JL3T

Journal of Linguistics, Literature & Language Teaching

HYPOTACTIC STRUCTURE IN ENGLISH

Dessy Kurniasy
IAIN Langsa
dessyari09@yahoo.co.id

ABSTRACT
This present study focuses on the study of a hypotactic structure in English. It is
concerned with clause complex which is comprised of two or more clauses
logically connected. The relation between clauses can be interpreted in terms
of ‘logical’ semantic relations and system of interdependency relation –
parataxis and hypotaxis. The method used in this study was qualitative
approach in which the data were taken from some linguistic books. The finding
shows that the concept of hypotactic structure in English is divided into two
types: expansion and projection. There are three kinds of expanding a clause
i.e. elaboration (=), extension (+) and enhancement (x), and two kinds of
projection i.e. locution (”) and idea (’). Elaboration shows that the meaning of
the secondary clause is equal to the primary one, but the secondary clause does
not introduce a new element into the picture but rather provides a further
characterization of one that is already there. Extension is a clause that extends
the meaning of another by adding something new to it. Meanwhile,
enhancement shows the meaning of another clause by qualifying it with
adverbial clause in traditional grammar. Furthermore, the three clauses can be
finite or non-finite. Locution, on the other hand, is a projection with verbal
process, in which the clause containing the sayer and the reporting verb is the
dominant clause and the reported element is the dependent clause. Thus, idea
is a projection with mental process that is used to report ideas, beliefs, fears
and speculations. The combination of mental process with a dependent
‘reporting’ clause is the nominal ways of representing what people say, think
and believe

Keywords
Hypotactic structure, parataxis, hypotaxis, expansion, projection

INTRODUCTION
A clause complex is comprised of two or more clauses logically
connected, or put another way (Gerot and Wignell, 1994). In the same way, a
sentence can be interpreted as a clause complex in which a head clause is
combined together with other clauses that modify it however there is the
same kind of relationship between sentence and clause and there is between

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group and word. It means that the sentence has evolved b expansion
outwards from the clause.
The relations between clauses can be interpreted in terms of ‘logical’
semantic relation that makes up the logic of natural language. Therefore,
there are two systemic dimensions to make up the systems for joining clauses
in English. Those relations are combined with system of interdependence or
‘tactic’ system – parataxis and hypotaxis, which is general to all complex,
word, group, phrase and clause alike. The hypotaxis is used to refer to the
relationships in which one clause is dependent to another. The other is the
logico-semantic system of expansion and projection, which is specifically an
inter-clausal relation.

LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Metafunction of language
Systemic Functional Grammar relates grammatical categories to the
communicative functions which they serve. Functional Grammar views
language as a resource for making meaning (Halliday, 1994). These functions
are to operate all different level of organization in the language and may be
identified in terms of the constituent parts which go to form larger units. It is
sociological orientation the way in which language is used for different
purpose and in different situation, has shaped its own structure. It tries to
describe language in use and to focus on texts and their contexts. They are
concerned not only with the structures but also with how those structures
construct meaning.
According to Halliday, in metafunctions of language, language is
organized around a small number of functional components which
correspond to the purposes which underlie all language uses, and all these

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functions have a systemic relationship with the lexicogrammar of the

language.
Thus, in Functional Grammar, a language is interpreted as a system of
meanings followed by forms through which the meaning can be
realized.functional grammar is arranged to explain how the language is used
by applying the functional components call Metafunctions, in which all
languages are organized around three kinds of meaning; the ideational
function (to understand the environment), the interpersonal function (to
have an exchange in communication) and the textual function (to explain
how language is used).

1.2 Ideational Function

The ideational function concerns the representation of the world.
This function is used to organize, understand and express our perceptions of
the world and of our own consciousness. At the level of the clause, this is
conveyed by the process the participants involved in the process and
associated with circumstances if there is any. The ideational function may
consist of two types of subfunctions: the experiential and the logical
function.

1.2.1 Experential function

The experiential function is largely concerned with content or ideas.
Halliday states that experiential meaning tends to construct experience as
interrelated parts of a whole. At clause rank, for example, it construes the
world as going on consisting of a nuclear process and participant; additional
participants and circumstances. The nominal group in the experiential
meaning is a constituent structure, with modifiers playing a number of

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different roles with respect to the thing – Deitic, Numerative, Ephithet,

Classifier and Qualifier.

