1.

3 NATURE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

While ‘social sciences’ evolved during the eighteenth century as a formal field of study and became a part of
university/higher education curriculum, ‘social studies’ (which draws its contents from different social sciences)
evolved during the twentieth century in order to be included in the school or junior school curriculum. The
evolution and growth of social sciences are the byproduct of modernization, industrialization, renaissance,
urbanization, growth of science and many more related developments. There were many changes in human lives
and living, which were hardly seen before, during the eighteenth century and afterwards. The whole world took a
radical turn since the eighteenth century. Renaissance in Italy and other European countries, French revolution of
1789, Industrial Revolutions starting from 1767, American war of independence of 1776, development of new
forms of capitalism, immense development in natural of sciences, etc. brought both happiness and difficulties for
human society in the world. For example, on the positive side, there was commercial development, development of
transport and communication, multiplication of comforts, improvement of education and health conditions,
development of economic condition, etc.; and on the negative side, there was development of complexity in
social life, political chaos, social disorganization and unrest, intellectual crisis, development of unhealthy
competition among people, etc. In order to counter all these problems and challenges, social sciences originated
and became the part of education/ learning system. Social sciences originated in the eighteenth century in an effort
to understand the character and future of modern society (Ross, 1991). Montesquieu Spirit of the Laws (1748),
Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776), Condorcet’s Outline of an Historical

1.3.1 Concept of Social Sciences

Social sciences are the body of knowledge which is concerned with human affairs in the spectrum of broad socio-
cultural system. Social sciences constitute: Understanding Social Science as a Discipline and forms an important
component of high school and higher education curriculum. The different social science subjects like history,
political science, anthropology, philosophy, economics etc. have independent status in high school as well as
university education. The following definitions of Charles Beard and James High may add same clarifications to
the concept of social sciences.

Charles Beard, “Social sciences are the body of knowledge and thought pertaining to human affairs as
distinguished from sticks, stones, stars and physical objects”. (Kochhar, 1984) James High “Social sciences are
those bodies of learning and study which recognize the simultaneous and mutual action of physical and non-
physical stimuli which produce social reaction”. (Singh,2008).

The following points may characterize the nature of social sciences

1) Direct bearing on human activity: Social sciences are those aspects of knowledge which have direct bearing on
man’s activities in different socio-cultural fields.

2) Advance studies of human society: Social sciences are advance level studies of human society; and they are
generally taught at higher education level.

3) Find out truths about human relationships: Social sciences seek to find out truths about human relationships
which ultimately contribute to the social utility and advancement of knowledge.

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
Teaching aids are those means which we can see by the eye, hear from the ear. Those processes in which the sense
of sight and hearing take an active part, are called teaching aids. In fact, an audio- visual aid is that learning
experience which stimulates the teaching process, motivates students to gain new knowledge and makes it clearer
in order to make it simpler, natural and comprehendible for students. In education the knowledge based on senses
is considered more permanent. In audio visual aids too education by senses is given special emphasis. It creates
interest in the topic for new things. It creates natural curiosity in students to know about the new. The concept of
novelty is inherent in audio visual aids consequently students are able to gain new knowledge easily. Audio visual
aid focus student’s interest and inculcates interest in the topic by which they are motivated and become curious to
receive new knowledge. In education students have to remain active in order to receive knowledge. Audio visual
aids fulfill student’s mental, emotional and psychological needs in order to stimulate them for active participation
in the teaching process.

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
Audio- visual aids are instructional devices which are used to communicate messages more effectively through
sound and visuals. Audio-visual aids help in stimulating the sensory organs like ears and eyes and facilitate quick
comprehension of the message by the audience. These may be used for literate as well as for illiterate people.
Audio-visual aids or devices or technological media or learning devices are added devices that help the teacher to
clarify, establish, co-relate and co-ordinate accurate concepts, interpretations and appreciations and enable the
learner to make learning more concrete, effective, interesting, inspirational, meaningful and vivid. Or in other
words Audio-visual aids are used to improve teaching, i.e. to increase the concreteness, clarity and effectiveness of
the ideas and skills being transferred. They enable the audience to LOOK, LISTEN and LEARN (by doing); to
learn faster, to learn more, to learn thoroughly and to remember longer.

Audio-visual aids are more stimulating for students than simple lectures. Excellent teachers understand the
importance of audio-visual aids in the learning process. Audio-visual aids are teaching tools that educators use to
complement their academic lessons. Examples of audio-visual aids include videos, music clips, flip charts,
slideshow presentations and overhead transparencies. Audio-visual aids should not be used as the only teaching
method, but should be incorporated periodically throughout lessons to provide extra information for students.
Students catch on quickly when their teacher understands the importance of charts in the teaching and learning
process.

According to audio-visual aids “The instructional devices through which the message can be heard and seen
simultaneously are known as Audio-Visual Aids.”

According to Burton “Audio-Visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular process of
learning i.e., motivation, classification and stimulation.”

According to Edgar Dale “Audio-Visual are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas between
persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is helped. These are also termed as multi-sensory
materials”.

According to Good’s Dictionary of Education “Audio-Visual aids are anything by means of which learning process
may be encouraged or carried on through the sense of hearing or sense of sight.”

According to Kinder; S. James “Audio-Visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning
experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.”

According to Mcknown and Roberts “Audio-Visual aids are supplementary devices by which the teacher; through
the utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify, establish and correlate concepts, interpretations
and appreciations.”

4.3.1 Essential qualities of audio-visual aids

A good audio visual should have the following characteristics
(a) Accuracy: The right type of audio-visual aid should be chosen for explaining a topic. It is not all proper to
choose a science model for teaching commerce however analogical it might be. Whatever is taught the audio-visual
aids should be chosen accordingly.

(b) Relevance: If the teacher wants to teach Mughal architecture then he should use the models of Agra fort, Taj
Mahal, Red fort etc. not Qutub Minor. Therefore, the quality of relevance is essential in an audio- visual aid.

(c) Realism: The audio-visual aid which is being used for explaining a process, topic or concept should
realistically represent it 100%. If is not real the audio-visual aid cannot be said to be proper.
(d) Interesting: A good audio-visual aid is the one which inculcates interest in students. If it does not introduce
the element of interest in teaching then its utility is brought under the scanner of suspense.

(e) Adaptability: A good audio-visual aid should have the quality of adaptability. If is not according to the topic
and subject and if it cannot be adapted for it then such an aid should not be used.

(f) Economical in Time: A good audio-visual aid should consume less time in the teaching process. It is aptly
said don’t teach aids, teach the subject with aids. Attention should be paid to explain not the aid but the topic.

(g) Economical in cost: As far as may be possible an audio-visual aid should be less expensive. If an aid is
expensive and the school finds itself unable to buy it then it’s not useful. Efforts should be made to make use of
improvised teaching aids to the maximum extent. Aids can also be made by teachers and students themselves in a
meagre expenditure.

(h) Availability of Aids: A good teaching aid should be available for teaching.

4.3.2 Classification of audio-visual aids

Educationists have classified audio visual aids on different bases. These bases are being given below

I. Based on senses
1. Audio Aids:By this type of aids, student gains knowledge through the sense of hearing, its chief examples are
radio and tape recorder. They comprise of radio relay, tape recording, gramophone and lingual phonetic.

2. Visual Aids:By the use of visual aids, knowledge is gained by the sense of perception. An object seen by a child
finds more interest and a child becomes curious about it. They comprise of models, charts, graphs, maps, bulletin
boards, flannel boards, museum, magic lantern slides, real objectives and blackboards etc.

3. Audio-Visual Aids:The use of this type of aids helps to activate both eyes and ears together. A child watches by
his eyes and hears by his ears in order to learn the teaching points. The knowledge imparted by them should have
the quality of correctness, reality, relevance and comprehensibility in the absence of these qualities an audio-visual
aid cannot be said to be useful. They comprise of television, drama, film, and computer assisted aids, radio etc.

II. Based on Technology

1. Software:This comprises of such aids such as figures, graphs, charts, books, maps, cartoons and models etc.

2. Hardware:This comprises of radio, radio, television, tele-lecture, record player,epidiascope, projector, cinema,
computer etc.

III. Based on Projection

1. Projected Aids: They comprise of all those aids which can be projected such as slides, films, film stripes etc.

2. Non-Projected Aids: They comprise of different types of charts, figures, diagrams, models and specimens.

4.3.3 Importance of audio-visual aids in classroom

The importance of audio-visual aids is evident when it comes time to teach a new or abstract concept that may be
difficult to picture or grasp. Audio-visual aids allow teachers to demonstrate things to students that, otherwise, may
not be clearly conveyed. When you lecture to students on a new subject — like ringtail lemurs’ mating habits —
you are limited to verbal descriptions. However, when you can demonstrate something through sight and sound,
students pick up more information through the audio-visual experience. For instance, a film clip on ringtail lemurs’
mating habits gives students an academic experience they could not obtain from a lecture or a textbook. Following
are some of the points that explain the importance of audio-visual aids:
1. Reaching Specific Learners: Students have different learning methods. Howard Gardner of Harvard
University — who advanced the multiple intelligences theory, which suggests individuals learn things differently
— identified seven learning styles: visual-spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal,
linguistic and logical. While some students may learn more effectively through hands-on activities, others may
learn through musical or visual responses. The importance of AV aids can be seen when classroom audio-visual
tools allow musical learners to learn information in a way that stimulates their preferred learning style. Similarly,
the importance of charts in the teaching and learning process is clear when introducing concepts to visual learners
and students who are more quantitative than verbal.

2. Spicing Up the Curriculum: Experienced teachers have observed first- hand the importance of AV aids in
keeping students focused on the lesson. Audio-visual aids in the classroom add diversity to an instructor’s teaching
method. Whether you teach a group of pre-schoolers or college students, incorporating audio-visual aids into your
lessons helps you keep students’ attention. On the contrary, too much of one type of teaching method, whether it’s
lecturing or discussion, can grow dull and cause students to lose interest in the material. Retention of
information typically is greater when audio-visual aids complement or present information. Remembering the
importance of charts in the teaching and learning process will create an active learning environment.

3. Promoting Clear Communication: By using audio-visual tools in the classroom, teachers show students
how to communicate through various media. Students are introduced to the concept of conveying information
creatively — which comes in handy when they must give presentations in class or later in their careers. Exposure
to audio-visual aids in school teaches kids how to communicate through sight and sound, and to tie the things they
see and hear together to understand an important message.

4. Engaging Auditory Learners: According to Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, students learn
in a variety of different ways including through listening or auditory input. Some students are better auditory
learners than others and may see more academic improvement when audio aids are used in the classroom. Teachers
serve students best by instructing to all academic levels in the classroom. With students learning at different paces
and through different methods, using audio aids in teaching is one way of achieving engagement and better
retention of ideas. Rather than relying solely on speech through direct instruction, teachers can also include
listening activities focused around music, noises and interactive listening assignments.

5. Novelty Gets Noticed: Students might get bored with more traditional methods. Advantages of audio aids are
even more apparent in novelty teaching methods. Novelty audio aids can be used in the classroom as an attention-
getting strategy and also as a way to increase student involvement. When experiencing something new that engages
his senses, a student is more likely to be engaged in the task and to remember the experience and presented
information. Using audio in an unexpected way can add novelty to a lesson and potentially spark an academic
improvement. Teachers can try beginning a lesson with a song or use recordings of foreign languages when
teaching about other cultures. The more unexpected the audio activity is the more novel that activity is for the
students.

6. Best motivators: audio-visual aids are the best motivators. The students work with more interest and zeal. They
are more attentive

7. Antidote to the disease of verbal instruction: They help to reduce verbalism. They help to giving clear concepts
and thus help to bring accuracy in learning.

8. Clear images: clear images are formed when we see, hear, touch, taste and smell as our experiences are direct,
concrete and more or less permanent. Learning through the senses becomes the most natural and consequently the
easiest.

9. Vicarious experience: It is beyond doubt that the first-hand experience is the best type of educative experience.
But it is neither practicable nor desirable to provide such experience to pupils. substituted experiences may be
provided under such conditions
10. Variety: Audio-Visual aids given variety and provide different tools in the hands of the teacher

11. Freedom: When audio-visual aids are employed, there is great scope for children to move about, talk, laugh
and comment upon. Under such an atmosphere the students work because they want to work and not because the
teacher wants them to work

12. Opportunities to handle and manipulate: Many visual aids offer opportunities to students and manipulate
things

13. Retentively: Audio-Visual aids contribute to increases retentively as they stimulate response of the whole
organism to the situation in which learning takes place

14. Based on maxims of teaching: The use of audio visual aids enable the teacher to follow the maxims of
teaching like concrete to abstract, known to unknown and learning by doing

15. Helpful in attracting attention: Attention is the true factor in any process of teaching and learning. Audio-
Visual aids help the teacher in providing proper environment for capturing as well as sustaining the attention and
interest of the students in the classroom work

16. Helpful in fixing up new learning: What is gained in terms of learning, needs to be fixed up in the minds of
students. Audio –Visual aids help in achieving this objective by providing several activities, experiences and
stimuli to the learners

17. A good deal of energy and time of both the teachers and students can be saved on account of the use of audio-
visual aids as most of the concepts and phenomena may be easily clarified, understood and assimilated through
their use

18. Realism: the use of audio-visual aids provides a touch of reality to the learning situation.

19. Vividness: Audio-visual aids give vividness to the learning situation.

20. Meeting individual differences: There are wide individual differences among learners. Some are ear-oriented;
some can be helped through visual demonstrations, while others learn better by doing. The use of a variety of
audio-visual aids helps in meeting the needs of different types of students.

21. Encouragement to healthy classroom interaction: Audio-visual aids, through their wide variety of stimuli,
provision of active participation of the students, and various experiences encourage healthy classroom interaction
for the effective realization of teaching –learning objectives.

22. Spread of education on a mass scale: Audio-visual aids like radio and television help in providing
opportunities for education to people living in remote areas.

23. Promotion of scientific temper: in place of listening to facts, students observe demonstrations and phenomena
thus cultivate scientific temper.

4.3.4 Problems in using audio-visual aids

(i) Apathy of the Teacher: It has not yet been possible to convince the teacher that teaching with words alone is
quite tedious, wasteful and ineffective.

(ii) Indifference of Students: The judicious use of teaching aids arouses interest but when used without a definite
purpose they lose their significance and purpose.
(iii) Ineffectiveness of the Aids: Because of lack of proper planning and lethargy of teacher as also without
proper preparation, correct presentation, appropriate application and essential follow up work, the aids have not
proved their usefulness. A film like a good lesson has various steps-preparation, presentation, application and
discussion.

(iv) Financial Hurdles: The Boards of audio-visual aids have been set up by central and state governments for
chalking out interesting programmes for the popularisation of teaching aids but the lack of finances is not enabling
them to do their best.

(v) Problem of Electricity power: Most of the projectors cannot work without electric current and so the non-
availability of electricity is creating a hurdle in the proper use of audio-visual aids.

(vi) Lack of Facilities for Training: More and more training colleges or specialised agencies should be opened to
train teachers and workers in the use of audio-visual aids.

(vii) Lack of Coordination between Centre and States:Good film libraries, museums of audio-visual education,
fixed and mobile exhibitions and educational ‘meals’ should be organised both by centre and states.

(viii) Language Problems: Most of the education films available are in English and we need such films in Hindi
and other Indian Languages also so that the students from non-English background can also be benefitted.

(ix) Not catering to the Local Needs: Most of the audio-visual aids being produced do not cater to the local
needs and not in accordance with the social, psychological and pedagogical factors.

4.4 BLACKBOARD/CHALKBOARD
The blackboard was invented by James Pillans; headmaster of Royal High school Edinburgh Scotland. He used it
with coloured chalk to teach geography. The chalkboard was in use in Indian schools in the 11th century as per
Alberuni’s Indica (Tarikh Al-Hind), written in the early 11th century– They use black tablets for the children in the
schools, and write upon them along the long side, not the broadside, writing with a white material from the left to
the right. The term “blackboard” dates from around 1815 to 1825 while the newer and predominantly American
term, “chalkboard” dates from 1935 to 1940.

Blackboard comes from its black colour. This is flat surface feature it can be a board made of wood or fibre;
however, the term today starts changing and called the chalkboard so long chalks are used. It must be flat. The
flatness’ of the chalkboard help the clear vision of the writings and also it helps the writing to be smooth. The
board must be at the place where it can be visible to all students. The proposed place is in front of the class where it
can be visible to all students. The board should be wide enough to occupy enough content to be presented instead
of rubbing it all the time and the students fail to connect the concepts explained. The position of the blackboard
from the direction of the light should be considered. This is to avoid reflection of light which may affect the
appearance letters on the blackboard.

According to Geoffrey “A blackboard is defined as a flat surface feature, it can be a board made of wood, fibre or
sometime made plastered on the wall of the class. The board is painted black to reflect the white chalks used to
write on it”.

4.4.1 How to use blackboard?

Sequence the work so that relationship of the previous item is really apparent. The concepts should develop in a
productive way from simple to complex. The lines should be written in the horizontal straight line. Avoid writing
upward or downward. The colour chalks should be used with a create care only to emphasize important keys. Use
correct spelling and grammar make material simple and to the point the lesson flow and not boring. Use pointer to
emphasis things and also to point to the items on the blackboard so that it can be seen clearly. Stand one side of the
blackboard as you write. Pause frequently to capture and maintain student attention. Don’t over crow the
blackboard; that may lead to confusion. Talk after writing. Don’t do the two simultaneously. Make sure that
whatever is written in the blackboard is seen by the students.

4.4.2 Importance of the blackboard as the teaching aid

Blackboard is the traditional visual aids that are very important part of the classroom teaching. It bears the teacher
with the following advantages.

