manufacturing accessories for guns.
1 Jody Byrne

because translators are rarely given meaningful translation briefs or commissions.

Moreover, because Skopos is intended as a general theory of translation, it is not
really in a position to offer explicit instructions or guidance on how to achieve
specific Skopoi.
One method of reconciling the problems outlined above might be to combine
the best features of Skopos theory, equivalence theory and work carried out on
text typologies. This would involve using Skopos theory to determine what it is
we need to achieve with our translation. This gives us our general overview of
what type of translation is required.
When combined with a knowledge of text typologies we can then produce
a clearer picture of what precisely our translation will look like in terms of
features such as language, terminology and content, based on what we know
about comparable texts in the target language. Then, with this knowledge, we
can use the various levels of equivalence not as criteria for comparing texts, but
as guidelines, informed by our understanding of the purpose of the target text
which will aid us when translating.
However, there is much more to translation theory than the examples given
above. There are numerous other models and approaches available such as rele-
vance theory (Gutt 1991), translation norms (see Schäffner 1999), descriptive
translation studies (Toury 1995) and functionalism (Reiß 1971), some of which
may have something to offer scientific and technical translation. It is essential to
realize however, that while none of the existing theories of translation on their
own can provide an infallible model of the translation process, particularly for
scientific and technical translation, they do provide adequate raw materials with
which we can develop an informed and acceptable working theoretical model to
guide our practical work. The challenge here is to examine the various theoreti-
cal approaches and models and then cherry pick those aspects which appear to
be most relevant. It is quite conceivable that all of the components for a robust
and reliable theory of translation, not just scientific and technical translation, are
available to us already. All that remains is to assemble the various pieces into a
basic usable theoretical framework.

Practical Exercise 5: Skopos versus equivalence

Draw up a list of the advantages and disadvantages of using (1) just
equivalence and (2) just Skopos theory to explain scientific and
technical translation. Compare the results of both lists. If you had to
choose just one theory, which would it be and why? How would you
combine the two theories?

1.3 Tools of the trade

As well as linguistic skills, we also need to use a variety of software and tools as
part of our work.

When we consider the long association between translation and various in-
novative technologies over the centuries it comes as no surprise to find that
Scientific and Technical Translation 1

technology plays a crucial role in scientific and, perhaps more so, technical
translation. While for the most part translation has traditionally facilitated the
dissemination of new scientific and technical knowledge, science and technology
have also had a tremendous impact on translation.
Commercial translation (as distinct from interpreting), the point of which is
to provide a written alternative to some foreign language, has always required
the use of certain tools whether a clay tablet and stylus, quill and parchment
or typewriter, telex and fax. Such tools, while requiring some acclimatization,
more so in the case of typewriters and telexes, were unlikely to have any radical
impact on the work of the translator; they were simply improvements on exist-
ing methods. The benefits to translators were modest and came in the form of
slight improvements in the presentation of translations or faster delivery of texts.
Translation only underwent a genuine metamorphosis as a result of technology
with the advent of computers and the Internet.
Despite the fact that computers and the Internet have existed in one form
or another for decades, their everyday use was virtually unheard of only thirty
years ago. Computers at that time were bulky, room-sized contraptions which
required teams of scientists to tend to their idiosyncratic and temperamental
needs. The modern PC, as we know it, was at that time but a distant glimmer on
the horizon. The Internet, too, was at an embryonic stage, consisting of a dozen
or so computers located at military bases, research laboratories and universities
in the USA. It is only since around the mid-1990s that the Internet has truly made
its mark on translation. In 1971, Sykes referred to typewriters as a staple part of
any translator’s office. Some 25 years later, O’Hagan’s (1996:5) reference to the
fax as the most popular form of communication shows that the Internet had yet
to establish itself as a core component of the translation landscape.
Computers and the Internet have changed business models throughout the
world, in all industries and business sectors and have gone hand in glove with
globalization. In the translation industry, it has created new demands for trans-
lations and placed new demands on translators, requiring them to adopt new
technologies and practices as part of their day-to-day work. Indeed, technology
has almost created its own demand by facilitating global business; it creates a
demand for new processes which inevitably involve the use of technology. This
process which has seen translation become a computer-based activity (Auster-
mühl 2001:1) has transformed both the type of work we do and the way in which
we perform this work. Nowhere has this impact been more pronounced than in
the fields of scientific and technical translation.
Perhaps it is because scientific and technical translation coexist so closely with
technology that they have experienced such a drastic technological transforma-
tion, or perhaps it is because working with companies and organizations where
technology plays such a crucial role in their activities has required translators
to become part of the technical landscape. Whatever the reason, the nature of
scientific and technical translation means that the basic word-processing skills,
which would once have been sufficient and are still sufficient for most transla-
tors, are simply not enough any more, particularly for those working in scientific
and technical domains.
1 Jody Byrne