1.2.2 Logical function

The logical function is concerned with the relationship between ideas.
It is realized as another kind of particulate structure. Systemically, the logical
function comprises recursive systems – such as Tense, Projection and
Agency – which tend to be associated across languages with experiential
meaning. Furthermore, the nominal group in the logical meaning is
considered as a word complex and with modifiers as regressive dependents.

1.3 Interpersonal Function

Interpersonal function is concerned with the relationships set up
between the speaker and his audience, between the speaker and his message
and concerned with clauses as exchanges. This function is used to enable us
to participate in communicative act with other people, by taking the roles and
to express and understand feelings, attitudes and judgments. Therefore, the
linguistic phenomena which would be dealt with metafunctions are mood
and modality.

1.4 Textual Function

Textual function is concerned with the way the message is structured;
at the level of the clause which includes thematic structure, which have
theme and rheme as its elements, and information structure; beyond the
clause it includes the phenomenon of cohesion. Textual function is used to
relate what is said or written to the real world and to other linguistic event,
this involves the use of language to organize the text itself. The textual

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function is about the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a

text, and is concerned with clauses as messages. The theme is the point of
departure for the message. It is the element the speaker selects for grounding
what he/ she is going to say.

RESEARCH METHOD
This study used a descriptive qualitative design, as this study intended
to describe the hypotactic structure in logico-semantic relations. Exclusively,
this study discussed about the types of the clause function and decided the
logical function in hypotactic structure. Thus, the primary data were
collected by applying documentary technique which was taken from some
linguistics books to support this analysis.
In analyzing the data, the writer identified the types of hypotactic
structure based on the theory proposed by Halliday. Then she classified the
elements into two types of hypotaxis, that is, expansion and projection. The last,
she described the data obtained by using the percentage of each hypotaxis.

FINDING AND DISCUSSION

Hypotaxis is a logical interdependence between clauses where the
interdependent are of unequal status. In hypotactically related clauses, the
primary one is dominant and the secondary one is dependent (Halliday and
Ruqaiya, 1976). Etimologically, hypotaxis derives from the Greek: hypo
meaning ‘below’ plus taxis means ‘arrangement’; hence, ‘arrangement below’.
The rationale for this term is that one clause is attached to the other but with
a lower status. Therefore, a more usual for this is dependent clause to label a
clause which is bound to another I a hypotactic relationship. The dominant
clause refers to the bound one.

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Conventionally, hypotactic relations are labeled using the Greek

alphabet symbol: α - Alpha; β – Beta; γ – Gamma; ε – epsilon etc. from the
symbolic perspective, α – Alpha marks the dominant clause; however, it is
important to note that it is possible for the position of the secondary clause
of a hypotactic structure to precede the primary clause. Thus, the α – Alpha
does not necessarily come first in the clause complex, that is, ‘β - α’ may be
correct.

1. Expansion
The logico-semantic relations which are varied represent the way the
speaker or writer sees the connections to e made between one clause and
another, in its multiple function as process, exchange and message, and this
may enter into construction with another clause which is an expansion of it.
Expansion is one of the logico-semantic relations by which one clause
expands the meaning of another in some ways (Downing & Locke, 1992);
thus, the two together forming a clause complex. Essentially, there are three
types of expanding a clause: elaboration, extension and enhancement.
1.1. Elaboration
Elaboration clauses are clauses which clarify or comment on a
primary clause (Downing & Locke, 1992). Elaboration shows that the
meaning of the secondary clause is equal to the primary one. However, the
secondary clause does not introduce a new element into the picture but
rather provides a further characterization of one that is already there,
restating it, clarifying it, refining it, or adding a descriptive attributive or
comment.
Hypotaxis combining with elaboration give non-defining relative
clauses which add further information to the whole previous clause or may