(i) It makes the teaching effectives: Effective teaching is when the entire student involved on their pace of
learning. The blackboard makes the learning cooperative between the teacher and the student. This occur when the
teacher invite student to share some of the ideas on the blackboard.

(ii) Classroom management: The main purpose of the teaching aid is to make the teacher to manage the class.
Because the class is cooperatives then the discipline of the class will be improved. The teacher will also manage to
present his lesson in the sequential order. The blackboard can be used for discussion and presentation. Bello on
insisting about the importance of blackboard he wrote “the discussion between a teacher and the class
intermediated by the blackboard”.

(iii) Control the pace of learning: As the teacher writing on the blackboard, he found himself deferent from using
other r teaching aids like audio visual, tapes or decoders. This is because the mentioned aids cannot control the
speed of the student to learn. The teacher’s personality is very important to make students remember. It is quite
possible for the student to learn the changing actions of the teachers. A teacher can change immediately when he
sees the student does not understand or bored.

(iv) It is a natural slide: A slide is a picture in motion. A teacher interacts with a blackboard. Writing something.
Turns to the student and talk. Then he turns again to the blackboard and draws a sketch. He took the pointer and
indicates the important part. He calls for the student in front of the class to explain something. The student presents
their work and the teacher present the points on the blackboard. By doing all this actions Philip said “Is like a
moving slide that interesting student to the maximum”.

(v) Cope with student of different learning abilities: Every student has his learning styles. Some learn
immediately when they see. Some learn when they touch and some when hearing. There is no other teaching aid
that can incorporate in it all this styles at the same time rather than a blackboard. The pictured presented the
words written on the blackboard and listening to the teacher all makes all students of different characteristics to
be benefitted.

(vi) Flexibility: One of the characteristics of the good teacher is flexibility the flexible teacher learns immediately
as the way his student learns. He adheres with the changes that shown by the student. These changes also adhere
with the changing on the use of teaching aids, in this case the blackboard. So, it is a great lucky to use the teaching
aids that changing with time as Hudgins said “The blackboard can be rubbed several times and the correction of
pictures or others features to be made”.

(vii) Enhances Student Comprehension Skills: The notes written by the teacher on the board serves as a guide for
the students in understanding the lesson. The students are able to take down correct information as they can
validate them on the notes written by the teacher on the chalkboard.

(viii) Immediate feedback: The use of chalkboard in the classroom may help teachers get an immediate feedback
from the students regarding their level of comprehension. As the teacher writes the lessons on the board, the
students may inform the teacher whether they understand them or not.

(ix) Multipurpose teaching aid: The blackboard can be used to draw picture, explanation can be written on the
blackboard, and this is the place where the student presents their trial. The notes are written on the blackboard. It
permits contrast; it implies actions and allow the eras correction.
4.4.3 Advantages of chalkboard
1. The chalkboard is inexpensive, especially when the usable life of the board is considered.
2. You can easily add or erase if you committed error or you forgot to write about the topic.
3. In showing solutions of the different social science problems, chalkboard is very useful to show it
systematically.

4. Various colored chalk or pens can be used to develop the topic, show parts or build associations.

5. The teacher can illustrate/ draw figures and highlight these drawings by using colored chalks.

6. Using chalkboard, the students can improve their handwriting/

penmanship.

7. Through chalkboard, the students can improve or develop their thinking ability and visualize their own ideas.

8. Face to face contact with audience.

4.4.4 Disadvantages of chalkboard

1. You cannot save the writings/ visual materials posted on the board.

2. With a short height may not be able to use the chalkboard in a maximum way.

3. The writing on chalkboards is difficult to read in the dark.

4. Chalkboard is not applicable in dark areas and is not appropriate for students having visual impairments.

5. It cannot show motion to discuss a process.

6. It can cause misconception or misunderstanding if it is not used properly.

7. Chalkboard work can be messy (dirty).

8. Chalkboard is that the information written on the board is temporary.

9. We can’t illustrate maps, chemical reactions, mathematical formulas and complex diagrams on board.

10. Chalk produces dust, it causes allergy and asthma problems.

4.5 ATLAS
Use of atlas carries a quite wide significance in the teaching-learning of Social Sciences, particularly the topics
related to the disciplines Geography, History, Civics, Political Science, and Economics. In general, we mean by a
given atlas, a collection of the various types of maps in the form of a properly sized and well- illustrated picture
book. The maps included in an atlas may be of varying nature and types such as physical or geographical maps,
political maps, political-physical maps, social maps, economic maps, weather maps, population maps, vegetation
maps, rail, road or airlines maps, navigation maps, etc. The purposes served with the use of an atlas in the teaching-
learning of the subject Social Sciences are almost the same as discussed already for the use of different kinds of
maps. The use of atlas as an instructional aid material may prove a quite handy and facilitating for the teacher as
well as for the students in comparison to maps on account of the availability of a number of varying maps and
visual presentations of the facts related to the subject Social Sciences at one place in a quite proper and illustrated
form. Here, we are not discussing the details regarding the use of atlas for the teaching-learning of Social Sciences
as these are almost the same as being discussed for the use of maps.

4.6 MAPS
A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth surface or part of it drawn on a flat surface according to scale
whereas globe is miniature form of the earth. These are the only kind of map that can give pupils a true conception
of geographical relationships. They vary in size and type- big ones which cannot be carried easily, small pocket
globes, and the globe like balloons, which can be inflated and are handy and carried with ease. Maps pro- vide
more information than a globe. Maps are of different types. Maps showing natural features of the earth such as
mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, oceans etc. are called physical or relief maps. Maps showing cities, towns and
villages and different countries and states of the world with their boundaries are called political maps. Some maps
focus on specific information such as showing distribution of temperature, rainfall, forests, minerals, industries,
population, transportation, etc. These are known as thematic maps. Maps help in understanding in learning
concepts help in synthesising and integrating ideas and to draw reasonable inferences and observations. Thus, maps
represent the earth or parts of the earth upon a flat surface. The earth is represented on the map through lines, dots,
colours, words and signs. In social sciences, maps are very important for learning many geographical, historical
and economic concepts.Maps are regarded as indispensable aid in the teaching and learning of many topics of
Social Sciences particularly related to geography, history and economics. They are known as and are applied for
the symbolic representation of space relationships specifically associated with the surface of the earth. It is no
secret that the surface of the earth can be better represented through a globe. However, the globe is too small to
show distribution of items so that they can be studied in detail. The wide range of content shown on maps enables
one to see at a glance many surface conditions and relationships that cannot be otherwise portrayed clearly and
efficiently (Michaelis 1976:412). Therefore, for the reasons like providing sufficient details to be observed by the
whole class and observing the whole surface of the earth at one time, a flat representation in terms of maps is
always preferred by the teachers. In such a sense, a map may be technically defined as the modified or flattened
representation of the earth’s globe like spherical surface, or any particular section of it, communicating relative
size, shape, distance and direction by means of lines, symbols, work and colours.

4.6.1 Educational uses and purposes of the maps in social science

Maps, according to their varying nature, are quite helpful in the teaching of various aspects of Social Sciences. In
teaching history and geography, they provide valuable assistance in establishing and understanding the required
sequence between time and space. Historical events and geographical factors cannot be properly explained without
reference to their place of occurrence, e.g. to which country did Alexander belong? Where is it situated and how
far it is from our country? From where did he first invade our country? What were the boundaries of Ashoka’s
Empire? What are the regions or countries of the world where tea is grown? Where are they situated? What is the
worldwide distribution of mineral wealth, animal wealth, growing of crops, population growth and industrial
growth? The information with respect to such queries can be very well obtained through the various types of maps.

In this connection Jerolimek and Parker (1993) have suggested that the following eight basic types of information
can be furnished by various types of maps used in the teaching learning of Social Sciences:

1. Land and water forms: Continents, oceans, bays, peninsulas, islands, straits.

2. Relief features: Plains, mountains, rivers, deserts, plateaus, swamps, valleys.

3. Direction and distance: Cardinal direction, distance in miles or kilometre and relative distance, scale

4. Social data: Population density, size of communities, location of major cities, relationship of social data to
other factors.

5. Economic information: Industrial and agricultural production, soil fertility, trade factors, location of
industries.

6. Political information: Political divisions, boundaries, capitals, territorial possessions, types of government,
political parties.
7. Scientific information: Location of discoveries, ocean currents, location of mineral and oil deposits,
geological formation, air movements.

8. Human factors: Cities, canals, railroads, highways, coaxial and fibre optic cables, telephone lines, bridges,
dams, and nuclear power plants.

4.6.2 Kinds of maps

Any material or aid that can help in the visual representation of the earth’s surface can be included in the category
of maps. In this sense, the globe, a three- dimensional representation of the earth, can be included in the category
of maps. Similarly, relief maps, a realistic model of the earth’s total surface or part of it (quite helpful in showing
the elevations and depression in the surface of the places), can also be included in the category of maps. However,
as far as the flat representation of the earth’s surface for the educational purposes is concerned, the types like
political maps, physical-political maps and physical maps are more pronounced.

1. Political maps: Such types of maps provide information about the man-made boundaries and phenomena
related to the objects, places, areas, directions and distances on the surface of the earth, e.g. boundaries of nations,
provinces, districts, etc. and the location of cities, dams, highways, sea and air routes, national and states museums,
monuments, tourist sports, etc.

2. Physical maps: Physical maps help in showing objects and phenomena predominantly nature made such as
rivers, mountains, valleys, plains, deserts, rainfall, temperature, direction of the winds, minerals, forests, etc. These
are very much valuable for the teaching of physical concepts and topographical characteristics of a piece of land or
region. Among these, physical maps and three-dimensional relief maps are considered as the best physical maps as
they provide real model for explaining the physical features and topographical characteristics (with proper
elevation and depression of surface) of a region.

3. Political-physical maps: These maps incorporate the essential features of political and physical maps as to
show valuable information about a particular region in terms of its physical area, shape, location, political
subdivisions and location of other man- made boundaries, places and objects, trade routes, communication
channels, location of river, mountains and other physical things or features of its topography.

Besides these types, we have an important category, i.e. special purpose maps. These are maps designed to
represent or serve some special purpose, for example, weather maps, population maps, natural resources maps,
vegetation maps, railroads maps, airlines maps, navigation maps, etc. These maps serve specific purposes and are
used for the illustration of the specific subject matter.

4.6.3 Advantages of maps

Maps, in this way, are helpful in understanding the things, ideas and processes related to the mapping of the earth’s
surface. Various purposes served by them can be summarized as follows:

• Provide valuable help in understanding relationship between space and historical events.

• Provide a good means to represent, on a plane with a reduced scale, a part of the whole of the earth’s
surface.

• Geographic features of the earth’s surface can be illustrated and explained through the help of maps.

• Helpful in conveying information regarding distances, directions, shapes, sizes, areas and places.

• Can communicate well about the world or region-wise distribution of people, land, water, animal,
vegetable, life, climate, economic resources, etc.
• Provide proper visual experiences to create interest as well as tender help in the study of people, places and
the various natural and man- made resources.

• Maps, through their flat representation of the spherical surface of the earth, provide the only convenient
and efficient medium through which a large number of students can see any considerable portion of the earth’s
surface at the same time.

• Help in making the abstract ideas related to the space as real and concrete as possible.

• Help the learners to understand the physical and social environments, their mutual interaction and
relationships.

4.6.4 How to make effective use of the maps?

Maps of different types serving different purposes can be borrowed from the libraries of the teachers training
colleges and audio-visual departments of NCERT and SCERT’s. They can also be purchased from the market.
However, it is always proper to get them prepared in the school itself with the active cooperation of the students as
it amounts to provide greater educational benefits to the students. In order to get maximum advantages out of these
maps as affective visual aid, a Social Sciences teacher should also take care of the following:

1. Proper care should be taken to make use of appropriate political, physical, political-physical or special
purpose maps according to the instructional needs of the class.

2. The selection of the map should also be governed by the abilities, interests, grade and mental level of the
students.

3. The map selected should be able to illustrate and furnish the desired information as adequately and correctly
as possible.

4. The map should be so displayed as to be clearly visible to the students of the class. The details in it should be
bold and clear for enabling the pupils to read them without strain irrespective of their sitting distance from the map.

5. A map should essentially help in bringing the abstract concept of size, distance and direction into the region
of reality. It should help in understanding relevant space relationships with respect to the subject matter taught and
information communicated.

6. A map should bear all the essential details with regard to the purposes served by it. However, in no case it
should be overcrowded. Nonessential things should always be avoided.

7. Many times it is advisable to make use of the outline maps as they provide valuable opportunities for using
according to the classroom necessities and also stimulate and encourage the students for active participation.

8. Proper scaling is one of the essential requirements of a good map.

Therefore, while making selection and use of the map, we must see that it provides adequate scaling for the desired
communication of relative sizes, distances and areas.

9. The symbols and colours used in the maps should be adequate in terms of their universal acceptance.

10. The maps should be prepared, mounted and kept safely to account for their further use and safety.

11. A pointer should be used for calling attention to the things shown in the maps.
12. The students must be helped to acquire map reading skills. They should be helped to know the meaning of the
map symbols and map colours. They must also learn to take proper idea about the different space relationships
presented through a map.

13. Students should also be clearly told that a map is a flattened representation of the earth’s surface. Therefore,
they should not be drifted away from the spherical realities of the earth.

14. For drawing better results, maps as an aid should be supplemented with necessary charts, globe and other
projected aid material.

4.7 GLOBE
Globes are a scale model of the earth in three dimensions. Globe is the best representation of earth. A globe is a
spherical model of Earth, of some other celestial body, or of the celestial sphere. Globes serve purposes similar to
some maps, but unlike maps, do not distort the surface that they portray except to scale it down. It provides the
correct concept of distance, direction, Rotation, revolution, size area, etc on earth. The proper use of maps and
globes is a shortcut of learning process as it economizes time and effort. It provides first-hand experience to
students. The basic concepts and skills required for map and globe reading at secondary level are location,
directions, map scales and map symbols. A model globe of Earth is called a terrestrial globe. A model globe of the
celestial sphere is called a celestial globe. A globe shows details of its subject. A terrestrial globe shows
landmasses and water bodies. It might show nations and major cities and the ne two r k of lat itud e a n d lon gitu
d e line s. S om e hav e rai sed r eli ef to show mountains and other large landforms. A celestial globe shows
notable stars, and may also show positions of other prominent astronomical objects. Typically, it will also divide
the celestial sphere into constellations.

4.7.1 Purposes of a globe

Maps, being the flattened representation of the earth’s surface, may provide a distorted view of the things
represented by them. The use of globe may help in overcoming such deficiencies as it provides a somewhat real
representation of the earth’s spherical surface. Globe, therefore, may be defined as a model or three- dimensional
representation of the surface of the earth on a very small scale. An appropriate globe, in this way, tries to prove as a
best mapping device and visual aid for the proper representation of earth. By virtue of its shape and information
communicated, it is capable of meeting some specific purposes as follows :

• With the help of globe, it is easy for the teacher to make the students understand that the shape of the earth
is not flat but spherical.

• A globe, mounted on a proper stand, can provide the idea that earth is not still but moves around the sun
while rotating on its own axis. This makes the children to understand the phenomenon of day and night and change
of seasons.

• Globe helps in understanding the fact that water occupies more space on earth than land.

• Globes provide valuable help in making the students understand the various abstract concepts and facts
related to the subject Social Sciences particularly in geography, e.g. latitude and longitude, relation between time
and longitude, date line, planetary winds, local, standard and international time, etc.

• Globes provide a sound means to illustrate topics like man’s exploration and discovery on the earth,
world’s means of transportation, and various others things needing to show space relationships on the surface of
earth for the teaching of history, geography, civics, economics, political science and international relations.

4.7.2 Types of globes and their educational value

There are many types of globes that are available to us for serving the useful educational purposes. They also vary
in size according to the needs and purposes served by them. The usual types that can be used in our schools are
discussed as follows:
1. Physical globes: Such type of globes give more emphasis on showing physical and topographical features of
the earth like rivers, mountains, valleys, plains, latitude and longitudes (although these are arbitrary), spherical
division of the earth’s surface, distribution of land and water on the earth, the elevation and depression of the
earth’s surface, etc. These globes are, therefore, particularly useful in the teaching of the facts and concepts related
with physical geography.

2. Political globes: These globes provide better information regarding the man-made phenomena such as
boundaries of the nations and states, location of capitals, main cities, industries, projects, highways, monuments,
famous buildings, visiting places and tourist spots, etc. They are more helpful in teaching the facts and concepts
related to political science, history, civics and international relationship.

3. Physical-political globes: Such globes serve the essential common purposes of both physical and political
globes. The relationship between physical and topographical characteristics of the region with the political and
historical events can be beautifully explained and established through such globes. The topics related to economic
and political geography and civics can also be properly dealt with the help of such globes.

4. Special purpose globes: Such globes are meant to serve specific purposes. For example, we may have a
globe showing means of communication or transportation, distribution of mineral wealth, rainfalls, etc. Celestial
globe and climatologic globes are also exampling of such globes.

5. The slated outline globes: In such type of globes we are provided with continental or surface area-wise
outlines. These are quite inexpensive in proportion to their size and uses they carry. As an aid they are extremely
valuable at all levels as they allow the teachers and students to write on it with chalk according to their
convenience; to mark such features as locations of different countries, rivers, air, sea and land routes, important
cities, elevation and depressions of the earth’s surface, direction of the wind, distribution of mineral wealth and
crops. Their special advantages lie in permitting special attention to be focused on one thing at a time. They can be
easily cleaned with an eraser or a damp cloth which facilitates their repeated use and to allow maximum
opportunity for the pupils’ active participation in the acquisition of vicarious experiences. An outline globe is
shown in below figure:

4.7.3 How to effectively use a globe?

Some essential points regarding the effective use of globes: Some of the essential means to effectively use the
globes are as follows:
1. Every teacher must try to acquire good basic understanding of various types of globes, their unique
features and their specific use for carrying out the relevant instructional activities.