Today’s scientific and technical translator has to contend not only with word-
processing and sending files by email or electronic file transfer, but receiving
documents in a bewildering array of file types which often have to be handled
using specialized software. This software is often so far removed from mainstream
computer use that someone outside our profession would never even know
about them, let alone be expected to use them. The translator, who translates
documents produced in industries where such software is commonplace, needs
firstly to be able to recognize such files and technologies, and secondly to know
what to do with them.
Virtually all translators - irrespective of the types of texts they translate – have
to contend with the increasing levels of technology necessary to do the job.
Where once the translator's role was quite distinct from that of a graphic de-
signer, desktop publishing (DTP) specialist or even programmer, the expectation
now is that translators need to be able to deal with various technologies, file
formats and tools.
To help us make sense of the vast array of technologies and tools with which
the technical translator must contend it helps if we group them into three broad
categories:

▪ General tools
▪ Text processing tools
▪ Translation tools

1.3.1 General tools

This category of tools is used by virtually everyone, not just translators. This
category forms the basic level of IT competence which is needed to be able to
function in any career and it consists of general PC skills such as basic mainten-
ance, installation and deinstallation of software, data archival and backups,
file compression, CD creation and PC security. Perhaps more importantly, this
category also includes the increasingly important communicative functions of
the Internet such as online research using search engines and databases and
communications using email, Internet telephony, instant messaging and video
conferencing as well as sending data using FTP servers etc. Nearly all translators
have to deal with this level of technology as part of their day-to-day work.

1.3.2 Text processing tools

Text processing tools are the staple of any translator’s toolkit; they are the very
means by which we do our work. Again, all translators need to be proficient in
the use of basic word-processing packages, regardless of the translator’s special-
ism. For many translators, a solid understanding of Microsoft Word or possibly
OpenOffice is more than enough to be able to work effectively as a translator.
However, for certain groups of translators, most notably those of a scientific and
technical persuasion, the situation can become much more complex indeed.
Scientific and Technical Translation 1

Most documents are produced using word processors such as Microsoft

Word. But despite the rather impressive range of features offered by this type
of software, word processors are actually at the lower end of the text processing
spectrum in terms of complexity and the powerfulness of their features. Certain
types of documents, such as those produced for highly technical products in-
cluding software, machinery or vehicles are so large and complex as a result of
formatting, cross-referencing and graphics that they cannot be produced using
typical word processing software. Instead, they are produced using DTP software
such as Adobe FrameMaker, InDesign or PageMaker.
These are complex professional applications which allow authors to combine
text and graphics to produce documents with complex layouts for distribution
either in traditional print format or in a number of electronic formats for dis-
tribution via the Internet or on disk. Indeed, a large proportion of documents,
particularly in IT-related domains are never actually printed – they are intended
to be distributed electronically and read on-screen. Consequently, technical
translators may receive documents in PDF format or in a mark-up language such
as HTML or XML. However, such electronic documents are not solely produced
by DTP applications.
The emergence of what is commonly referred to as “Web 2.0” (O’Reilly
2005) has caused an explosion in the volume of information published online. In
comparison to the static information traditionally produced by the people who
operated websites, the "new" web has become a platform for dynamically and
often, collaboratively, produced data which is shared by everyone in a more fluid
and democratic way than previously possible thanks to online content manage-
ment systems, social networking sites and blogs. The ubiquity of what can best be
described as “Internet-related documents”, means that technical translators need
to be comfortable with, although not necessarily expert at, using technologies
such as HTML, XML, scripting and programming languages. This is so that they
can identify the text to be translated in a file and translate it without damaging
the technical parts of the file which make it work. Often, texts which are not
even of a technical nature but which are in HTML format, for example, are sent
to technical translators simply because, as a rule, they have more experience
translating this type of file.