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be just some of it – one or more of its constituents. The clauses can be either
finite or non-finite with the primary clause and several conjunctive
expressions like which, who, whose, when, where, or whom can be used to connect
the clauses. Elaboration in hypotactic structure is shown through the sign ‘ =
’. With regard to meaning and expression, non-restrictive relative clauses
differ from the restrictive one. The non-restrictive or non-defining relative
clauses do not define subsets, as does the restrictive or defining type. Their
function is to add a further specification of something that is already
presented as specific. For example:
a. This is my expensive book, which was given by my father
(α) (β)
b. We met his wife, which stay in Kisaran
(α) (β)
c. My brother has a good career, who works in famous company
(α) (β)
d. This is the best seller book, where could only found I several bookstore
(α) (β)
The italic sentences are non-defining relative clause, and they do not
pinpoint their antecedents. However, their function is rather to provide
additional information about the antecedent. Their function is not to restrict
the scope of reference of a head, but almost parenthetically, to comment
further. With regard to expression non-defining relative clause is clearly
signaled both in speech and in writing. Furthermore, in written English, it
(non-defining) forms a separate tone group which is linked to the main
clause by tone concord; in other words, they are spoken on the same tone. A
non-defining clause is marked off by punctuation, usually commas but

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sometimes a dash, especially when the antecedent is a whole clause which is

shown on the example above.
The non-finite verb forms –ing, to-infinitive and –en participle are used
non-restrictively to express the same meanings as the finite forms, and agin
the domain may be one nominal group or some larger segment of the
primary clause, up to the whole clause, for example:
a. My father sits by the window, wearing black suits
(α) (β)
b. To make the audience feel comfortable, the clown shows a funny
(α) (β)
attractive
c. The district lost, burnt by a big fire
(α) (β)
The above sentences consist of non-finite clauses and they have less
specific meaning. Both the domain of the dependent clause and its semantic
relationship to its domain are left relatively inexplicit. There is no WH – form
as there is with the finites.

1.2. Extension
In extension, one clause extends the meaning of another by adding
something new to it. The combination of extension with hypotaxis also
embraces addition, replacement and alternation, but with the extending
clause dependent. As well as elaboration clause the extending clause can be
finite or non-finite. The extension clause is marked by a ‘ + ’ sign. The finite
form of clauses are introduced by the conjunctions whereas, while, except that,
but for the fact that. For example:
a. The man do nothing, while his mother work hard all day long

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(α) + (β)
b. The children have not found yet, whereas her mother felt worry so much
(α) + (β)
The conjunctions whereas and while introduce finite dependent clauses
which contrast in some way with the primary clause, especially when there is
also some point of similarity between the two sentences above, whereas is
more formal than while. However, there is no finite form for replacement, but
for subtraction the finite clause is introduced by except that, but that and but for
the fact that. For example:
a. He kept on pretty well, except that he had a habit of falling off side a way
(α) + (β)
b. It would have been a disaster, but for the fact that every one helped the
(α) + (β)
situation

The hypotactic form which expresses the meaning of alternation is

if… not (i.e. if not a then b) with the dependent clause typically coming first.
For example:

a. If you win tonight, you are not likely to see me again

(α) + (β)
b. If they considered me guilty, they must prove the evidence
(α) + (β)
The sentences above mean “either they considered me guilty” or
“they must prove the evidence”. Either clause can be construed as the
positive or negative condition; we could just as well as say “if they can’t

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prove the evidence then they can’t consider me guilty”. However, the only
difference being which one is chosen as theme.
Meanwhile the non-finite form of hypotactic intends the meaning of
the primary clause. The non-finite clause is often introduced by such
prepositions as besides, instead of, without, apart from and other than, and it
is usually expressed in -ing clause. For example:
a. Besides spending a week in Medan, she searched for a prospect for her
(α) + (β)
business
b. I lay down and went to sleep instead of revising my notes for the exam
(α) + (β)
c. The boy took the money without asking whose the posses
(α) + (β)
d. Apart from attracting business, it will undertake research and
(α) + (β)
development for the two companies
e. You won’t get ride of it, other than giving it a way
(α) + (β)
Without a conjunctive preposition, the form is the same as that of the
elaborating non-finite –ing clauses. Since non-finite dependent clauses are by
nature less explicit than finite ones.