2. The globe is known to be the only correct map of the world. However, its representation of the earth’s
surface bears little resemblance to the actual appearance of the earth’s surface as a small child happens to see it.
Therefore, great care should be taken to make the child accept it as a model of the earth.

3. No one is born with the ability to read and understand the language spoken by the globes. Therefore,
proper attempts should be made to teach the children the meaning of the lines, symbols, colours and various other
things, directly or indirectly related with the understanding and acquisition of the desired information through
globes.

4. The factors like simplicity (presentation of the facts, information and concepts as simply and
understandably as possible), accuracy (making representation of the facts and information as accurate and vivid as
possible), colouring (making the show features as distinct as possible and appealing to the aesthetic sense), and
visibility (necessary broad outlines and features to be seen by the class) should also be taken care of while making
selection and use of a globe.

5. It should also be known to the teachers that the instructional purposes are best served by the globes, if they
are used in combination with some other effective and relevant aids like pictures, text and reference books, maps,
atlases, slides, films, field trips, bulletin board displays, etc. Therefore, a teacher should try to make use of all such
media and activities that help his students to gain better insight of the things taught to them.

4.7.4 Advantages of globe

• Globe is a perfect representation of the earth
• The relative shapes and sizes of the continents and areas is not distorted
• It is 3 dimensional easy to understand and illustrate and shows us what the whole world looks like
• Shows exact shape of the earth- spherical slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator.
• The shape of continents and oceans are shown accurately.

4.7.5 Disadvantages of globe

• The different physical features are also marked more or less accurately.
• Bulky and cannot be stored easily
• It cannot show the details of landforms and location of small towns.
• It cannot provide detail information about climate, vegetation agriculture etc.
• Although larger globes show some details, but they are difficult to carry and handle
• It does not provide the detailed information about a specific place

4.8 CHARTS
Charts are a valuable tool for use in social studies. A chart is a simple flat pictorial display material and, if used
appropriately, conveys the displayed information in a highly effective manner. Charts serve as an excellent means
of classifying important information that is to be referred to a number of times. They help summarize and simplify
complex ideas which students face during reading. A chart is a graphical representation of data, in which “the data
is represented by symbols, such as bars in a bar chart, lines in a line chart, or slices in a pie chart”. A chart can
represent tabular numeric data, functions or some kinds of qualitative structure and provides different info. The
term “chart” as a graphical representation of data has multiple meanings:

• A data chart is a type of charts or graph, that organizes and represents a set of numerical or qualitative
data.

• Maps that are adorned with extra information (map surround) for a specific purpose are often known as
charts, such as a nautical chart or aeronautical chart, typically spread over several map sheets.

• Other domain specific constructs are sometimes called charts, such as the chord chart in music notation or
a record chart for album popularity.

Charts are often used to ease understanding of large quantities of data and the relationships between parts of the
data. Charts can usually be read more quickly than the raw data. They are used in a wide variety of fields, and can
be created by hand (often on graph paper) or by computer using a charting application. Certain types of charts are
more useful for presenting a given data set than others. For example, data that presents percentages in different
groups (such as “satisfied, not satisfied, unsure”) are often displayed in a pie chart, but may be more easily
understood when presented in a horizontal bar chart. On the other hand, data that represents numbers that change
over a period of time (such as “annual revenue from 1990 to 2000”) might be best shown as a line chart.

4.8.1 Types of charts

• A histogram consists of tabular frequencies, shown as adjacent rectangles, erected over discrete
intervals (bins), with an area equal to the frequency of the observations in the interval; first introduced by Karl
Pearson.

• A bar chart is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values that they represent. The
bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally. The first known bar charts are usually attributed to Nicole Ores me,
Joseph Priestley, and William Playfair.
• A pie chart shows percentage values as a slice of a pie; first introduced by William Playfair.
• A line chart is a two-dimensional scatterplot of ordered observations where the observations are connected
following their order. The first known line charts are usually credited to Francis Hauksbee, Nicolaus Samuel
Cruquius, Johann Heinrich Lambert and William Playfair.

4.8.2 Merits of charts using in teaching

1. Supplement in verbal instructions.

2. Charts make learning permanent.

3. Charts provide variety.

4. Charts are helpful in attracting attention of the students.

5. Charts save time and energy.

6. Charts encourage the healthy classroom interaction.

7. Charts help the teacher to create situations for teaching the beginners.

8. Charts are helpful in creating positive environment for discipline.

9. Charts are helpful in meeting individual differences.

10. Charts helps in providing speech training to the pupils.

11. Charts enable the children to retain language items for a longer time.

12. Charts give vividness to the learning situation.

13. Charts makes the abstract ideas concrete and thus help in making learning more effective.

14. Charts provide good substitutes for the real objects as they make learning equally meaningful.

15. Charts help in the development of various skills such as, how to draw a diagram of the topic among the
students.

4.8.3 Demerits of using charts in classroom

1. Limited writing space

2. Changes are messy

3. Instructor’s back to audience

4. Limitations on size of room and audience

4.9 MODELS

Models are three-dimensional visual aids. They represent real things in all respects except size and shape. Large
objects are reduced to small size so that they could be observed by students with greater precision; Models may be
simple (static), sectional or working. Simple models like deities worshiped by the people of the Indus Valley
Civilization could be prepared and shown to the students. In a sectional model of the earth, for example, all parts of
the earth can be separated, shown to the students and replaced. Working models are used to show the actual
operation or working of a real object. A working model of the Continental Ocean Currents would show how
actually currents flow in different oceans of the world. A variety of models can be prepared for illustrating various
contents of social studies. Some examples of models in social sciences are as follows:

• Models of historical architecture and sculpture.

• Models of solar system or wind mills. Models are generally prepared using materials like cardboard paper,
wood, bamboo thermocol, wax, plaster of Paris, plastics, metals, clay, strings, etc.

4.9.1 Merits of using models in social sciences classroom

1. Models provide an environment for interactive student engagement.

Evidence from science education research shows that significant learning gains are achieved when st udents part
icipate in in teractive engagement activities. Thus, it is important that the learning environment/activity
created around a model provide an interactive engagement experience.

2. Working with models can enhance system thinking abilities

3. Models and model development are useful for helping students learn quantitative strategies such as
graphing, graphical analysis, and visualization; statistics; computational skills, mathematics,

4. Many models allow one to perform sensitivity studies to assess how changes in key system variables alter the
system’s dynamic behaviour. Such sensitivity studies can help one identify leverage points of a system to either
help one affect a desire change with a minimum effort or to help estimate the risks or benefits associated with
proposed or accidental changes in a system.

5. Earth System Models such as those at Earth-System Models of Intermediate Complexity allow us to
perform experiments related to the Earth System without altering and potentially harming the actual Earth. Many
experiments, like understanding the future effects of atmospheric carbon dioxide increase, are taking place in the
actual Earth System today but the results of these will not be known for 50 to 100 years. An Earth System model
can run several such simulations using different assumptions in a matter of hours to days. The same is true for most
models.

6. The knowledge gained while using models and the understanding of model development and implementation
are transferable to other disciplines related to the Earth system.

4.9.2 Limitations of using models

• It requires expertise to make.

• Time consuming.

• Some of the models may be very expensive.

4.10 GRAPHS AND VISUALS

Graphs are excellent means of presenting quantitative data in a form that enables pupils to understand fundamental
or specific relationships. There are several kinds ofgraphs used in teaching social sciences. The basic skills
involved in effective interpretation of graphs include the ability to understand the signifi- cance of the title, to
understand the basic units of measure used in the construction of the graph, to interpret the relationships shown, to
draw inferences and important generalisations based on the data, and to relate information derived from graphs to
that gained from reading and other sources of information.
4.10.1 Types of graphs
1. Line graph:Line graphs illustrate how related data changes over a specific period of time. One axis might
display a value, while the other axis shows the timeline. Line graphs are useful for illustrating trends such as
temperature changes during certain dates.

2. Bar graph:Bar graphs offer a simple way to compare numeric values of any kind, including inventories, group
sizes and financial predictions. Bar graphs can be either horizontal or vertical. One axis represents the categories,
while the other represents the value of each category. The height or length of each bar relates directly to its value.
Marketing companies often use bar graphs to display ratings and survey responses.

3. Pictograph:A pictograph uses pictures or symbols to display data instead of bars. Each picture represents a
certain number of items. Pictographs can be useful when you want to display data in a highly visual presentation
such as an infographic. For example, you could use a picture of a book to display how many books a store sold
over a period of a few months.

4. Histogram:A histogram is another type of bar graph that illustrates the distribution of numeric data
across categories. People often use histograms to illustrate statistics. For example, a histogram might display
how many people belong to a certain age range within a population. The height or length of each bar in the
histogram shows how many people are in each category.

5. Area graph:Area graphs show a change in one or more quantities over a certain period of time. They often
help when displaying trends and patterns. Similar to a line graph, area graphs use dots connected by a line.
However, an area graph involves coloring between the line and the horizontal axis. You can use several lines and
colors between each one to show how multiple quantities add up to a whole. For example, a retailer might use this
method to display the profits of different stores over the same timeframe.

6. Scatter plot:Scatter plots use dots to depict the relationship between two different variables. Someone
might use a scatter plot graph to show the relationship between a person’s height and weight, for example. The
process involves plotting one variable along the horizontal axis and the other variable along the vertical axis. The
resulting scatter plot demonstrates how much one variable affects the other. If there is no correlation, the dots
appear in random places on the graph. If there is a strong correlation, the dots are close together and form a line
through the graph.

4.10.2 Advantages of graphs

• Easy Representation of Data.

• A graph represents data, or a set of data, in a diagrammatical manner.

• Graphs are useful in representing data with distinct units, such as years and months. They are also valuable
in showing the differences, or making comparisons, between different variables.

• Graphs are valuable when countable variables, facts and data are to be demonstrated. Bar graphs show
these, and other comparative values, in a distinct and comprehensive manner, giving a clearer, more
understandable picture of data distribution.

• Graphs are the most popular data display method, breaking down data into the relative frequency or
frequency for each separate group.

• The comparison between frequency distribution can be easily made by seeing the graph.

• The Graph of frequency distribution helps to summarise the complicated data in maximum way. This
graph, therefore, is easy-to- understand then the complicated data.
• A person is assumed to have basic knowledge of graph.
• Graphs are easy to prepare, provided appropriate plotting data has been gathered and prepared. A complete
graph requires a title, some labels and a scale appropriate with data.

• The Preparation of graph is easy and hence the data can be presented in an attractive and beautiful manner
to create a long lasting impression on the mind of viewer.

• There are numerous types of graphs, which can be used for various purposes. Graphs are used in different
fields, all around the world, to show comparison between values of data.

• The graphs are having innumerous uses to represent complicated data in an easy-to- understand manner as
they are very much versatile (flexible) and can be used by anyone for showing various relationships in the data.

4.10.3 Disadvantages of graphs

• The first limitation is that there is a loss of accuracy of data while representing data through graphs. It is
obvious that there will be loss of data as it is the summarization of the whole data. Due to this, the comparison
between the values of data are not so accurate.

• For Some of them, constructing Graphs may be Time consuming and Costly.

4.11 MULTIMEDIA
Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations,
video and interactive content. Multimedia contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer displays such
as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material. Multimedia can be recorded and played,
displayed, interacted with or accessed by information content processing devices, such as computerized and
electronic devices, but can also be part of a live performance. Multimedia devices are electronic media devices
used to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is distinguished from mixed media in fine art; for
example, by including audio it has a broader scope. In the early years of multimedia the term “rich media” was
synonymous with interactive multimedia, and “hypermedia” was an application of multimedia.

History can be seen as the sum total of many things taken together and the spectrum of events occurring in action
following in order leading from the past to the present and into the future (http://en.wikipedia.org). Historians
are to interpretation of the past, how it affects our views of the present, understanding trends or the lack thereof in
the past. To deeply understand the rulers in India, the teacher thought that remembering the names of famous
historical people, events and their activities was not sufficient and that it was important to provide multimodal
information through images and moving ships, pictures, including sound and speech. For the student, graphics,
animations, a replica of war equipment’s were prepared. In the same way, Geography lessons use many map,
animation and video, etc. Animations represent medium for simulation, can visualize abstract relations, to explain
concepts and procedures that requires movement that cannot be filmed, movements in the universe or within a
body, figurative movements such as ideas, economic tendencies can be clarified through moving graphs. Videos
represent high degree of reality and visualization can show practices that take place over a long distance or period.
Video and animation can be viewed on demand. The student himself has control over the material and can work on
his own pace, by navigating through the subject matter. In multimedia information that is being presented both
visual and in audio, is better understood and remembered.

4.11.1 Advantages of multimedia

• Through participation in multimedia activities, students can learn real- world skills related to technology.
They will know the value of teamwork and the importance of effective collaboration techniques.

• It helps the learners to express and represent their prior knowledge and provides them with many learning
opportunities.
• It provides a non-threatening environment for a learner to study at their own pace.
• The teacher is no longer the center of attention as the source of information, but rather plays the role of
facilitator, setting project goals and providing guidelines and resources, moving from student to student or group to
group, providing suggestions and support for student activity.

• It facilitates teaching-learning process. The combination of text, sound, and graphics holds the attention
of students and makes students innovative by making their studies more meaningful. most learners enjoy working
with multimedia.

• It brings forth students’ talent in various ways. It empowers students to work as a designer while designing
their slides, browsing and interpreting the information and then representing their knowledge to others.

• It involves interaction between the learner and the various elements on the screen.

4.11.2 Disadvantages of multimedia

• Lack of IT knowledge certain students may not be as computer literate as others.

• Most schools may not have technological resources, both hardware and software, that are required for
using multimedia in learning.

• Some teachers depend on the traditional way of teaching because they do not know how to integrate the
multimedia in their teaching.

• Most teachers need much time to prepare lessons, to evaluate students and to create tasks and activities, so
they will not get more trouble by develop multimedia activities.

• Video files can be large and a long download time may leave some students with nothing to do.

• Sometimes, diverts students’ attention to the pictures, sounds or relevant material presented in multimedia.

• Sometimes, excessive information about certain topic leads to cognitive overload and it becomes difficult
for the students to understand all the information presented to them.

• It can be incredibly difficult for teachers to monitor all the students, and some may play games or surfing
the web instead of focusing on the work at hand.

• One concern with computers is that they can reduce learning demands on students. With access to the
web come millions of pieces of information, many of which contain answers to common problems from school.
Students can use computers to do less work or even to cheat.

• Multimedia formats and the devices that play or store them require a constant supply of power and
frequent updating, a fact that can be problematic in more remote areas.

• As technology rapidly evolves, compatibility between different devices can also be a problem when trying
to move or play multimedia content. Even a simple malfunction, server error or changes between formats, as
anyone who frantically struggled to connect a computer to an incompatible projector before a presentation knows
all too well, can delay a presentation or permanently damage the information contained
in the format.

4.12 INTERNET
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks that consists of private,
public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources
and services, such as the inter- link ed h yp ert ext docum ents and a p pli c a t i ons of the Wo r l d Wi de
We b (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing. Most traditional communication media, including
telephony, radio, television, paper mail and newspapers are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet,
giving birth to new services such as email, Internet telephony, Internet television, online music, digital newspapers,
and video streaming websites. Newspaper, book, and other pri nt p ubli shin g ar e ad apti n g t o w e bsi t e t
echn ology, o r a r e re shap ed into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The Internet has enabled
an d a c cele rate d ne w fo rms of p erso n al inte ract i ons thr ough i n s t a nt messaging, Internet forums, and
social networking.

Internet is a wonderful computer based learning resource. This is highly advanced source of learning social
sciences. E-learning is an instruction delivered on computer by the use of CD-ROM, Internet or Intranet. It is
simply learning with the help of computer and internet technology. E-Learning is web based training with inputs of
techniques such as animations, visualizations, simulation and games, text, audio, video and lots of creativity. The
biggest challenge of e-learn- ing is provision of infrastructure-physical, financial and expert human resource.
Though the government is striving hard to provide these resources to all the schools of the country but it will take
some time. The NCERT textbooks based on NCF2005 had also listed various websites which can be of great help
to the teachers and students in probing more and learning effectively.

4.12.1 Advantages of internet

• Internet as a library: Internet open the way to an enormous range of resources. Many websites provides
social science text books which are written by social science experts and all sorts of economic data, including
Gross National Product per capita, key economic ratios and long term trend for every nation are available at world
bank site. So, internet is considered as the source of knowledge. we can use the updated knowledge from internet
for enriching our general awareness.

• Interesting teaching leraning process: Many social science websites include photographs, songs, videos…
etc. by using such images, videos makes a social science classroom more interesting.

• Virtual field trips: Teachers and students can take field trips via the internet. From a visit to the White
House (http://www.whitehouse.gov) to tour of the Egyptian pyramids (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ pyramid/)
many historical and contemporary sites are just a few mouse clicks away.

• Publishing student’s work:everything that teachers once displayed on bulletin boards, from traditional
essays to students art works can be posted on classroom or school portal sites. Even more elaborate projects,
journey reports can be published on the sites.

• Video conferences in classroom:With video conferencing the classroom has become geographically
limitless. No longer do students have to feel confined to their rooms, schools or even to their countries. With a
video conference setup they can reap the benefits of wisdom from all over the world.

4.12.2 Disadvantages of internet

• Unmotivated learners or those with poor study habits may fall behind.

• Lack of familiar structure and routine may take getting used to.

• Students may feel isolated or miss social interaction thus the need to understanding different learning
styles and individual learner needs.

• Instructor may not always be available on demand.

• Slow or unreliable Internet connections can be frustrating.

• Managing learning software can involve a learning curve.

• Some courses such as traditional hands-on courses can be difficult to simulate.