1.3.3 Translation tools

There are, of course, tools which are designed specifically for translators and
which are therefore unique to translation. These tools are specifically aimed at
assisting translators in performing their daily tasks. In many cases, a translator’s
familiarity with such tools is a key deciding factor in whether the translator is
actually awarded a project. Frequently referred to as Computer-Assisted Trans-
lation or CAT tools, they include translation memory systems, terminology
management systems, electronic corpora and sometimes machine translation
(see Austermühl 2001 and Bowker 2002). When CAT tools initially emerged, it
was widely believed (and indeed feared) that they would radically transform the
1 Jody Byrne

face of translation and change the role of the translator immeasurably.

To a certain extent, this is true but the impact of such technologies did not
transform all areas of translation, primarily because CAT tools are only suited to
particular types of texts in particular subject areas. As such, they do not feature
as prominently in the work of all translators. Taking translation memory tools
as an example, it is clear that, because they can only reuse existing translations,
they are only of use when translating texts which contain a lot of repetition or
which will be updated frequently. It is unlikely that such tools would be very useful
when translating literary, marketing or commercial texts. In fact, they are most
commonly used in technical translation where the nature of documents means
that there is frequently a high proportion of repetition and where new product
releases require existing documents to be updated.
Similarly, terminology management systems are at their most useful in
situations where there is a large amount of terminology which must be used
consistently. Admittedly, technical translators do not have the monopoly on such
tools but they do represent perhaps the largest group of users.
For the technical translator, CAT tools require significant investment in the form
of purchasing software, upgrading infrastructure and obtaining training. Initially,
the expense and effort may seem counter-productive as the translator spends time
learning how to use software which would otherwise be spent earning money.
Translators also need to grapple with alternative payment schemes introduced
as a result of translation memory systems (see Austermühl 2001 for example).
However, proficiency in translation tools opens up a much larger pool of potential
work for translators for which they would otherwise not be considered.
Another benefit of translation memory tools, particularly for the technical
translator is that they can lessen the need to have experience of using the various
DTP applications. Many translation memory tools provide filters which make it
possible to extract the translatable text from files produced in different applica-
tions so that they can be translated in a single translation environment. So rather
than having to learn how to use five or six different DTP applications, a translator
simply needs to learn how to use one translation memory tool.

1.4 Who’s who in scientific and technical translation?

Translation involves more than just a translator, a text and a mysterious target
audience.

As both Sykes (1971:1) and Byrne (2006:11) point out, scientific and techni-
cal translation is a service, a communicative service carried out for people, by
people. Scientific and technical texts are produced in response to a demand for
information of a scientific or technical nature; such texts are translated because
someone in a different language community wants to access or use the informa-
tion these texts contain.
But who are the people involved in this process? An extremely basic response
would be to say that scientific and technical translation involves the author, the
Scientific and Technical Translation 1

translator and the reader, but this is much too simplistic, particularly in view of
the vast global industry that has developed around the process of translating
texts from one language into another (Byrne ibid.). The clear oversimplification
notwithstanding, this basic categorization does provide a neat starting point for
our examination of the people involved in scientific and technical translation.
Sager (1993:93-94) provides a relatively detailed breakdown of the partici-
pants in the translation process which is indicative of what happens in real life.
He identifies the following participants:

▪ Producers: defined as the author of the source text whether a profes-

sional or subject-specialist who writes occasionally;
▪ Mediators: translators, editors, revisers; essentially anyone who modi-
fies the text;
▪ Communication agents: the commissioner of a text or translation;
▪ Recipients: the intended end user or some person other than the ad-
dressee who may have different expectations.