2. Enhancement
In enhancement, one clause enhances the meaning of another clause by
qualifying it in one of a number of the following ways: by reference to time,
place, manner, cause or condition (Bloor, T & Bloor, M, 1994). The
combination of enhancement with hypotaxis is realized by traditional

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grammar adverbial clause of time, place, condition, purpose, concession,

reason and manner of traditional grammar. They may be finite or non-finite.
Enhancement is marked through an “X” sign.
The markers of non-finite and finite hypotactic enhancement are
summarized in the following table as adopted from Halliday (1994: 237)

Table I
Principal Markers of Hypotactic Enhancement

Finite Non-finite
Category Preposition
Conjunction Conjunction
1. Temporal
 Same time:
- extent As, while While In (the course/
- point When, as When process of)
soon as, the On
- spread moment
Whenever,
 Different time: every time
- later Since After
- earlier After, since Until Before
Before, until/
till
2. Spatial
 Same place:
- extent As far as
- point Where
- spread Wherever,
everywhere
3. Manner
 means
 comparison As, as if, like, like By (means of)
the way

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4. Causal conditional
 Cause:
- reason Because, as,
since, in case, With, through,
seeing that, by, at as a
considering result, because
- purpose In order that, of, in case of
so that (in order/ so
as) to, for (the
sake of), with
the aim of, for

The finite ones are introduced by subordinating conjunctions which

serve to indicate the dependent status of the clause together with its
circumstantial relationship. As well as simple conjunctions such as because, when,
if, and conjunction groups like as if, even if, soon after and so that. There are three
types of complex conjunction, one derived from verbs, one from nouns and
the third from adverbs as we can see on the following examples:
a. Because he was sick, he was absent
(β) + (α)
b. When he took bath, the lamp went out
(β) + (α )
c. He talks about it as if it was a game
(β) + (α)
While non-finite dependent clauses of enhancement express many of
the meanings conveyed by the finite type in addition to some others, the
semantic relationships may be made clear by means of a conjunction or a
conjunctive preposition, or they may be left inexplicit as shown in these
examples:
a. Don’t forget to turn the light off when you leave the room

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(α) + (β)
b. Watch out for pickpocket if traveling abroad
(α) + (β)
c. Without having been there, I know all that happened
(β) + (α)
If the dependent clause is non-finite, the circumstantial relationship is
made explicit by the conjunction or conjunctive preposition. However, the
conjunctions are a subset of those occurring in finite clauses, and their
meaning is essentially the same.

2. Projection
Projection refers to a representation of linguistic experience in
another linguistic experience. The clause I’ll finish the job is a linguistic
experience in the clause complex he said, “I’ll finish the job”, the linguistic
experience is represented again in another linguistic experience of he said.
Projection is the relationship which exists between a clause containing a verb
of saying or thinking and a clause which expresses what is said or thought
(Downing & Locke, 1992). Hypotactic projection is one where linguistic
experience is project as meaning the result is reported speech or thought.
Traditionally, this is known as ‘indirect speech’, to indicate the meaning (idea)
projected, a single quotation mark ( ’ ) is used, while to indicate the wording
(locution) projected, a double mark ( ” ) is used.
A projection consists of two parts the projecting (clause), and a
projecting is marked by the projecting process, which is said. However,
projection occurs through mental and verbal processes. Therefore, with
reference to the projecting process, projection divided into locution and idea
(figure of types of projection)

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3. Locution
A locution is projection with verbal process. With reference to
Halliday (1994) verbal process used as the projecting processes may be seen
from the following table:
Quoted directives Reported directives
1. The general process 1. The general verb (say)
2. Verbs specific to offers 2. Statements tell + receiver,
remark, observe, point out,
report, announce etc.
Question ask, demand, inquiry
and quiry
3. Verbs embodying some 3. Reply, explain, protest,
circumstantial or other continue, interrupt and warn
semantic feature
4. Verbs with connotative 4. Insist, complain, cry,
meaning boat, murmur, stammer

Reported speech is characterized by a series of formal features which

distinguish it from quoted speech. For example:
a. Tom said that he had been there
α “ β

b. Nick asked if the girl was in that room

α “ β
The clause containing the sayer and the reporting verb is the
dominant clause and the reported element is the dependent clause. The
above examples break down into two clauses: the dominant clauses Tom said