4.13 SCRAPBOOKS
Many times the students of Social Sciences may locate a number of valuable information and data, pictures and
diagrams, cartoons or posters, and maps and graphs related to the study of their subject in pamphlets, newspapers,
magazines, reference books, encyclopaedia and information centres. They may feel a desire for keeping their
cutting or photostate copies in safe custody for its further use. Similarly they may have an inclination for the safety
of the collections from their physical and social surroundings such as specimens of soil, rocks, minerals, foodstuff,
the material and projects of historical, cultural and social concern for making their use in the study of the related
topics in Social Sciences. Such desire of keeping safe the collected or observed information or data, objects and
materials may be properly fulfilled through the habit of maintaining a record book called scrap book. In its actual
form, a scrap book in Social Sciences may be known as a sort of notebook containing loose sheet or blank pages
for the creative writing, noting and description of the observed phenomena or events besides providing a safe place
for keeping the collected objects, things and events related to a particular piece of knowledge concerning the
subject Social Sciences.

The size of this notebook (21 cm x 27 cm) is usually little larger than the size of an exercise book (generally used
by the students) for providing a little more accommodation for the proper placing of a relatively larger size of
cuttings, photocopies, etc. The collected objects and materials are properly tagged, stitched or pasted with some
adhesive material for keeping them intact and safe on the blank pages of this notebook.

4.13.1 Utilization and upkeep of scrapbook in social sciences

Now the question may arise that how a scrap book should be maintained and used by the students for getting
maximum educational advantage in the teaching and learning of Social Sciences. Generally, the following things
may be kept in view for deriving the desired benefits in this direction :

1. It is better to have the pages in the scrap book sufficiently more in number for giving more freedom and
space to the students for the upkeep of their collections, recording of information, and demonstrating their
creativity.

2. Students should be clearly told and guided about the objectives and purposes of keeping a scrap book.
What type of material can be preserved and what type of data or creative work can be accommodated in the scrap
book for the study and experiences related to the subject Social Sciences should be clearly known to the students.
Besides this, they must also be told about the ways and means of maintaining their scrap books.

3. The teacher may set certain rules, methods maintenance of the scrap books on the part of the students as a
matter of providing guidance to them. However, as far as possible, the students should be provided reasonable
freedom for working on their scrap books in the manner of their own likings, inclinations and creative expression.

4. In the school and class timetable, attempts should be made to allot a certain amount of time/period for
allowing the students to work on their scrap books. It may help them in seeking collaborative efforts among
themselves besides getting opportunity for working under the supervision and guidance of the subject teacher.

5. students should also be provided opportunity for the preparation as well as use of their scrap books projects.
They may also be allowed to seek cooperation of their parents, members of the family for this purpose.

6. It should be seen that the students remain properly motivated and guided for the preparation, maintenance
and use of their scrap books by the teacher in-charge of the subject Social Sciences for deriving maximum
educational advantages through their self efforts.
4.13.2 What is supposed to be there in a social sciences scrapbook?
The type of material, objects and activities having its place in a Social Sciences scrap book are as follows :

• Cuttings and photo state copies of the current events, news, data and critical comments available in
newspapers and magazines.

• Printed and photo state copies of relevant information and material available in reference books,
encyclopaedia, resource rooms, information centres, websites, etc.

• Collection of material, objects and specimen related to the study of the subject Social Sciences, e.g.
stamps, coins, pieces of art, remains of ancient civilizations, rocks, minerals, soil, food stuff, etc.

• Descriptions of the experiences gained at the time of excursion and visit to places of historical,
geographical, civic or economic interests, and interaction with the resources of various communities.

• Self-analysis and critical comments over the topics, themes and incidences related to the field of
Social Sciences.

• Creative expression and output of the students with regard to the attainment of Social Sciences objectives.

4.13.3 Follow Up Work

Working on the scrap books up to the point of their preparation is not an end. It should be subjected to the desired
follow up work in the following manner:

• What has been described and placed in the scrap books of the students should be made a subject of proper
utilization for the teaching and learning of Social Sciences. Students may be asked to make its use as a self-
instructional material besides its use by the teacher for the organization of his instructional activities.

• Students may be helped in making use of the scrap books material for the practical use and application of
the learnt facts and principles of the Social Sciences instruction along with the development of relevant skills
related to Social Sciences.

• There should be a proper way of evaluating the processes, products, outcomes and utilization of scrap
books. Students’ scrap books should be essentially examined at least twice in a month and also should be subjected
to necessary discussion and guidance for their improvement and utilization.

4.14 LET US SUM UP

In this lesson you have learnt about different kinds of audio-visual materials used in the community. We have
discussed how to use audio-visual materials like posters, models, posters, flannel board and blackboard effectively.
The teaching of social science requires a variety of instructional inputs. These instructional inputs are teacher
directed, learner directed and group directed activities. The teacher is expected to use appropriate method of
teaching and learning suited to the nature of the learner and relevance to the content. The effectiveness of teaching
social science is depended upon the judicious use of method and instructional aides. The audio-visual aids both
traditional and modern and digital are discussed in this unit for the wise selection and use of teachers of social
science to make the classroom teaching interesting and effective. Instructor can choose according to the needs of
the programme and audience.

4.16 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Kochhar, S. K. (2000). Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi : Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

Mangal, S. K., & Mangal, U. (2018). Pedagogy of Social Studies. New Delhi : PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Singh, G. (2009). Teaching of Social Studies. Ludhiana : Chetna Parkashan.
Singh, Y. K. (2004). Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi : APH Publishing.

ROLE AND ORGANIZATION OF FIELD TRIPS, SOCIAL SCIENCE CLUBS ETC IN TEACHING OF
SOCIAL SCIENCE

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The resources and instructional equipments are tools for significant learning and teaching. A teacher must explore
a wide variety of materials to find suitable aid for instruction to supplement the text book to provide additional
information, to broaden the concept and to arouse interest. The teacher needs to use the resources. Because of the
vastness of the subject, he needs both in the area of content and methodology. The immediate community
provides an excellent curriculum laboratory. Certain activities also prove to be useful in enhancing learning social
science. In this unit we need to learn about the resources and equipments which help the teacher and pupils to
expand the content and create interest in the subject.In simple terms, community resources stand for various man-
material resources (other than those available at home, family and school) available in the community or society in
which the students live, grow and function. These resources may possess tremendous potential for being organized
in their formal and informal education. Teachers may usefully apply such resources for instructional purposes, i.e.
providing theoretical as well as practical knowledge of their respective subject, say Social Sciences to their
students. In addition, the help of these resources may also be undertaken for bringing an all-round growth and
development of the personality of the children. Utilization of the available community resources in such
constructive, creative and fruitful way resulting in the overall welfare of the students is known as utilization of
community resources. Since this mechanism out rightly stands for the welfare of the students, it can be properly
included in the
category of co-curricular activities meant for the welfare of the students.

5.3 FIELD TRIPS/EXCURSIONS

Few social teaching programmes are complete without a field trip. Field trips may be undertaken for securing
information, changing attitudes, awakening interest, developing appreciation, promoting ideals, enjoying new
experiences. They can initiate a unit of study; they can be a part of the core of it or they can give it the finishing
touch. They are a very good means of getting knowledge first hand of confirming and supplementing second hand
knowledge. They are a means for sharpening observation, testing principles and doing everything which social
studies requires. Field trips to historical places can provide unparallel learning experiences, particularly, in the
teaching of history. They can provide first hand observation and new information to enable students to understand
the history, which is not merely a story, but is very useful for developing appreciation of architecture, sculpture,
painting, etc. There can be various kinds of trips such as:

(i) Trips within the school or trips within a walking distance.

(ii) Longer trips to historical spots in the community.

(iii) Day trips to a state capital, college, historical spot, etc.

(iv) Trips during vacations for a week or so to Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ajanta or Ellora Caves or other places of
historical interest.

5.3.1 Procedure for conducting field trip

1. Preparation: A field trip should be planned democratically, organized properly and executed carefully
permitting our pupils an immediate reconciliation with life and follow up connected with and extend to classroom
study. It should be much more than going to places and seeing things.
2. Objective: Every pupil as well as the teacher should become fully aware of the objective why this
particular trip is being planned and of how it is related to his own classroom experiences and activities.

3. Guidance: Appropriate audio-visual aids may be used both for initial motivation and for general
orientation to what will be seen on the trip itself. It will be better if the teacher suggests guide questions which the
pupils might put while approaching community leaders from whom they want useful information about the various
aspects of community life. Major purposes should be clarified and made specific.

4. Information: The teacher should be thoroughly familiar with the best route bus stops provisions for guide
service to be seen and done by the group aspects or phases of the resource center to be stressed or ignored eating
arrangements time needed at each stage of the trip etc.

5. Definite follow: There is essential to have follow up activities of any well-arranged trip. They may take the
form of reading books on the places, observed writing repots or descriptive accounts, preparing scrap books, panel
or forum discussion.

6. Evaluation: Trips should be evaluated in terms of the originally established purposes. Mistakes and
difficulties should be diagnosed the conduct of the group should be discussed. The letters of thanks should be
written to the persons concerned. The highlights of the trip should be recorded in some permanent form for future
reference.

5.3.2 Role of field trips for educational purposes or advantages

• They stimulate imagination and learning by providing sensory perceptions e.g. the breath-taking heat
of a glass furnace, the metallic hum of a weaving room. The sights of real things in the real world of adults.

• They integrate classroom instruction by exposing the artificially of traditional subject matter divisions and
enable the pupils to view facts and forces as they exist in their everyday relationship in living communities.

• Through the filled trips, the students may come to realize community in ways which bookish learning
cannot by its very nature allow.

• They enable the pupils to learn the art of living with others such as travelling in the same conveyances,
sharing rooms, sitting at the same table.

• They expand emotional and intellectual horizons by making them acquainted with people whose manner,
customs, living standards, outlook and interests may be quite different from their own.

• Information is presented to students in a way that meets different learning modalities. Field trips provide
students with the ability to learn by doing instead of just passively listening to the information being taught in
class.

• Students are exposed to new experiences that, hopefully, broaden their horizons. This can be especially
helpful for students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds who may not have been exposed to these
opportunities before.

• Concepts that have already been learned in the classroom can be reinforced. Sometimes seeing information
being taught in a new way can make a big difference in student comprehension. There is quite a difference between
being taught about something like hurricanes and wind speed and experiencing them in an exhibit at a science
museum.

• Students are provided with shared reference points that teachers can then refer to and use in future lessons.
There may be an opportunity to have two or more disciplines use a field trip as an enrichment activity. For
example, a trip to an art museum (art) may couple with a timeline for social studies (political systems in place
when art was created) or math (measurements) can combine with science in a biosystem (river, beach, and
meadow). In this manner, several teachers can then refer to things that students saw and experienced during the
field trip for the remainder of the school year.

• Students and teachers can see each other in a different light, helping to increase communication between
them. Some students who might be overlooked in class because they are quiet might really come alive on field
trips.

• If parents are involved as chaperones, they can feel more connected to the teacher and the lessons being
taught. They can get to know the teacher better and understand what teachers deal with daily.

• Standards in social studies and science require students to have experiences related to concepts in the
discipline. In social studies, students are required to take informed action

5.3.3 Disadvantages
• Field trips take preparation if teachers want to make them meaningful. They have to coordinate locations and
transportation. They also need to create an effective lesson plan that they will follow when on the excursion.

• Students will be out of the school building for a field trip, which means they will miss other classes—at
least in middle and high school. If each core subject area (ELA, math science, or social studies) offers one field trip
during a school year, students would be out of the building for four days. School attendance policies may count
these as excused absences, but any field trip that removes students from class reduces the number of classroom
hours.

• Field trips can be expensive, and some students may not have the funds to attend. Organizers of the field
trip may consider asking for parents to add a few dollars to help students in need. School boosters may need to host
a fundraiser for students to raise money for more expensive trips.

• Teachers have to organize the collection of money and the assigning of chaperones. Teachers need to
spend some time creating student groups that work for all students and ensuring that chaperones are assigned
accordingly.

• Teachers will likely have to deal with red tape as they plan field trips including permission slips, medical
information, and emergency procedures. Schools typically require paperwork from teachers and their students.

• Students will be placed in a larger environment than the classroom.

New surroundings could possibly lead to additional discipline problems. Because teachers typically only lead a
small group (such as 30 to 40 students), they may not be able to maintain control over the behaviour of every
student on the field trip, especially if the group is large. Teachers should go over rules and expectations before the
field trip, enforce the rules strictly while away from school grounds, and create effective consequences for
misbehaviour.

• The field trip destination might not live up to the teacher’s expectations. The location might not be as
interesting as the teacher thought it would be. The time to complete the field trip might be considerably less than
was expected. Therefore, it is a good idea to have some contingency plan in mind just in case.

• There may be students who, for one reason or another, will not attend the field trip. Teachers must leave
lessons, usually enrichment offerings that mirror some of the concepts being experienced on the field trip.

5.3.4 Certain points that need to be kept in mind while organising a field trip
• A trip should be related to the topics under discussion in the class, as a follow –up to the topics being
taught or as a motivation for new topics. It should provide something that can be learnt better by direct experience
than by textbooks, films and other methods.
• The distance should not be too long and the expenses should also be low. It must have the approval of
parents and school administration. It should give students experience that they cannot easily have alone or in small
groups or with parents. In order to make the field trips useful, they should be well-planned, well conducted and
well followed- up.

• The teacher should make a survey of the local possibilities in regard to original contents in history.
Students should be well prepared with an idea of what to expect and how the new information will be useful. Every
detail of the trips should be carefully and completely worked out beforehand. They should be carefully supervised
so as to achieve learning objectives.

• The experiences from the trip should be systematised and correlated to the history lesson. Each trip should
be carefully evaluated for future guidance as well.

• Discussions regarding the trips or a variety of activities like diaries, photos, bulletin boards, articles in the
school magazine, thank you letters, etc. can be organized as follow –up programmes.

• Some of the possibilities of direct study of historical materials are monuments, battlefields, sites of
historical events, old forts, tombs, memorials, places of worship, temples, mosques, museums, old houses with
relics of historical interest such as weapons, utensils, costumes, paintings, culture, old manuscripts, art galleries,
educational centres and ruins of capitals, sites of excavations and administrative and
legislative centres with records of historical decisions and happenings.

5.4 SOCIAL SCIENCE CLUBS

The social science clubs have a great role in the study of the subject. Social science clubs should guide the learning
activities which extend beyond classrooms. Club members along with the teacher should attend field trips,
exhibitions, quiz competitions, surveys, organization of school museums etc. The co-operation of various divisions
and classes is to be ensured for the systematic and effective functioning of the club. The objectives of the club
activities

 To create interest in the subject

 To bring out various talents of the students

 To give training in organizing various activities

 To develop cooperation among the students

 To make the children learning by doing.

5.4.1 Organization of the club

The club can be organized with the enthusiastic leadership of the social science teacher. The teacher can create
interest in the subject through these club activities. The member can elect their own officer bearers like the
president, secretary and treasurer. The year’s activities can be planned. The club can raise their fund through
subscription a small amount affordable to all children. The club can carry out the following activities

 Celebration of national and international days

 Celebration of festivals of all religions

 Organization of field trips to places of historical and cultural importance

 Arrangement of museum exhibits
 Organization of mock and model parliament

 Arrangement of talk by eminent personalities

 Conducting awareness programs

 Undertake surveys and projects

5.4.2 Merits of social science club

Club activities can develop great social, physical emotional moral cultural and democratic values
 Intellectual Development: The social science club activities promote the intellectual values among
children. The guest speakers speak on topics of national and international importance and the debates and
discussions enhance the intellect of students who take part.

 Social development: The club activities involving group work help in social development of the children.
These socialize the child. It would help the child to acquire various social qualities like cooperation, tolerance, we
feeling etc.

 Physical Development: Activities which involve some physical activity such as celebration of fairs and
festivals help in the physical development of the children.

 Emotional Development: Activities related to art, music, drama, debate etc. as well as opportunity to
maintain cordial social relations with proper adjustment will help in the emotional development of children.

 Moral Development: Club activities can infuse certain moral values also which would help children to
acquire traits like honesty, integrity, truthfulness, hard work etc.

 Cultural Development: These activities especially drama, art etc. inculcate cultural values

 Democratic Values:All these activities inculcate among children various democratic values and qualities
like tolerance, equality, justice, freedom, leadership etc. These encourage democratic way of life and outlook
which in turn will promote inculcation of a variety of values associated with social life.

 In this way the social science club helps to develop the all-round personality of the students.

5.5 SELF STUDY LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Self-study learning through activities is a learning where students direct their own studying-outside the classroom
and without direct supervision. Since students are able to take control of what (and how) they are learning, self-
study can be a very valuable way for many students to learn. Self-study and traditional classroom learning can be
used together to help child get the most out of his or her learning experience. Together, these methods help
students learn and retain information better, helping boost comprehension, grades, and motivation. When students
first start learning on their own, they’ll need a lot of support and encouragement. For students to be truly successful
with self-study learning, you must provide them with tools to help keep them on track. For example, they must
have strong study skills and know how to set effective learning goals. As they develop these skills, you’ll be able
to move further into the background and set them free to learn on their own. Learning independently can be
challenging, even for the brightest and most motivated students. Self-activity as the basic principle of learning is
universal in its application. An individual can learn only through her own reactions to situations. There can be no
learning where there has been no self-activity. This principle of self-activity may be stated simply: A student learns
through her own activities. The process of learning in which the learner assumes primary responsibility for
planning, implementing, and evaluating a learning project. The learner chooses what to learn and how to learn, and
also decides when to continue and when to end the learning project. A process in which individuals take the
initiative, with or without the help of others, to diagnose their learning goals, identify resources for learning, select
and implement learning strategies, and evaluate learning outcomes.
5.5.1 Purpose of self-study learning activities

• To plan and participate in one’s own learning activities.