A similar categorization of participants consists of the following (Byrne

2006:12-15):

▪ Document initiator: The person or entity responsible for setting in mo-

tion the production of a document. This is the person who wants to
communicate something and “orders” the creation of a text. This may
be a company that manufactures a product.
▪ Writer: The person or persons actually responsible for writing the docu-
ment. In some cases, this might be a staff writer or a freelance writer.
▪ Translation initiator: This is the person responsible for initiating the
translation process. It may be the same person as the document ini-
tiator or it may be a third party who “encounters” the document and
wants to understand it.
▪ Translator: This is the person who actually produces the translation al-
though strictly speaking it falls under Sager’s category of mediators.
▪ User: The intended recipient of the translation, this person is concerned
with accessing the information contained in the text as effectively as
possible. Users of scientific and technical translations expect transla-
tions to function as authentic target language texts.

As complex as this may seem, it gives only part of the story because there are
numerous other people involved in the process of translating scientific and
technical texts: agencies, localization vendors, vendor managers, translation
technology specialists, experts, editors/proofreaders, project managers, in-
country reviewers, DTP and graphic artists, software, website and computer
game engineers etc.
Given the fundamental role played by the client, who initiates the transla-
tion process and the translator, who is responsible for carrying out the work, we
should examine their roles in more detail.
0 Jody Byrne

1.4.1 The translator

At the very heart of the translation industry is the translator, performing a role
that is both essential and extremely complex. In any discussion of translation,
we often see references being made to translators as some faceless, anonymous,
almost mythical creature. For the most part, however, the actual nature of the
translator’s work and the conditions under which this work is carried out receive
little attention.
Just as there are different types of text and subject, so too are there different
types of translators and the types of work they do can vary significantly. Bear in
mind that in referring to types of translators we do not mean broad distinctions
such as legal translator, financial translator or technical translator, but rather
more practical organizational distinctions.
Some translators, known as staff translators, are employed by large com-
panies and translate documents produced by the company. In many cases, staff
translators work for engineering or IT companies although some legal firms,
financial institutions, government bodies and international organizations (see
Wagner et al. 2002, for example) employ their own translators directly. The
motivation for employing staff translators is generally a matter of finances: com-
panies with a large and sustained demand for translations will generally find it
more cost effective to employ their own translators who are constantly available
and who receive a salary instead of being paid per translation.
Other motivations include the need to develop a skilled and experienced
in-house team to ensure consistency, accuracy and quality. Staff translators gener-
ally deal with specific subject areas and quite often, specific range of text types.
For example, a staffer working for a chemicals producer may typically translate
packaging and labels, chemical data sheets, lab reports, chemical assay reports,
instructions for use, health and safety documentation and as well as regulatory
documents such as declarations of conformity.
Similarly, a staff translator working for a manufacturer of agricultural machin-
ery may translate user guides, repair and maintenance manuals, spare parts lists,
conformity documentation and test reports from product authorization bodies
as well as the odd press release or article for trade journals. What this type of
translation job may lack in variety - depending on the company, the texts and
subjects rarely change – it makes up for in the sheer detail and level of specialized
knowledge translators gain. As they are working on the same subject virtually all
of the time and dealing with new developments and innovations, staff transla-
tors gain highly specialized knowledge of the subject area and of the documents
produced in that area. Such expertise is often difficult to rival.
In-house translators, like staff translators, are employed by companies on a
full-time basis but, unlike their staff translator colleagues, they work for transla-
tion companies or localization vendors. Working for a translation company can,
depending on the individual company, provide scientific and technical translators
with a greater variety of texts and subject areas and as such might appeal more to
those who like the challenge of not knowing what project is around the corner. Of
Scientific and Technical Translation 21