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and Nick asked and the dependent clauses that he had been there and if the
girl was in that room. However, they have the effect of shifting all deictic
elements away from direct reference to the speech situation, the shifts
involved are:
a) First person pronouns, which refer to the speaker, are shifted to
the third. The second person pronoun which refers to the
listener, is shifted to the first or the third, according to the
identity of the listener
b) Demonstrative and deictic adverbs which refer to (these, this,
here, now) are replaced by more remote forms that, those, there,
then.
c) Verb tenses are back-shifted, that is present forms are replaced by
past form.
d) An interrogative in quoted speech is replaced by a declarative in
reported speech.
In hypotactic locution, what someone thought or said is repackaged
into an indirect form. This is the indirect speech of traditional grammar, but
most also include indirect thought. A similar range of verbs is used to project
hypotactically, but the projected clause (s) will be marked for dependency on
the alpha projecting clause (usually by that or WH-words), ad changes to the
tense and mood must be made. For example:
a. Sonia asked whether they really had to eat it
α β
b. She told me to give you the following instructions
α β
From the above report, the mood choices of the original which were
most probably interrogative and imperative have not been reproduced unlike

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the original speakers. The reporter is not asking or ordering, but stating, and
the mood choices is therefore declarative. Similarly, in the finite clauses in the
first example the tense choices are made in relation to the context of the
report, not of the original speech event.
4. Idea
Verbs which represent mental process are used to report ideas, beliefs,
fears and speculations. Mental process used to project a linguistic experience
include think, imply wonder, reflect, want, which, suspect etc. the combination of
mental process with a dependent ‘reporting’ clause is the normal way of
representing what people say, think and believe. For examples:
a. I wish (that) he would stop telling those awful jokes
α ’ β
b. She does not want people to come in and out all day
α ’ β
c. He thought he would finish the job
α ’ β
d. I wondered if he meant to pick him up or pick him off
α ’ β
In the case the ideas, there is normally no actual stretch of language
to represent-certainly none in the outside world, since the thinking went on
inside someone’s mind. However, the link between thought and language is
inherently so strong for us that the same relation of projection is used
whether or not the thought was in fact formulated partly or wholly in words,
the way we can talk about it in terms of language. Since there is no original
wording, the norm for projecting thoughts is by means of reports, but in
narratives especially, quotes can also be used.

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In other cases, however it is at least likely and at most certain that no

original wording exists. Nevertheless, the expressions choices open to us still
construe the mental act of meaning in terms of projection, i.e. in terms of a
language phenomenon. For example:
a. You’d think there would be a warning
α ’ β
b. I secretly and guiltily believed him to be right
α ’ β

CONCLUSION
Having analyzed the topic given in this study, it can be concluded
that there are various methods of combining clauses together in English by
means of the clause complex. Clause complex relationships are of two kinds -
parataxis and hypotaxis. However, this thesis analyzes only hypotaxis.
Hypotactic relationships involving a dependency relation are labeled
according to their hierarchical relationships of dependency. Greek alphabetic
symbols – α, β, γ, δ, ε – are conventionally used to show ‘decsending’
dependency. Thus, β is dependent on α, while α marks the dominant clause.
Nevertheless, it is important to note that it is possible to the position of the
secondary clause of a hypotactic structure precede the primary clause. Clause
complexes may involve expansion and projection. Basically, there are three
types of expanding; they are elaboration, extension and enhancement with
the sign themselves. Furthermore, hypotactic structure can be finite or non-
finite form.

REFERENCE
Bloor, T. (1995). The Functional Analysis of English. New York: Arnold.

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Downing, A. (1992). A University Course in English Grammar. New York:

Prentice Hall.

Eggins, S. (1994). An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistic. London:

Printers.

Gerot, L. (1994). Making Sense of Functional Grammar. Sidney: Stabler Ltd.

Halliday, M. (1994).An Introducing to Functional Grammar. London: Edward

Arnold.

Morley, G. D. (2000). Syntax in Functional Grammar. London: Continuum.

Siewerska, A. (1991). Functional Grammar. New York: Routledge.

Suhadi, J. e. (2001). Jurnal Linguistik Sastra. Medan: Fakultas Sastra UISU.

Suhadi, J. e. (2005). Jurnal Linguistik Sastra. Medan: Fakultas Sastra UISU.

Thompson, G. (1996). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Tokyo: Arnold

Ltd.

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