• To develop the capacity of learning and thinking of learner.

• To develop the sense of independence by enhancing emancipatory learning.

• To develop the problem-solving approaches.

• To develop time management skills.

• To develop decision-making skills.

5.5.2 Steps in self-study learning

 Deciding what detailed knowledge and skill to learn;

 Deciding the specific activities, methods, resources, or equipment for learning;

 Deciding where to learn;

 Setting specific deadlines or intermediate targets;

 Deciding when to begin a learning episode;

 Deciding the pace at which to proceed during a learning episode;

 Estimating the current level of knowledge and skill and progress in gaining the desired knowledge and skill;

 Detecting any factor that has been backing or hindering learning;

 Obtaining the desired resources or equipment;

 Preparing or adapting a room;

 Saving or obtain the money necessary for the use of certain human or nonhuman resources;

 Finding time for the learning;

 Taking certain steps to increase the motivation for learning.

5.5.3 Advantages
One of the major advantages of self-study is that students can take control over their own learning and when
students have control, they become even more interested in learning.

1. Students learn more effectively: Exploring a topic on his or her own encourages child to actively engage
with the information. Self-studiers are able to think about topics more deeply and make connections between what
they are learning. And when students are engaged (and excited) about what they are learning, they’re able to
remember it better. Self-study also helps build study skills your child can use to explore new topics or tackle
challenging schoolwork.
2. Students discover more about the topics they are studying: Self-study is all about searching out new
information on a topic child is interested in. Seeking out this information themselves gives students a chance to
learn more about that topic (rather than just what they are taught in class).

3. It can boost students’ self-esteem: As students do more self-study, many become more confident learners.
They are able to see themselves as an independent person who is able to learn new things without anyone helping
them. This can be a major motivation boost for students.

4. Students can learn at their own pace: Self-study allows students to take learning at their own pace, focusing
on areas they are most interested in (or want to understand a bit better). This helps reduce feelings of frustration,
anxiety, or boredom that students may struggle with in a classroom setting.

5. Encourages curiosity: Curiosity is one of the biggest (and often overlooked) pieces of motivating students
to learn. When students aren’t engaged with what they are learning, they absorb less of the information. They study
to memorize rather than understand. Self- study allows students to choose something they are interested in and
excited to learn about, leading to a more effective learning experience

6. Increase Ownership of Learning: With self-study learning, students must be active participants in their
education. At its best, this means students have the opportunity to wonder, ponder, and be creative. Students
control the pace of their learning, allowing them to spend more time on what they need and want to learn. Students
can focus on topics that fascinate them, then cast wide nets and explore topics they know little about.

7. Foster Meta-cognition: Becoming a successful learner involves understanding how you learn. This can
be difficult for students of all ages as we must confront our weaknesses as well as our strengths. Part of the self-
study learning process should include setting goals and reflecting upon how well we achieved those goals. Through
this process students come to understand the strategies that make them successful learners.

8. Develop Career Readiness Skills: Time management, the ability to work both autonomously and
collaboratively, problem solving, strategic planning and decision making. These are all skills required in the
workplace and components of a well-planned, self- study learning model. We ask our students to apply what they
learn in the classroom to real- world situations. Self-study learning can help students develop the real-world skills
they will need once they leave the classroom.

9. Nurture an Appreciation for Learning: Ultimately, perhaps the greatest benefit of self-study learning is
gaining an appreciation for learning, turning students into lifelong learners. Some 1,800+ confirmed explants since
high school later and I am still learning about astronomy, albeit using more powerful technology. I didn’t go on to
become an astronomer, but I still gaze at the night sky and marvel at the beauty of it.

5.5.4 Disadvantages

 Research has proved that some adults are unable to engage in self- study learning activities because they
lack independence, confidence or resources.

 Possible for frequent error and sometimes it misguides the student how to learn.

 Self-study learning activities need to be combined with other learning methods for content to be fully
learned.

 Self-study learning activities is quite time consuming.

 It lacks team spirit.

5.6 ANALYSIS OF NEWS

It is well known that Newspapers, T.V and Radio are very useful source of diverse information. They can be an
important source of information for scientific research, especially in social sciences and humanities. Social studies
classes have come a long way from the days of tiresome lectures and mindless memorization of names and dates.
The major focus of social studies curricula today is civic literacy, or, more explicitly, the preparation of students
with the knowledge and skills essential for effective participation in our democratic process. Emphasis is placed on
such skills as problem solving, effective decision making and values clarification. Elevating student awareness of
global issues is increasingly important as the countries of the world become more interdependent. Today’s students
also need an understanding of the world’s economy, politics, social structures, and environment in order to make
the best decisions about how to live their own lives after high school and beyond. At the same time, consuming
domestic news with a critical eye is vital to enhancing democracy and defeating intolerance. More than ever, an
appreciation and analysis for news and our civic institutions is a key step toward self-empowerment and
advancement. As educators, it’s our job to make sure that students are armed with the tools necessary to distinguish
between fact, fiction, and plain old opinion; between research or evidence-based statements and empty rhetoric;
between exaggeration and reputable journalism – not just “factoids” from other information feeds.

5.6.1 Educational advantages of analysing news from newspaper

1. Newspapers can be a valuable source for generating necessary interest in reading. They may also help in
developing specific reading interests related to the subjects and issues related to the people and society among the
children from the very beginning.

2. As an instructional aid, newspapers may help in the proper development of essential language and
communication skills like reading, writing, listening, speaking, comprehending, summarizing, reporting, editing,
commenting, critically evaluating, criticizing, etc. helpful in leading better social life among the children.

3. Newspapers are, in fact, a storehouse of current information and treasure of knowledge related to personal
as well as social and local and global issues. Hence, they may prove a source of vast information and knowledge
for the students of varying age and grades in all the areas or disciplines of Social Sciences.

4. Newspapers as an inexpensive instructional aid may also help in reinforcing and developing higher order
cognition abilities and skills like thinking skills, reasoning and problems solving ability, analyzing, synthesizing
and evaluating and application skills, etc.

5. Creative abilities and expressions may also be well-nurtured and developed through the help of
newspapers as an instructional aid.

6. Newspapers may be the source of endless learning experience adaptable to one or the other topics related
to the subject Social Sciences.

7. The help of newspapers may also be taken in deriving necessary benefits for the inculcation of desirable
interests, attitudes and skills among the students for taking part in many co-curricular activities such as literary and
cultural activities, scouting, social welfare and community activities, etc. helpful in the teaching-learning of Social
Sciences.

8. The use of newspaper as an instructional aide may help the students to become lively, conscious, alert and
aware about their physical, cultural, social and political environment. They may be in constant touch about the
people, places, events and changes going around the frontiers. Thus, cultivating interest in current events and
latest knowledge is in fact a very significant contribution of the newspapers as an instructional aid for the teaching-
learning of the subject Social Sciences. at the local, regional, national and global.

5.6.2 How to utilize radio broadcasting in the classroom for analysing the news
The educational broadcasting services offered by the All India Radio (AIR) and other channels may render
valuable assistance in the classroom instructional programs of the subject Social Sciences. For the desired
outcomes, it needs careful efforts on the part of teachers. Let us summarize these efforts:
1. The teacher must get acquainted himself with the schedules and programs of these broadcasts through the
relevant available literature.

2. He must carefully think and plan the integration of the scheduled broadcasting program with his classroom
teaching.

3. The teacher must try to prepare his students educationally as well as psychologically in an adequate manner
to receive properly the knowledge and experiences imparted through a radio broadcast.

4. He should seek proper control of the environmental situations, physical conditions and learning environment
for the proper utilization of radio broadcasting. He should be sure that all the pupils hear a clear signal. The set
should be properly located. The room conditions should be favourable with a minimum of distraction and outside
disturbances.

5. The broadcasting should have an adequate follow-up program. There should be a lively discussion over the
learning objectives achieved through the broadcasting. The learning gaps and difficulties in understanding the
radio presentation should come into limelight. The actions and reactions occurred in the minds of the students
should be properly responded and helped for enriching their experiences and furthering their education.

5.6.3 Educational values of television for social sciences teaching

The educational outcomes of teaching by medium of television are as follows:

1. Such education may be helpful for a social sciences teacher in his personal growth. He may learn the skill and
art of his profession by observing the TV programs.

2. Television can bring models of excellence to the students. They can view and hear the work and talk of an
eminent educationist, renowned teacher, creative social scientist and excellent demonstrator, social reformer and
leader. Their presence on the TV screen may provide them the warmth and nearness for drawing maximum
educational and psychological advantages regarding Social Sciences education.

3. Televised instructions have the potentiality of improving the process and products of learning as they involve
thorough planning, systematic presentation and integration of a wide range of audio-visual material and appliances.

4. TV programs prove helpful in upgrading the social sciences curriculum and enriching an educational program
more easily and economically.

5. Television can display the world of reality in the classroom through its screen that is very often inaccessible,
impossible or expensive to the students.

6. Television helps the teacher as well as students in the realization of teaching and learning objectives of social
sciences. It is an economical device that helps in saving time for both the teacher and the students.

7. Television as an educational device and instructional aid may offer some solution for the problems of
shortage in education. Shortages of good teachers, classrooms, audio-visual aids and other resources may be
overcome through planned televised programs.

8. Television instructions of social sciences may bring greater equality of opportunities for all pupils. The
students in remote, rural or under- privileged areas may be equally benefited by the TV programs.
9. Television in the form of educational media may help in making school as a centre for community welfare
and education. It can bring school closer to community, and vice versa, resulting in the proper utilization of
community resources for effective instruction in Social Sciences.

5.7 LET US SUM UP

In this lesson you have learnt about the role and organization of different community resources like field trips,
social science clubs, self-study learning activities and analyses of news in teaching social science. These resources
and activities will make the teaching interesting and new spirit to the learners. The resources can be exploited very
well only by an enthusiastic teacher. Instructor can choose according
to the needs of the programme and audience.

5.9 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Kochhar, S. K. (2000). Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi : Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

Mangal, S. K., & Mangal, U. (2018). Pedagogy of Social Studies. New Delhi : PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.

Singh, G. (2009). Teaching of Social Studies. Ludhiana : Chetna Parkashan. Singh, Y. K. (2004). Teaching of
Social Studies. New Delhi : APH Publishing.

TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The understanding of social studies is important both to the teachers and student for meaningful Social Studies
instruction. The subject is increasingly vital in helping to create individuals who are active dynamic participants in
our society. This view of Social Studies raises the problem of the organization of its interrelated components and
how to make students become conscious of the underlying forces that make up its elements and other related
phenomena. There is therefore the need to select appropriate strategies that will facilitate all round development in
the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of the students. It is obvious that no single method of learning
can adequately fit all learning situation. However, there is no best method of teaching Social Studies but
combination of the other method would definitely help in achieving the desired instructional objectives. Some
methods of teaching Social Studies include, stimulation, laboratory, inquiry, project, dramatizations, questions and
answer, field-trips, discussion, lecture, problem-solving, dramatization, home assignment and construction
methods. Learning can be less tedious and more functional, if efforts are made to identify and make extensive use
of available instructional, resources both material and human. The selection and decision on appropriate resources
should be based on the student’ age, ability and interest.

6.3 TECHNIQUES OR METHODS OF TEACHING IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

A techniques or method of teaching is primarily a scientific way of transacting curriculum, keeping in mind the
psychological and physical requirements of the children. Methods are the means of attaining predetermined goals.
In fact, it forms the most important link in the total teaching learning cycle. It has on the one hand, the goals and
purposes and on the other hand results. Results can be in terms of cognitive development or the development of
desirable habits, interests, attitudes, values and skills related to the various domain of human life. A method
connects the objectives with its results.

The teaching method is related to the presentation of the lesson. A teaching method consists of the principle and
methods used by teachers to enable the students learning. The term ‘Teaching method’ refers to the general
principle, pedagogy and management strategies used for the classroom program. The adoption of the method
depends on the nature of the lesson and the personal ability of the teacher. The choice of teaching method depends
on what fits you your educational philosophy, classroom demographic, subject area(s) and school mission
statement. Teaching theories can be organized into four categories based on two major parameters: a teacher-
centred approach versus a student-centred approach, and high-tech material use versus low-tech material use.
A social science teacher uses several methods and techniques in teaching various contents of social sciences. The
choice of these methods and techniques depends on the nature of contents to be taught to students. These methods
and techniques may be teacher-centred, learner-centred or group-centred. In teacher- centred methods, teacher
plays a pivotal role in comparison to learners in transaction of learning experiences. In learner-centred methods
learners play a significant role in comparison to teacher in transaction of learning experiences. Similarly, a group
of learners play a major role in transaction of learning experiences in group-centred methods.

6.4 LECTURE METHOD

Lecture method is the oldest method of teaching. It is based on the philosophy of idealism. This method refers to
the explanation of the topic to the students. The emphasis is on the presentation of the content. The teacher clarifies
the content matter to the students by using gestures, simple devices, by changing voice, change in position and
facial expressions. Teachers are more active and students are passive but the teacher also asks questions to keep the
students attentive. The lecture is one of the most common teacher-centred teaching methods used by teachers of
social sciences at the secondary level. It is an example of “expository” teaching, in which the input is directly
provided by the teacher who communicates the new information or process. Apart from its major function of
giving information, it plays certain unique functions which cannot be performed by other inanimate sources.
Firstly, the teacher may use it to motivate the students. It is through listening to lectures that students are attracted
to different areas of studies in social sciences. Secondly, the teacher may use it to integrate various sources of
information. The lecture follows some specific steps through which it is carried out. These are planning and
delivery.

6.4.1 Steps in lecture method

(i) Introduction/Motivation: This step is concerned with the task of preparing the students for receiving new
knowledge. In preparation, nothing new is taught to students. Relevant to the topic in hand. The teacher should
make himself sure of what the pupils already know, by putting a few questions, based on the pupil’s previous
knowledge. In general, with the help of this step, the teacher can check the students entering behaviour before he
starts teaching the lesson. Thus, testing previous knowledge, developing interest in the minds of students and
maintaining curiosity of the students can be achieved with the help of this step. The following activities involved in
this step

• The assumption about the previous knowledge of the students in relevance to the lesson

• The testing of the previous knowledge

• Utilizing the previous knowledge for introducing the lesson

• Motivating the students for studying the present lesson.

(ii) Presentation: It is the key step and only through which the actual process of teaching is going to take place.
Here the aims of the lesson should be stated clearly and the heading should be written on the blackboard. We have
to provide situation for both the teacher and the students to participate in the process of teaching and learning. Our
ultimate aim of the presentation is to make the concepts understandable to the students. Therefore, simple language
is used. Appropriate and specific examples and illustrations of the concepts will make the understanding better.
The interest of the students on the subject matter should be maintained continuously by the way of asking
questions from time to time in this stage. The teacher should carefully and skilfully arrange his material so that his
pupils may clearly and readily grasp it. The teacher should make proper use of questions, charts, graphs, pictures,
models and other illustrative for demonstration and explanation. At the end of each section a few questions
concerning that section only should be asked to whether the pupils are now ready for the acquisition of new
knowledge.

(iii) Comparison of Association: More importance should be given in this stage to compare the facts observed by
the students with another concept by way of giving examples. By making use of this comparison, the students can
derive definitions or theories. The students are encouraged to give new suitable examples for the concept instead
of the examples given in the book to make them think in an innovative manner.

(iv) Generalization: This step is concerned with arriving at some general ideas or drawing out the necessary
conclusions by the students on the basis of the different comparisons, contracts and associated observed in the
learning material present by the teacher. As far as possible the task of formulation should be left to students. The
teacher at this stage should try to remain in the background for providing only necessary guidance and correction.

(v) Application: In this stage, the teacher makes the students to use the understood knowledge in an unfamiliar
situation. Unless the knowledge of science is applied in new situations or in our day-to-day life, the study of
science will become meaningless. This application of scientific principles will strengthen learning and will make
the learning permanent.

(vi) Recapitulation: This stage is meant for the teachers to know whether students have grasped by reviewing a
lesson or by giving assignments to the students. Only through this step achieving closure (in teaching) is possible.

6.4.2 Advantages of lecture method

The lecture method has certain merits for which it can be used in teaching social sciences. Some of these are
mentioned below:

• Lecturing can be used to impart knowledge pertaining to all branches of social sciences.

• Lecturing is a method that can easily adapt itself to suit a wide range of personality characteristics.

• This method is adaptable to a variable teacher-student ratio.

• The lecture method is a very economical and can be made very effective with proper planning and
execution.

• Good lectures are able to motivate the learners. Here is an example of a lecture-based lesson in social
sciences. The effective lecturers can communicate the intrinsic interest of a subject through their enthusiasm.

• Lectures can present material not otherwise available to students.

• Lectures can be specifically organized to meet the needs of particular audiences.

• Lectures can present large amounts of information.

• Lectures can be presented to large audiences.

• Lecturers can model how professionals work through disciplinary questions or problems.

• Lectures allow the instructor maximum control of the learning experience.

• Lectures present little risk for students.

• Lectures appeal to those who learn by listening.

6.4.3 Disadvantages of lecture method

1. Psychologically this method is not acceptable because individuals are not alike. Teacher delivers the same
lecture to both students without recognizing the individual differences.
2. Learning is an active process, thus, study should encourage to actively participate in the class room instead of
just listening the teacher.

3. Language used in the lecture is above the standard of the students.

They are not able get full advantage of the lecture.

4. Lectures are often forgotten by the students soon after while learning is retained if activities are experienced.

5. Attention level is not the same while student is listening the lecture.

6. Lectures fail to provide instructors with feedback about the extent of student’s learning.

7. During lectures, students are often passive because there is no mechanism to ensure that they are intellectually
engaged with the material.