course, to justify the expense of hiring in-house translators, agencies may require
their translators to deal with more than just scientific and technical texts during
quiet periods or where there is an urgent non-technical job. This often requires
translators to work outside their comfort zones and while some translators may
shy away from this, others may find this an appealing prospect. In certain large
translation companies, teams of translators may be assigned to certain key clients,
often forming a “virtual translation department” for that client. Such teams will
deal exclusively with projects for a specific client and, in this respect, the job of
the in-house translator closely resembles that of a staff translator.
However, the most significant group of translators are not employed by large
multinationals or by translation companies. Instead, they work for themselves
as freelancers. Freelance translators are self-employed and are responsible for
finding their own work, whether directly from clients, through agencies or other
translators or any combination of these sources. Some freelancers may also join
an online translator community such as ProZ, Aquarius or Translators Café to
find work but such practices are widely criticized by professional translators who
blame sites like this for reducing rates of pay for translators and promoting the
use of unqualified translators (Ricketts 2010).

Practical Exercise 6: Translation forums

Visit the Aquarius.net, ProZ.com and TranslatorsCafe.com websites
and compare the features available to translators. What costs are
involved? What types of projects are typically posted on these sites?
Do projects offer a fixed price or do they ask translators to suggest
a price?

Freelance translators pick their own subjects and decide which projects they want
to take on. This gives them the potential to have as much or as little variety as
they want. In reality, however, the need to achieve a reasonable level of income
means that many freelancers will often need to take on work in several areas,
sometimes outside their main specialisms. This is not necessarily a bad thing as
it helps freelancers to expand their expertise and as such remain competitive. In
some cases, freelancers may join forces with other freelancers in order to take
on translation projects which are too large for one translator to handle within
the time available. They may even group together to share rented office space in
order to keep costs down while at the same time having access to a professional
workspace which is separate from the translator’s own home.
Freelance translators represent the largest group of translators in the world.
This may sound surprising, but the vast majority of all translation work is car-
ried out by freelancers. Whereas thirty years ago most translators were staffers,
nowadays around 80% of all translators work on a freelance basis in what is a
highly fragmented industry (Boucau 2005:28). In the current economic climate,
not just in individual countries but across the globe, this means that there are
relatively few jobs available for full-time in-house or staff translators. Many
companies cannot afford the expense of employing full-time translators and so
 Jody Byrne

choose to outsource their work to agencies or directly to freelancers. This reality

is something which deters many students from pursuing translation as a career
altogether (Byrne 2003). Often students do not feel sufficiently ready for free-
lancing when they leave university. Others are deterred by the uncertainty of not
having a regular, fixed income and the need to be completely self-sufficient.
While in many respects, the ideal career path would involve at least some
in-house experience before setting up as a freelancer, sometimes there is no
other option but to take the plunge and go straight into freelancing. As a career
option, freelancing is demanding in that it requires motivation, determination and
courage but the rewards make the effort worth it: choosing your own working
hours, flexibility, variety and, quite often, higher levels of income than in-house
or staff translators.
Regardless of the different types of job scientific and technical translators
may find themselves doing, the actual work they do remains fairly constant. As a
scientific and technical translator, your duties go beyond merely translating texts.
Depending on your level of experience, you may well be called upon to edit or
proof another translator’s work or to revise the work of less experienced trans-
lators. Often, translation projects are so large and have such short turnaround
times that it is simply not possible for one person to produce a translation. In
such cases, several translators may work in a team, with each person translating
a section of the text. Of course, there needs to be another translator who works
as an editor to combine the various sections and ensure consistency in terms of
style and terminology.
A client may not know whether or not to commit to the expense of having
a document translated; this is especially true of larger documents. Rather than
adopt a “wait and see” attitude, translators may be asked to provide a “gist” or
indicative translation, which is a very rough form of translation giving the basic
meaning of a text but without any stylistic “polishing” or finesse. The idea of
such translations is simply to give the client an idea of what the text is about
so that they can access key information, for example to see if a foreign patent
constitutes an infringement of another patent, or decide to have a full transla-
tion produced.
Senior translators are often called upon to set and evaluate test translations
which are given to job applicants. This is not quite the straightforward task it
may seem. Test translations are typically quite short, i.e. in the region of 500
words, which means that it is vital to select a text which is suitably challenging,
but fair at the same time, in order to select the right candidates. Evaluating test
translations is made all the more challenging because, depending on the level of
the position being applied for, the applicant may be permitted to make a certain
amount of mistakes and still be considered for the job.
As cultural experts, translators may also be asked to provide reports on the
cultural appropriateness of various types of communications. Examples might
include assessing television or newspaper advertisements to determine whether
they contain anything which is likely to cause offence in their own culture or
indeed, whether the advertisement is likely to be effective. This cultural insight
Scientific and Technical Translation 2