8. Students’ attention wanes quickly after fifteen to twenty-five minutes.

9. Information tends to be forgotten quickly when students are passive.

10. Lectures presume that all students learn at the same pace and are at the same level of understanding.

11. Lectures are not suited for teaching higher orders of thinking such as application, analysis, synthesis, or
evaluation; for teaching motor skills, or for influencing attitudes or values.

12. Lectures are not well suited for teaching complex, abstract material.

13. Lectures require effective speakers.

14. Lectures emphasize learning by listening, which is a disadvantage for students who have other learning
styles.

6.5 DISCUSSION METHOD

The term discussion denotes exchange of ideas, opinions or knowledge in a group with a view to more increased
understanding and comprehension of these between and among the members involved in it. It can be one of the
valuable methods of teaching social science. It is said that two heads are better than one. When a number of heads
combine to discuss a problem, wonderful results can be achieved. The gist of this method is the process by which
members of a dedicated group thoroughly examine an issue from different points of view. Coming to a common
agreement leading to feasible decisions is the purpose.

Discussion methods are a variety of forums for open-ended, collaborative exchange of ideas among a teacher and
students or among students for the purpose of furthering student’s thinking, learning, problem solving,
understanding, or literary appreciation. Participants present multiple points of view, respond to the ideas of others,
and reflect on their own ideas in an effort to build their knowledge, understanding, or interpretation of the matter
at hand. Discussions may occur among members of a dyad, small group, or whole class and be teacher-led or
student-led. They frequently involve discussion of a written text, though discussion can also focus on a problem,
issue, or topic that has its basis in a “text” in the larger sense of the term (e.g., a discipline, the media, a societal
norm). Other terms for discussions used for pedagogical purposes are instructional conversations and substantive
conversations. The class discussions can motivate students while also helping them retain knowledge and develop
effective problem-solving abilities in social science class.

Discussion involves two-way communication between participants. In the classroom situation, an instructor and
trainees, all participate in discussion. During discussion, the instructor spends some time listening while the
trainees spend sometime talking. The discussion is, therefore, a more active learning experience for the trainees
than the lecture.A discussion is the means by which people share experiences, ideas and attitudes. As it helps to
foster trainee’s involvement in what they are learning, it may contribute to desired attitudinal changes. Discussion
may be used in the classroom for the purpose of lesson development, making trainees apply what they have learnt
or to monitor trainees learning by way of feedback.

A problem, issues, a situation in which there can be difference of opinion etc. are suitable for the conduct of a
planned discussion. Ideas are initiated; opinions are expressed, accompanied by a search for the various aspects
involved. A free but serious atmosphere is ensured. Constructive suggestions based upon beliefs and value systems
are encouraged. The participants are engaged in a process of competitive co-operation. Agreement is the declared
purpose of discussion. But even if it is not possible to arrive at a common agreement it has the value of clarifying
the various points of view associated with the issue.

6.5.1 Procedures involved in the conduct of a discussion

(i) Planning the discussion: Discussion method can produce the desired results only if the teacher and student
representative do considerable planning. Discussion in fact required a good deal of planning and use of a well-
directed procedure. The whole process may be divided into three stages preparation, discussion and evaluation.

(ii) Preparation: Thorough preparation on the part of the teacher and the students alike is required. The teacher
should read widely so as to get a very comprehensive picture of the topic of discussion. He should read
purposefully and critically and prepare the material conscientiously and maintaining sound logical sequence. The
various aspects to be discussed should be presented to the learners well in advance. They should feel the relevance
of the problem and they should be encouraged to gather relevant information.

(iii) Conduct of discussion: While conducting the discussion the teacher should see that the procedure goes on in
an orderly and disciplined manner. The arrangement of seats should ensure face to face talk since the strength of
the discussion depends on a feeling of equality and on participation by all. It is a thinking together process which
becomes ineffective if one or two members of the group participate. He should encourage relevant questions and
comments. The discussion must be geared to the realization of specific objectives that aim at clear insight
regarding the issue as well as the competencies for systematic and meaningful interaction in a group. A relaxed and
informal climate is essential if desirable results are to be achieved. The teacher should see that the discussion is
truly a cooperative experience, not a competitive quarrel. He must continually discourage remarks and seek to
bring the participants to focus their comments on the proposition and not on individuals. He should ensure that
discussion is objective oriented. His questions should be skilful and his direction sound. He should also see that a
happy rapport is established between the teacher and the taught.

(iv) Evaluation: Discussion must result in certain achievement such as expanding information or
lessening/removing prejudices, changing attitudes or ideals, increasing the range of one interest, altering one’s
ideas, concerning issues. In short it should help learners to become active citizens. We must evaluate the discussion
with these motivates in mind. It goes without saying that a sound evaluating is possible only if the proceedings are
comprehensively and systematically recorded for ready reference.

6.5.2 Advantages of discussion method

 It is useful both for the juniors and seniors. At the level children learn through conversation and discussion,
taking turns and by listening attentively, acting cooperatively, speaking distinctly, respecting the ideas of others,
sharing interests, asking pertinent questions and thus gaining clear insights. At the upper level, children plan and
discuss problems with the entire group and in smaller units. A group learns together and pr esen ts i mpor ta nt inf
orma t ion mak es s ugge stio n s, shar es responsibilities, comprehends the topic, evaluates the finding and
summarized results.

 It helps in clarifying and sharpening the issues. New ground is discovered both for agreement and
disagreement old ideas and values get replaced by new ones.
 It helps children crystallize their thinking and identify concepts needed for further study. Thus, their
knowledge of social science gets clear.

 Discussion may help students know and understand that difference in perspective need not result in
disaster and that people have the right to hold their own view points with readiness and open mindedness. Also,
they feel that these could be modified as and when they fell the need for a change.

 Discussion helps the student in discovering what he did not know, what he has overlooked and wherein he
had mistaken notions.

 Discussion gives opportunity for active interaction. It eliminates the one-way affair in which the teacher
happens to be the sole provider of information. It employs reasonable persuasion arising from motivation in place
of threat and compulsion.

 Discussion is valuable, in that it represents a type of intellectual team work resting on the philosophy that
the pooled knowledge, ideas and feelings of several persons have greater merit than those of a single individual. In
short it reflects the spirit of social constructivism.

 Discussion activates thinking along the lines of self-evaluation. It is helpful in establishing an attitude of
looking forward to progress and growth.

 Lastly discussion can help teacher in discovering students who have potential for becoming genuine
leaders.

6.5.3 Limitations of discussion method

 Discussion method is not appropriate for all the topics.

 It can be used only to students who have some basic knowledge in the topic.

 Some of the students may feel shy or reluctant to take part while others may try to dominate
 Teacher may lose control over the students and they may end up in quarrelling.

6.6 PROJECT METHOD

Project work or method is an effective learner-centred as well as group- centred teaching learning method which
provides learning experiences suited to individual differences. It requires the participation of both teacher and
students. This is also called “Project Method”. It is an activity-based method which is carried out in a natural
setting. The project method is an educational enterprise in which children solve a practical problem over a period
of several days or weeks. It may involve building a rocket, designing a playground, or publishing a class
newspaper. The projects may be suggested by the teacher, but they are planned and executed as far as possible by
the students themselves, individually or in groups. Project work focuses on applying, not imparting, specific
knowledge or skills, and on improving student involvement and motivation in order to foster independent thinking,
self-confidence, and social responsibility.

6.6.1 Steps of organizing project work

The project method aims to teach the pupils through some whole hearted purposeful activity. This activity will be
fruitful only when it is carried out according to a set procedure. The procedure is outlined below

(i) Providing a Situation: The first step in this procedure is that of providing for a suitable situation where the
pupils feel a spontaneous craving for carrying out a useful activity. For this the teacher has first to identify the
interest, needs, tastes and aptitudes of the children through conversation, discussion, etc. Telling a story involving
social realities and problems or taking the pupils out on field trip can initiate the pupils to the nature of social life
and hence to the world of projects. The pupils are thus exposed to so many problematic situations from which they
can select an appropriate project. Enough opportunities should be given for the children to express their own ideas
and to have discussions among themselves, as well as with the teacher, which in turn will satisfy. It is also
suggested that the situation or problem selected should have social relevance.

(ii) Proposing and Choosing: The second step is to delimit the scope of the project and stating it with clarity. This
should be done by the pupils under the expert monitoring and guidance of teacher. In his anxiety to achieve results
the teacher might fell a prey to the temptation of making the choice of the project himself. By doing so the most
important principle of the method may get violated. It is the feeling of active involvement in the planning and
execution of the project that motivates pupils to work whole heartedly and energetically. Then only they will be
stimulated to better planning, thorough execution and successful completion of the project.

(iii) Planning: The next step is a detailed step wise planning of the project done by the pupils, under the guidance
of the teacher. The teacher should first of all draw the attention of the pupils to the necessity of a good plan.
Discussion should be held. The pupils and the teacher are free to express opinions and give suggestions. The
teacher can expose the difficulties and limitations inherent in the working of different plans. After taking stock of
the strength and limitations of the plans, a final plan is drawn up. The whole plan should be written down by the
pupils in their note – books under the careful guidance of the teacher.

(iv) Execution: When the plan of the project is ready, pupils are encouraged to start working on it. The main
responsibilities for the various task involved may be divided among themselves according to individual interest and
capacities. The teacher should see that every child is assigned some work and every pupil contributes something
towards the successful completion of the project. The teacher should not give too much help in order to speed up
the work. Wise monitoring and guidance on the part of the teacher is most essential. Even though responsibilities
are divided and specified, care should be taken to see that every child is aware of the major task in its totally. This
step requires a lot of pupil activity and is the longest of all steps. A series of activities have to be taken up by the
pupils. They may be busy in collecting information, visiting places and people, interviewing important
personalities, collecting labels, observing specimens, preparing maps and charts, diagrams and graphs of the data
collected by various groups, surveying the locality, studying books, keeping records, calculating prices, inquiring
rates, writing letters and thank you notes or acknowledgement depending on the nature of the project chosen. In
short, all inputs required for the effective execution of the project concerned have to be explored and pooled.

(v) Evaluation: Evaluation or appraisal of the work done is of utmost importance. Pupils must learn to find out
their shortcomings and compensate these by remedial measures. After the execution step, the pupils should gather
immediate feedback. It’s to find out that nothing has been omitted and that the work has been carried out in
accordance with the plan laid down; the mistakes committed are to be noted then and there, useful experiences and
successes are to be reviewed to serve as reinforces, that would motivate further action on correct lines.

(vi) Recording: Impressions left unrecorded are likely to be wiped away from memory. So, it is necessary that
pupils are encouraged to maintain a complete record of all activities connected with the project. It is necessary that
in the project book everything is put down regarding the choice of the project, the discussions held, duties
assigned, books and journals consulted, information sought for, work undertaken, inputs pooled, difficulties felt
and experiences gained, short- and long-term gains obtained etc. Results of self-appraisal are also to be entered and
important guidelines and references for future are to be noted down.

6.6.2 Advantages of project method

 The method is in accordance with the psychological laws of learning.
It provides the most natural conditions of learning with the result that the learner sustains what is learnt.

 The method is valuable because of the element of freedom. The method is a method of self-direction.
When it is sued the child learns to improvise, to invent, to experiment, to gather and process knowledge in all
ways possible to translate the knowledge into action until the need that has been felt is met. This is how the
creative mind developed.
 The method is in agreement with the psychological concept of maturation. It provides the sort of
learning material that suits one’s particular stage of mental development. The more mature pupils are likely to go
for the abstract and difficult features of the task in hand and leave the simple elements to the others. However,
learning is never held up altogether.

 The method can result in social commitment. Each group take up responsibility for making its own
contributions, these are subsequently pooled together so that the product becomes the common asset of the total
group.

 The method gives training for social adjustment. It aims at developing in the pupils the capacity to adapt
them with environment to make use of whatever is available for a common cause.

 The project method saves children from insincerity and superficiality.

They understand the value of what they learn and do for carrying out a purposeful and socially relevant task.

 The method trains children for a democratic way of life. It encourages children to co- operate as well as to
think and act together for a common goal. It teaches students to be responsible and at the same time gives them
freedom within the framework of cooperative endeavors.

 The method emphasizes learning practical problems. It encourages pupils to achieve a deeper insight into
principles through actually seeing them in operation.

 Through this method both the student and the teacher develop. The student stimulated by and encouraged
by the success of the purposeful and cooperative effort will naturally transfer the insights and competencies to
other areas of learning in a similar manner. The teacher too will grow in his understanding of a child’s creative
development.

 In the project method an intrinsic standard of evaluation is involved.

The pupils learn to evaluate their own work. This evaluation brings home the mistakes and develops the habit of
taking goal oriented remedial measures.

 The child gets the satisfaction of completing a definite task in its totality. When the work on a project is
organized it is divided into definite tasks and distributed. Hence each child gets a chance to contribute for the
completion of the project complete. He sees before him a definite unit of a work, a unit which he can finish and so
gains the pleasure of success and creation. The project method while making learning more interesting also makes
it more effective. Pupils get joy and pride in the finished product of their labor which provides a spur to further
creative work in life.

 The most important gain is that the learner develops the ability to construct by himself new knowledge
through social work. Remember that this is in accordance with the message social constructivism.

6.6.3 Limitations of project method

• The practical difficulties of covering a syllabus rule out the project method as the basis of teaching in most
schools. Children taught by the project method often show astonishing knowledge of details in odd thing but reveal
depths of real ignorance of curriculum content that is not covered by the projects. A social science project may deal
with construction of the model of an ancient house with great thoroughness and yet the pupils may have no
knowledge of the administration of Chandragupta Maurya.

• It is argued that a later stage of education, it is not so easy to formulate projects having a satisfactory
degree of width and comprehensiveness.

• There is great difficult in ensuring systematic progress in instruction.

• For success in this method very highly qualified teacher are required. Teachers should be zealous and well
prepared.

The project method gives us a wonderful practical approach to the learning of both theoretical and practical
problems. In short, the responsibility of the success or otherwise of the method, rests with the teacher. Any how the
project method can be considered as a valuable supplement to other methods and approaches.

6.7 STORY-TELLING METHOD

Storytelling, the art of narrating a tale from memory rather than reading it is one of the oldest of all art forms,
reaching back to prehistoric times. Storytelling involves two elements – selection and delivery. Story telling is one
of the most important methods of teaching social science particularly the history part of this subject, stories of great
men and women of the past as well as the present depicting the life ancient societies as well as those related to
famous rulers, reformers, writers, saints, discovers and scientists can be presented. Also, stories concerning the
development of scripts, numbers, systems, trade and money all need to be told in the secondary classes also.
Narration, in fact, is an art in itself which aims at presenting to the pupils various types of events through the
medium of speech if these are presented in a clear, vivid, interesting and sequentially and orderly manner, students
will have active mental participation in the situation / event presented and they will reconstruct what was presented
and register it in their cognitive structure. The teacher’s capacity as an actor and speaker can make the lessons
lively and interesting to the pupils; they can almost visualize the events and personalities described.

6.7.1 Steps to follow to make your storytelling successful

 Pick a relevant story: Think about the story from the audience’s point of view and make sure it relates to
your message and the point of your presentation. An irrelevant story, no matter how funny or unusual, will only
distract from your message.

 Adapt the story to fit the audience: Customize the telling of the story to your audience and the situation by
adjusting the language you use, the details you include and the time you take to tell it. Your goal is to ensure that it
will pass the audience’s WIIFM test, “what’s in it for me?”

 Make the point clear: The purpose of the story should be explicit and relevant to the message of your
presentation. Even if you think the connection to your point is obvious, restate it just to be sure that the audience
understands it.

 Keep it short: One of the most memorable and effective stories that I’ve heard in a presentation was at a
networking meeting when a man introduced himself by saying: “I’m a carpenter and because of my work, a
disabled veteran who uses a wheelchair is no longer a prisoner in his home because we built him a ramp.”

 Practice telling the story: Once you’ve decided which elements and details you will include to make it
relevant and memorable for the audience, practice your delivery and body language so you can make the story as
focused and powerful as possible without taking too much time. Practice doesn’t mean you have to memorize the
story; instead, your goal is to get comfortable enough with the story that you can communicate it effectively and
have it conveyed your point – without having to use the exact same words.

 Be prepared for any reaction: Consider the best and worst reactions that your story could get from the
audience and be ready to handle both. One of my clients once told a story during a speech and the audience
laughed unexpectedly at one part; she wasn’t prepared for that and so, “stepped on” the laughter by continuing
right on with the rest of the story.

 Cue the audience that a story is coming: Use your voice, body language and words to prepare the audience
for your story. Think of the classic “once upon a time” introduction often used with children’s stories.

For adults, the teacher might pause, make voice softer to capture their attention and lean forward into the audience
as you begin your story.
6.7.2 Advantages of story-telling method
 Inculcation of values: Story telling can be relied upon by the teacher as the best ally for developing in his
pupils the much-coveted traits of character, such as piety, truthfulness, charity etc. He can very easily achieve
success in his objective by relating the pupils to the life stories of great personalities.

 The development of imagination: A good story told in a proper manner goes a long way in firing the
imagination of listeners. It is sure to make them away from the matter of fact world and thus offer ample scope for
the play of their imagination as well as creative talent

 Enhancement of interest in the subject: By bringing out all the aspects cultural, social, and economics of
prehistoric, ancient and medieval societies pupils get more interest in social science.

 Boasts creativity: Listening to a story instead of watching a video allows the child to use his or her
imagination more fully. This creativity process encourages free thinking and the formation of innovative ideas.

 Increases verbal skills:By telling a story or reading a book out loud, children are introduced to the
intricacies of language that can be difficult to teach outright without a solid foundation. The flow of a story as the
plot unfolds and the characters are developed also introduces children to new words and solidifies their
pronunciation.

 Increases understanding of a subject: While there is a place for rote learning within child’s academic life,
in many cases this does not lead to an understanding of the subject. Storytelling can be used to bring tedious
subjects to life such as a history lesson that stars a child of their age. This strategy enables the child to more easily
identify with the subject and can deepen understanding.

 Improves awareness of virtues: Many stories can be used to support the virtues that are important in
society, your home and child’s school. Stories that develop character traits such as courage, wisdom, honesty,
kindness and open mindedness can be used to set the stage for emulation.

 Increases their attention span: The smaller the child, the less of an attention span they are likely to have.
Even some older children continue to struggle with developing a suitable attention span that allows them to be
successful. An engaging story draws in even the most fidgety child and encourages them to listen for the details as
well as the highly anticipated ending.

6.7.3 Disadvantages of story-telling method

 If the teacher is not capable enough to present the story in tune with the age and maturity level of the
student it will result in mere waste of time.

 Too much dependence on this method will tempt the students to view social science more as story instead
of as a scientific branch of study.

Story telling is an art. Every teacher should master this art. He should have rich imagination, as well as accurate
and wide knowledge of the past. Also, he should possess rich collection of stories to be able to use them when
situation so demands.

6.8 PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD

This method is not quite new. Socrates was one of its proponents as were Comenius, Pestalozzi and John Dewey.
In this method the learner is required to solve a problem making use of his previous knowledge. Problem solving
can be defined as an organized attack upon a puzzling situation in which a person makes use of his cognitive
competencies to find a suitable and satisfying solution. Essentially the problem-solving approach to learning in
social science is one of training children in the technique of discovery. It is more than learning the formalized
procedures for the solution of problems, and also more than analytical thinking that characteristically provides one
step at a time it involves intuitive thinking as well it is learning to utilize conceptually adequate modes of though it
aims at master in competencies for predictive reasoning and for manipulating knowledge which in turn would help
in tackling new tasks. It is in short developing a style of problem solving that will serve for solving most of the
difficulties encountered in life. The hypothesis on which it is based is this by generalizing what they have learned
about the solving of intellectual problems in social science, children can solve their problems of life efficiency and
effectively.

6.8.1 Steps involved in problem solving method

• Identifying the problem: The teacher and the students need to be aware of the problem which comes in the
way of transaction of learning experiences. Even both teacher and students can identify the problem.

• Defining the problem: The learners define the problem by identifying the present state and the desired goal
states and consider the implications of the solution. Sometimes, a problem can be defined in different ways, with
various implications of the solution.

• Formulation of hypotheses: The learners generate hypotheses for solving the problem.

• Testing of hypotheses: The learners test hypotheses based on the information or data collected by them.
They identify the advantages and disadvantages associated with each proposed solution.

• Selection of the best solution: The learners select the best solution that offers maximum advantages and
fewer disadvantages.

6.8.2 Criteria for problem selection

The selection of appropriate problems for training pupils in the problem- solving technique is a very important task
to be performed by teachers. The following criteria have to be taken care of:

(i) The problem should be intellectually challenging to children. It should stimulate critical thinking and evoke a
desire to seek cause and affect relationships together with evidence to prove it as well as the urge to arrive at
logical conclusions. It should open up opportunities for formulating hypotheses and testing them.

(ii) The problem should not be entirely unfamiliar to the learners it should be related to their previous
experiences.

(iii) The problem should be related to basic human activity. It should illumine man’s effort to meet his basic
needs as well as those of the society in general.

(iv) The problem should have the potential to create interest among children in the specific problem in particular
and problem solving in general.

6.8.3 Advantages of problem solving method

 It serves as a preparation for adult life: Training in problem solving will help the pupils to form certain
attitudes and skills which are essential for adult life. Having been trained in this method they will be able to face
challenging life situation with courage, confidence and scientific outlook.

 It develops the power for critical thinking: Collection and organization of relevant data, looking for
additional data, wherever necessary formulation of hypotheses and testing this etc. are of vital importance in a
democracy.

 It makes pupils active recipients of knowledge: Since students are making their own efforts in the solution
of the problem, they can no longer be passive.
 It develops values of tolerance and open mindedness: Through this method a learner understands that there
are many ways to looking into a single problem and they have to listen to different points of view. So, they will
become tolerant and open minded and will appreciate the point that all truths are only tentative.

 It helps for the easy assimilation of knowledge: When knowledge is gained by actively involving in the
processing of information for solving problematic situations related to one’s own personal experiences,
assimilation of knowledge become easier and meaningful.

 It helps to establish harmonious relations between teacher and pupils: Since problem solving is the task
taken up by the learner, he learns to appreciate the value of the guidance of the teacher. Thus, a foundation is laid
for good happy relations between the teacher and the taught.

6.8.4 Limitations of problem solving method

 This method will become monotonous if used too frequently. So, it can be used as one of the procedures
and not as the sole method.

 The problem-solving method can easily lead to the selection of trivial and untimely issues and in some
instances to those that generate more feeling and emotion than thought. This danger can be avoided if the teacher is
very cautious in selecting the problems.

 This is appropriate for developing cognitive competencies but not for bringing about affective changes.

6.9 LET US SUM UP

There are many teaching methods and resources available to Social Studies teachers. The methods among others
include inquiries, projects, demonstration, question and answer, field-trip, discussion, lecturer, problem-solving
methods etc. It should however, be noted that no single method of teaching Social Studies can adequately fill all
learning situations. The combination of other methods would definitely help in achieving the desired instructional
objectives. Teaching resources on the other hand mean anything that can assist the teacher in promoting
meaningful teaching and learning. Resources in Social Studies include human, place and materials resources. The
teacher (human resources) is concerned with the management of instructional materials. The places include places
of interest that have much value for the purpose of classroom teaching. It should be noted that the teacher’s choice
of resources should be determined by what is available and relevant to the students’ age, ability and interest. The
resources available should be well organized for
effective and meaningful learning.

6.11 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Kochhar, S. K. (2000). Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi : Sterling Publishers.

Dash, B.N. (2006).Content-cum-Method of Teaching of Social Studies. New Delhi : Kalyani Publication.

Kochhar, S.K. (1986). Methods and Techniques of Teaching. New Delhi : Sterling Publishers.

Taneja, V.K. (1992). Teaching of Social Studies. Ludhiana : Vinod Publication.

UNIT-III EVALUATION

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The term measurement is used to express a trait of an object, person or activity in standard words, symbols or units.
In evaluation, these results are analysed and this analysis is done on the basis of certain social, cultural or scientific
standards (Norms) and by this analysis, the relative condition of the trait of the object, person or activity is
clarified. The terms measurement and evaluation, assessment are sometimes used interchangeably. The word
‘evaluation’ is often confused with assessment, testing and measurement. Testing is only a technique to collect
evidence regarding pupil behaviour. Measurement on the other hand, is limited to quantitative description of the
student behaviour. Evaluation is a more comprehensive term which includes testing and measurement and also
qualitative description of the student behaviour. It also includes value judgment regarding the worth or desirability
of the behaviour measured or assessed. Thus, evaluation may not be based on measurement alone but it goes
beyond the simple quantitative score.

7.3 CONCEPT OF EVALUATION

Evaluation is a broader term that refers to all of the methods used to find out what happens as a result of using a
specific intervention or practice. Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the worth or merit of some object. It is
the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object. Literally,
the word ‘evaluation’ means to assign certain ‘value’ to the concerned thing, person, process or activity etc. In
an educational setup, evaluation means assigning ‘certain value’ to the student’s performance on the basis of
things, facts, skills etc. in a particular period of time.

Evaluation = Measurement + Value judgement Evaluation is not synonymous with measurement. But it is
depending on measurement and the pre-determined objectives (standard). Evaluation refers to the act or process of
determining the value of something. In Education, it means estimating the probable worth of the activities involved
in the teaching learning process, judging the worth of methods or devices or techniques of teaching used.
Evaluation helps the classroom teacher to estimate the various outcomes of the activities organised for pupil’s
learning. Evaluation includes measurement which is the process of quantifying the pupils’ performance of
achievement. Evaluation is more than measurement. It includes qualitative assessment/discrimination also,
although evaluation includes measurement it is not synonymous with it. From the instructional point of view,
evaluation may be defined as “a systematic process of determining the extent to which, instructional objectives are
achieved by pupils”. Hence, two important aspects of evaluation are:

a. Evaluation implies a systematic & continuous process.

b. Evaluation always assumes that educational objectives have been previously identified and properly
formulated.

7.3.1 Definitions of evaluation

Tyler defined evaluation as “a systematic process of determining the extent to which educational objectives are
achieved by pupils”. This definition indicates that evaluation is a systematic process, and it omits casual, informal
or uncontrolled observation of the pupils. This definition also implies that objectives of education have to be
identified in advance. Without predetermined objectives, it is not possible to judge the progress, growth and
development of students.

Crombach defined evaluation as “the collection and use of information to make decisions about an educational
programme”.

Wheeler defined evaluation as a more general judgement of the outcome of a programme, which involves the use
of observations, various tests, questionnaires, interviews, etc. His emphasis was on the processes of educational
evaluation.
“Evaluation may be defined as a systematic process of determining the extent of which educational objectives are
achieved by pupils” – Dandekar

According to Bradfield and Moredock, “Evaluation is an assignment of symbols to a phenomenon in order to

characterize the worth of value of a phenomenon usually with reference to some social, cultural or scientific
standard.

According to Hanna, “Evaluation is the process of gathering and interpreting evidence on change in the behavior of
all students as they progress through school.”

According to Carter Good, “Evaluation is the process of ascertaining or judging the value or amount of something
by use of a standard of appraisal.”

Thus, Evaluation can be conceptualised in the following manner:

1) Evaluation is an act or a process that allows one to make a judgment about the desirability or value of a
measure.

2) Evaluation is a process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging decision
alternatives

3) The word evaluation refers to the act or process of determining the value of something.

Thus, evaluation is a systematic process of collecting evidence about students’ achievement in both cognitive
and non-cognitive areas of learning on the basis of which judgments are formed and decisions are made.

7.3.2 Characteristics of evaluation

• It is a systematic process.

• It measures the effectiveness of learning that experiences provide.

• It measures how far the instructional objectives have been achieved.

• It is a continuous process.

• It gets data from measurement.

• It is a subjective judgement.

• It not only determines the magnitude but also adds meaning to measurement.

• It involves values and purposes.

7.3.3 Objectives of evaluation

• Produce suitable experiences for learning through the medium of teaching activities

• Evaluation of behavioural changes

• Determination and definition of educational objectives

• To ascertain the effectiveness of instruction in the light of attainment of stated learning outcomes.

7.3.4 Need of evaluation

• Knowledge pertaining to the extent of achievement of objectives

• Knowledge of students abilities

• To know the extent of given knowledge

• Knowledge regarding achievement of students

• For stimulating and directing students

• For change and desirable improvement in teaching

• Feedback information from evaluation help parents to know the performance of their children and
words

• For find out the utility of textbooks in the achievement of educational objectives

• To give suggestions for improvement and to guide for research.

• To study the effect of the use of various means in teaching as to their place and kind of use, and to suggest
measures for improvement

7.4 PRINCIPLES OF EVALUATION

As Evaluation is a means to an end, not an end in itself. There are certain principles which may provide direction
to the process of evaluation and may also serve as the criteria for adopting a particular device or technique of
evaluation to yield the desired positive results.

1. Determining and clarifying ‘What’ aspect of the evaluation

The classroom teacher or evaluator should always be perfectly clear in his mind about what he is aiming to achieve
i.e. what to evaluate and how to evaluate

2. Selection of appropriate evaluation techniques

There are a number of evaluation techniques. Out of them one technique is appropriate in some cases which may
not be so in others. Therefore, the evaluator needs to select the one which serves his/her purpose best.

3. Determining comprehensiveness of evaluation programmes

It means to assess pupils’ progress in all areas. Educational evaluation, apart from testing knowledge, should also
bring about student’s originality and his ability to use the ideas, and his ability to think and apply the knowledge
and skills already achieved.

4. For comprehensive evaluation combining a variety of evaluation techniques be adopted

To make evaluation comprehensive, different types of evaluation procedures sho uld be a dopt e d d epen din g
on thei r su itab ilit y. M oreo ve r, use of a variety of techniques provides an evaluator sufficient evidences of
different aspects of pupil achievement on different objectives, because more the evidence better the evaluation.

5. Treat Evaluation as a Means to an End, not an End in itself

In the teaching-learning process, evaluation should be done with a purpose, and not for the sake of evaluation only.
Administering a test, scoring the scripts and collecting the data without making any use of this information
for the pupils is a waste of effort.
7.5 FUNCTIONS OF EVALUATION
1) Diagnosis
(a) To locate and identify the weaknesses and strength in learning on the part of a learner.

(b) To pinpoint areas where remedial measures may be desirable.

2) Modification
To provide a basis for modification of the curriculum, syllabus or courses.

3) Prediction
To bring out the inherent capabilities of a student, such as proper attitudes, habits, manipulative skills, appreciation
and understanding in addition to conventional acquisition of knowledge.

4) Selection
To select suitable persons for particular course or career.

5) Motivation
To motivate pupils towards better attainment and growth.

6) Teaching
a) To improve instruction.

b) To ascertain how far could learning objective be achieved;

c) To provide the empirical evidences about the effectiveness of teaching strategies, tactics and aids.

7) Guidance
a) To assist a person in decision making about a course or subjects within a course and careers;

b) To enable a learner to know his pace of learning;

c) To make provision for guiding the growth of individual pupils;

d) To provide a basis for the introduction of experiences to meet the needs of individuals and groups of pupils.

8) Testing
a) To test the efficiency of teachers in providing learning experience and the effectiveness of instruction and of
classroom activates;

b) To help in developing a comprehensive criterion test.

9) Grading
To assign rank or grade to the learners of a given group.

10) Feedback:
To give reinforcement and feedback to teachers and learners.

Scope of evaluation
In the field of education, generally, the measurement of educational achievements of the students is called
evaluation. The first thing in this context is that the measurement is the first step of evaluation, it is not evaluation
in itself. In evaluation, the results of measurement are analysed according to predetermined standards (Norms).
Secondly, not only the measurement of educational achievements of the students is done, but their intelligence,
interest, aptitude and personality, etc. are also measured and evaluated. Besides the traits of students, the activities
of other people concerned with education such as administrators, teachers, other personnel and guardians are also
measured and evaluated. The measurement and evaluation of educational policy, the aims of education, the
curriculum at various levels and teaching methods are also carried out and suitable suggestions are given.
Therefore, the evaluation in the field of education is defined as follows:

Educational evaluation is the process in which measurement of the decisions related to education and of the traits
and activities of the persons concerned with education is carried out and the results of such measurement are
analysed on the basis of predetermined standards (Norms) and on its basis the relative results are declared and
suggestions for improvement in them are given. Generally, people use the words educational evaluation and
measurement in identical meanings. However, they have the difference of the whole and the part. Measurement is
the first step of evaluation, evaluation is a process to analyse the results of measurement. From the functional steps
viewpoint, the process of measurement has only three steps — (i) selection or construction of suitable
measurement tool or device, (ii) use of measurement tool or device, and (iii) recording of administration and result.
Evaluation has three additional steps besides the above— (i) selection and use of suitable standards (Norms) for
analysing the measurement results, (ii) analysis of measurement results on the basis of these standards (Norms),
and (iii) prediction, suggestions or guidance on the basis of this analysis. The analysis of results of educational
measurement under educational evaluation cannot be done as of the results of physical measurement, because the
physical measures are whole measures,
and educational measures are relative in nature.

7.6 EVALUATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

Evaluation is an integral part of any teaching and learning programme. Whenever a question is asked and answered
evaluation takes place. Thus, both teaching and evaluation overlap and merge into each other. In fact, it is not
possible to have teaching and learning without evaluation.

Both teaching and evaluation are based on the instructional objectives which provide direction to them.
Instructional objectives are those desirable behaviours which are to be developed in students. It is for achieving the
instructional objectives that instruction is provided and it is to see whether the instructional objectives have been
achieved and to what extent, that the evaluation is made. The interrelationship of objectives, instructional process
or the learning experience and evaluation in a programme of teaching are the three components of teaching and
learning constitute an integrated network in which each component depends on the other. Thus, through evaluation,
the teacher not only assesses as to how far the student has achieved the objectives of teaching but also judges the
effectiveness of the learning experiences, methodologies, means and the materials used for achieving those
objectives.

Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which an objective is being attained, the effectiveness of
teaching-learning experiences provided in the classroom and manner in which the goals of education have been
accomplished. It is an inclusive concept- it indicates all kinds of efforts and all kinds of means to ascertain the
quality, value and effectiveness of desired outcomes.

Evaluation of students’ performance in social science is an essential activity. It is a process of determining the
extent to which the objectives of social science have been achieved by the students. Evaluation is generally used
for certification and placement purposes, but it has greater potential to be used for instructional purposes. For this,
evaluation has to be a continuous and comprehensive process. To begin with’ a social science teacher must know
what cognitive and non-cognitive learning outcomes have to be measured and which tools and techniques are
available for the purpose. He must also know how to set a good question and how to assess students’ performance
so that evaluation could be valid and reliable

Evaluation in Social Sciences involves three steps:

I. Identification and formulation of objectives of teaching social sciences. II. Their definition in terms of
students behaviour, i.e., what changes does we expect in the child by each one of those objectives.
III. Construction of valid, reliable and practical instruments for observing the specific phases of students
behaviour such as knowledge, information, skills, attitudes, appreciations, personal-social adaptability, interests
and work habits.

The process of evaluation takes into consideration the educational objectives and learning experiences provided by
the system. There is a tri-polar relationship among these three elements, namely, Educational Objectives, Learning
Experiences and Evaluation.

The process of evaluation involves:-

• Formulation of educational objectives

• Stating the objectives in terms of behavioural notifications

• Providing learning experiences in accordance with the objectives

• Devising tools of evaluation in tune with the objectives and learning experiences.