also comes into play when translating or localizing websites: translators can
and should advise customers if a website contains images, colours, language or
content which is likely to prove problematic in the target culture. A variation of
this type of cultural consulting involves assessing corporate brands, including
company names, to ensure they are appropriate for the target market.

1.4.2 The clients

As mentioned previously, scientific and technical translation is a service provided

to people who need either to communicate or access scientific or technical
information. Such a broad definition inevitably means a vast range of potential
clients for translators. Assuming that every organization involved in scientific
research or the development and production of some form of product will need
translated documents at some point, it is fair to say that clients are to be found
in virtually every sector of industry and business.
Such general statements do little, however, to explain where a scientific and
technical translator’s work comes from. Although many translators deal almost
exclusively with translation agencies, not least because agencies relieve transla-
tors of the effort of finding clients, translators are ultimately providing translations
for individual clients. Agencies aside, obvious clients for scientific and technical
translators include:

▪ Engineering: Usually manufacturing products or providing services re-

lated to some form of engineering, whether it is mechanical, electrical,
electronic, chemical or medical. The texts involved generally relate to
different fields and applications of chemistry, physics or biology.
▪ Transport: Companies involved in the aerospace or automotive indus-
tries, railway engineering, public transport, logistics, agricultural and
works vehicles.
▪ Information technology: In its broadest sense this includes software
and hardware companies, companies involved in some way with the
Internet, either providing services, software or systems, and providers
of telecommunications solutions including hardware, infrastructure,
software, design and management.
▪ Research organizations: Government think tanks, standards insti-
tutions, safety organizations (e.g. product approval bodies or road
safety agencies), public service bodies such as meteorology centres,
universities, laboratories, regional development authorities and trade
associations.

Other, less obvious, clients might include:

▪ Commercial entities: Insurance companies (e.g. technical reports on

accidents or structural reports for buildings), banks and venture capi-
talists who may require detailed technical information in order to invest
in new innovations or purchase new technologies, lawyers, business
 Jody Byrne

consultants who advise various businesses on improving processes and

systems, auditors, etc.
▪ Service providers: Training centres, technical consultants, architects,
town planners (e.g. public transport, environmental engineering, etc.),
car dealerships, consumer associations, estate agents, etc.
▪ Individuals: Anyone who, for whatever reason, needs to access scientific
and technical information whether for personal reasons (e.g. translat-
ing an obscure maintenance document for a classic car) or for research
reasons (e.g. academic research or deciding which electronic compo-
nents to buy for a project).

In the next chapter, we will examine the context within which technical docu-
mentation, the raw materials for scientific and technical translators is produced.
Building on the descriptions of the key stakeholders involved in the translation
process, Chapter 2 will also examine the recipients of our translations in more
detail.

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