• Arriving at results applying the tools

• Interpreting the results

• Suggesting modification in the teaching-learning process

Evaluation in educational context implies broad program than the examination in which achievement attitudes,
interests, personality traits and skill factors are taken in consideration. Thus, cognitive, affective and psychometric
learning outcomes are measured in the evaluation process. In short, evaluation is the continuous systematic process
of ascribing unique value judgement to teaching learning outcomes in the light of educational objectives.

7.7 NEED AND OBJECTIVES OF EVALUATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
Evaluation has become an integral part of the educational process in which social science is an important aspect at
the school stage. It is the responsibility of social science teachers to carry out evaluation activities and determine to
what extent the objectives with which social science are taught are being achieved. In achieving different
objectives of social science, various abilities, skills, interests, attitudes and other characteristics of students are
stated, developed and measured. Thus, through the evaluation process, one gets a clear idea of each individual
student’s abilities, skills, interests, etc.

i) Evaluation for instructional purposes. The evaluation of students’ performance in the present examination system
has been mainly used to categorise students into different groups like poor, average, good, very good, excellent etc.
However, this is not the only purpose of evaluation. Education aims at developing each individual to the fullest
extent of his/her potential. Evaluation can help in achieving this aim of education. The social studies teacher must
evaluate the students and provide instruction according to the ability level of students. Students can understand
content better when they are taught according to their abilities. After teaching a particular unit, the teacher can
evaluate his students and on the basis of this evaluation he can get feedback regarding the concepts of the unit
which might require further explanation. He can thus modify his teaching methods. Thus, evaluation will improve
the instructional process and enhance student’s learning.

ii) Evaluation for certification. The performance of students is also evaluated by the social sciences teachers
periodically as well as annually to judge the level of performance of each student and grade her/him accordingly so
that certificates could be provided. The teacher judges the performance level of students in social studies. It is the
final achievement level of students which is certified. These certificates are required and used for different
purposes such as getting jobs, admission to various courses, etc. Guidance also can be given to students for further
improvement in performance. Thus, one of the important purposes of evaluation in social studies is to certify
students’ performance.
7.8 LET US SUM UP
Evaluation is a concept that has emerged as a prominent process of assessing, testing and measuring. Its main
objective is Qualitative Improvement. Evaluation is a process of making value judgements over a level of
performance or achievement. Making value judgements in Evaluation process presupposes the set of objectives.
Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which the objectives are achieved. It is concerned not only
with the appraisal of achievement, but also with its improvement. Evaluation is continuous and dynamic.

7.7 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques : A handbook for college teachers. San
Francisco : Jossey – Bass.

Chauhan, S. S. (1978). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi : Vikas Publication House Pvt. Ltd.

Mangal, S.K. (1984). Psychological Foundations of Education. Ludhiana : Prakash Publishers.

McMillan, J. (2013). Classroom Assessment : Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction.
Boston, MA : Pearson.

Pike, R. G. (2011). Assessing the Generic Outcomes of College : Selections from Assessment Measures. San
Francisco : Jossey-Bass.

Thorndike, R. M. (2010). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education. New Delhi : PHI Learning
Pvt. Ltd.

UNIT-III TYPES OF EVALUATION

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous lesson, you learnt about the concept of measurement and evaluation. In it, meaning, characteristics,
need, difference between measurement and evaluation were discussed. In this unit, the discussion will turn towards
different types of evaluation. Evaluation is an attempt to appraise the quality/ stability of a resource. There are
many types of evaluation but the two important types which are commonly used by teachers are formative and
summative evaluation. This unit will look of these in detail.

8.3 TYPES OF EVALUATION

Evaluation is a broader term that refers to all of the methods used to find out what happens as a result of using a
specific intervention or practice. Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the worth or merit of some object. It is
the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object. Evaluation
is a process of judgement of value or worth of a process or product which may be the achievement, attitude,
interest skill or other aspects of student’s personality or the method of teaching and learning.

Why to evaluate
• to assess the achievement of the students

• to measure personality

• to measure the efficiency of teachers and of the school

• to help in diagnosis

• to act as an incentive

• to help in prognosis
• to provide uniformity of standard

• to help and guidance

• to measure fitness for admission to higher courses

• to link schools with the world

There are many types of evaluation depending on the purpose and procedure followed.
a) Formation Evaluation b) Summation Evaluation c) Process Evaluation
d) Product Evaluation

e) Achievement Evaluation

f) Placement Evaluation

Formative Evaluation
If we evaluate, when a thing is in the process of making then that evaluation is called formative evaluation. In the
educational Evaluation if the teacher evaluates the day to day performance of the learners then that evaluation is
called formative evaluation. It is assessing at each stage of development or in simple words it is periodical
examination in the process of development.

Summative Evaluation
Summative Evaluation describes judgments about the merits of an already completed programme, procedure or
product. It is giving grades or marks at the end of the course for the purpose of promotion. It is not coming to
conclusion by are observation or one instance. Take into account good number of observations before arriving at
conclusion by this chance factor is eliminated. It is a whole approach to evaluate an object. Summative evaluation
is more useful to maintain regularity and discipline among the learners and teachers. It demands regular study and
thorough attention throughout the year. The learner has to keep in mind that each day is an examination day.
Because “There is no teaching without testing”.

Process Evaluation
Education is both a process and a product; so evaluation is also a process and a product. It is evaluating when a
thing is in the process of making or it is giving weightage for different stages of an answer. For example, in
Mathematics the examiner is not giving full marks just by looking-at the answer. He looks at different steps and
how the student has arrived at the answer this is process evaluation.

Product Evaluation
It is evaluating the desired outcome or result at the end of the process or programme. After the completion of any
work if the work is evaluated as a whole then that evaluation is called product evaluation. For example In
Mathematics if the teacher evaluates only by looking at the expected answer then that evaluation is product
evaluation.

Achievement Evaluation
If the purpose of a test is to know the achievement of the pupils in different subjects then that test is called
achievement test. The purpose of an achievement test is to determine the extent to which the educational objectives
have been achieved by the pupils. The purpose of this test is promotion to the next class or giving grades or ranks
to the learners based on their academic achievement. This is also called as teacher made achievement test. The
achievement test contains sample test items constructed by the teacher. At the end of the year the school is
interested to know the achievement of the pupils in different subjects that the school has taught for the purpose of
promotion to next higher class. This is achievement evaluation.

Placement Evaluation
If the purpose of test is to give the ranking like first, second, third ..... etc in the subject then that evaluation is
called placement evaluation. At the end of the year the teachers are interested to give the ranking or placement in
their subjects to the pupils based on their performance in the examination. This is a simple test for the purpose of
promotion and grading. It is to find out the position of the learners in a group with respect to learning Example:
When the athletes complete in any sports event generally the competitors are given places as first second third etc
this is placement evaluation The two types of evaluation namely formative evaluation and summative evaluation is
discussed in detail as follows:

Formative assessment is designed to assist the learning process by providing feedback to the learner, which can be
used to highlight areas for further study and hence improve future performance. Self and diagnostic assessment is
types of formative assessment with specific purposes.

Summative assessment is for progression and/or external purposes, given at the end of a course and designed to
judge the students’ overall performance.

8.3.1 Formative Evaluation

Formative evaluation seeks to strengthen or improve a programme or intervention by examining, amongst other
things, the delivery of the programmer and the quality of its implementation. As a change oriented evaluation
approach, it is especially attuned to assessing in an ongoing way, any discrepancies between the expected direction
and outputs of the programme and what is happening in reality, to analysing strengths and weaknesses, to
uncovering obstacles, barriers or unexpected opportunities, and to generating understandings about how the
programme could be implemented better. Formative evaluation is responsive to the dynamic context of a
programme. Formative evaluation questions investigate the relationship between inputs and outcomes, which can
involve the formulation and measurement of early or short-term outcome measures. Thus, this evaluation takes
place during the project to guide future development.

Formative evaluation provides feedback and information during the instructional process, while learning is taking
place, and while learning is occurring. It measures student progress but it can also assess your own progress as an
instructor. A primary focus of formative assessment is to identify areas that may need improvement. These
assessments typically are not graded and act as a gauge to students ‘learning progress and to determine teaching
effectiveness (implementing appropriate methods and activities).

Characteristics of formative assessment

• This aims at continuous feedback for both teachers and students.

• Feedback provides specific learning errors.

• Assessment also provides reinforcement to students.

• It seeks to identify the variables.

•This leads to get information to teachers whether any modification is necessary.

Types of formative evaluation

• Observations during in-class activities

• Homework exercises as review for exams and class discussions

• Reflections journals that are reviewed periodically during the semester

• Question and answer sessions, both formal—planned and informal—

spontaneous
•Conferences between the instructor and student at various points in the semester

• In-class activities where students informally present their results

• Student feedback collected by periodically

When any educational plan is evaluated during its development stage and corrected accordingly, then this type of
evaluation is known as formative evaluation. It aims at the acquisition of development of knowledge and skills of
learners. Using this evaluation process teachers identify pupils’ difficulties and enable them to apply appropriate
remedial measures.

Formative evaluation of a programme is designed to monitor the instructional process to determine whether
learning is taking place as has been planned before. It provides continuous information that can be used to modify
the programme to improve its effectiveness and efficiency. The purpose of formative evaluation in a classroom
situation is to provide feedback to the teacher and to the student about how things are going. Short unit test,
measures of interest and attitude, and interviews or conferences with students and their parents during the
programme can provide important clues as to how it can best be redirected to meet long term goals.

The teachers usually do formative evaluation during the process of instruction. It is an ongoing process; such that
the evaluation of one lesson helps to plan the next lesson. It identifies pupils’ need and provides first-aid treatment
to simple problems and leads to remedial instruction, as it also ensures summative evaluation to come out positive.
The teacher takes a small test at the end of every class when the teaching of a certain skill is completed. The test
used for formative evaluation is called as Formative Test.

Methods of performing formative evaluation during a course or class

1. Module or section testing within a larger topic area is a form of formative evaluation

2. “Taking their temperature” is an informal method of obtaining a quick response of student’s questions or to
clarify content just delivered.

3. One minute paper: ask student to write their response to a question then compare their answer to another
student’s

4. Give frequent, short-duration written or practical drills or quizzes: The intent is to provide feedback to both the
student and instructor on the progress of the student.

Formative evaluation includes several evaluation types:

• needs assessment determines who needs the program, how great the need is, and what might work to meet
the need

• evaluability assessment determines whether an evaluation is feasible and how stakeholders can help shape
its usefulness

• structured conceptualization helps stakeholders define the program or technology, the target population,
and the possible outcomes

• implementation evaluation monitors the fidelity of the program or technology delivery

• process evaluation investigates the process of delivering the program or technology, including alternative
delivery procedures
Advantages of formative evaluation
It identifies problems in teaching and learning and helps to correct it. By being formative, it diagnoses weakness at
an early stage for the purpose of remediation or individual teaching. Formative evaluation is also ideal for future
planning in terms of changing teaching method and pupils’ activities through resetting objectives, use of effective
media, regrouping and assessment methods as it helps to plan also extension work for the excelling students.

Disadvantages of formative evaluation

It is time consuming. Being formative is one of the tiresome exercises for both teachers and pupils in terms of
planning and exercises.

8.3.2 Summative evaluation

Summative assessment takes place after the learning has been completed and provides information and feedback
that sums up the teaching and learning process. Typically, no more formal learning is taking place at this stage,
other than incidental learning which might take place through the completion of projects and assignments. This
evaluation takes place after completion of a project to appraise its success. It provides feedback to the students of
their successful mastery of the content. It determines the effectiveness of teaching strategy and to improve future
teaching performance.

Characteristics of summative assessment

• It is a descriptive analysis.

• It’s focus is mainly on analysis.

• It tends to stress the effects.

• It also provides the appropriateness of course and effect of instruction.

Types of summative evaluation

• Examinations

• Final examination

• Projects (project phases submitted at various completion points could be formatively assessed)

• Portfolios (could also be assessed during its development as a formative assessment)

• Performances

• Student evaluation of the course (teaching effectiveness)

• Instructor self-evaluation

Summative evaluation is carried out at the end or conclusion of a programme of instruction. It is very useful to
determine whether or not the broad aims, objectives or goals of the programme have been achieved. Summative
evaluation is judgmental in nature and is offered as class tests, examination set up like terminal, annual and
external examinations. The examinations used to design the course grades and certify the learners. It is designed to
determine the extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved.

Summative evaluation, as the term implies, provides an account of students’ performances. It is usually based on
test scores and written works related to cognitive knowledge and rarely address such areas of learning as values,
attitudes and motor performances. It can be used in judging not only students’ achievement, but the effectiveness
of a teacher or a particular school curriculum as well. The term summative means the summing up of all the
available information regarding a programme at its terminal point. Such information can be a valuable and often
implies corrections if the programme is to be continued.

Methods of performing summative evaluation during a course or class

1. Survey tools: Gather opinions about various aspects of the course and instruction

2. Comparison of course and program outcomes: Determine if all goals and objectives were met.

3. Final examinations: practical and written

4. Test item validation a. Determine if questions were valid b. Psychometric assessments can be performed to
validate tests and questions.

Advantages of summative evaluation

It is judgmental in nature; hence it shows the worth or the value of a programme. It can be used for decision
making so that learners can easily selected into placement streams such as pupils are put into classes according to
their test results.

Disadvantages of summative evaluation

Summative evaluation comes rather too late at the end when learning difficulties can no longer be rectified. It is
only concerned with the end results.

A formative evaluation can also be summative. Depending upon the context in which it is used, a test may
represent formative or summative evaluation. For example: a multiple-choice final exam given at the end of a topic
will be both formative and summative. It is summative because it represents the end of that topic area and it is
formative because it represents only a part of a course.

8.4 LET US SUM UP

The formative evaluation is a monitoring type of evaluation which is used to monitor the progress of students
during the class, course, or session. It is aimed at improving the quality of teaching – learning process. It is a type
of evaluation used to assess the ongoing construction or formation of knowledge and understanding of students.

The summative evaluation is done at the end of a course, semester or a class or topic. It is a type of evaluation that
evaluates the quality of the final product
and finds out the extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved.

8.6 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Astin, A. W. (1991). Assessment for Excellence : The Philosophy and Practice of Assessment and Evaluation in
Higher Education. Phoenix, AZ : Oryx.

Chauhan, S. S. (1978). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi : Vikas Publication House Pvt. Ltd.

Mangal, S.K. (1984). Psychological Foundations of Education. Ludhiana : Prakash Publishers.

Ebel, R. L., & Freshie, D.A. (2009). Essentials of Educational Measurement. New Delhi : PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.

Sedlacek, W.E. (2004). Beyond the Big Test : Non Cognitive Assessment in Higher Education. San Francisco :
Jossey-Bass.

UNIT-III EVALUATION TOOLS

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous lesson, you learnt about the types of evaluation. In it, characteristics, need, difference between
formative and summative evaluation were discussed. In this lesson, the discussion will be of different types of
evaluation tools namely oral tests, essay type tests, various formats of objective tests and diagnostic testing. This
unit will look of these in detail.

9.3 EVALUATION TOOLS

There are different varieties of tests namely achievement tests, diagnostic tests, mental-ability tests, selection tests
and psychological tests, besides the class- room unit tests. It is always assumed in testing that the measuring
instrument or tool (test, question etc.) is of good quality and whatever evidences are gathered are dependable.

Characteristics of a good evaluation tool

a) Validity: If the evaluation tools test what it might to test then that tool is said to be valid. For example, the tool
or an instrument used to know your height should show your height. If it shows anything other than the height,
then the tool is invalid.

b) Reliability: If the evaluation tool reveals consistency while measuring at different intervals then the tool is said
to be reliable.

c) Objectivity: If the tool gives very accurate results what it supposed to give then that tool is said to the
objective.

d) Discrimination: One of the characteristics of a good evaluation tool is discrimination i.e. it should be able to
separate the good from the bad or it should be able to divide the big group into small sub-groups of similar
abilities.

e) Practicability: The evaluation tool must be simple and easy to on a large scale and it should be affordable by
majority.

Classification of Tests
Tests have been classified in a number of ways. Tests vary according to form, use and type etc. Yoak and Simpson
give the following classification of tests :

Form
(a) Oral examinations (b) Written examination

Purposes
(a) Prognostic (b) Diagnostic (c) Power (d) Speed (e) Accuracy (f) Quality
(g) Range

Organisation
(a) Essay (b) Objective

Period or time of administering

(a) Daily (b) Weekly (c) Monthly (d) Term (e) Year

Duration
(a) Short (b) Long

Method of scoring and interpreting results

(a) Non-standardized (b) Standardized

Abilities involved
(a) Speed (b) Comprehension (c) Organization (d) Judgement (e) Retention
(f) Appreciation etc.

Nature of material included

(a) Arithmetic (b) Language (c) Reading (d) Spelling (e) Writing etc.

Mental functions involved

(a) Association (b) Memory (c) Recall (d) Recognition (e) Problem-solving

Types of response involved

(a) Alternate response : (1) True - False (2) Yes - No (3) Plus - Minus

(b) Multiple response : (1) Best Answer (2) Correct Answer

(c) Completion

(d) Matching

(e) Identification (f) Enumeration (g) Essay

Classification of educational tests

The tests being used in the field of education are classified in different forms :

(I) Classification on the Basis of the Field of the Tests

1. Educational Tests: Educational tests are those tests by which educational achievements and educational
problems of the students are measured; such as—achievement tests and diagnostic tests.

2. Psychological Tests: Psychological tests are those tests by which mental abilities of the students are measured;
for example—intelligence tests, aptitude tests and personality tests.

(II) Classification on the Basic of Nature of the Tests

On the basis of the nature of the tests, they have been divided into three classes—oral, written and practical.

9.3.1 Oral tests

The oral exam (also oral test or viva voce) is a practice in many schools and disciplines in which an examiner
poses questions to the student in spoken form.

The student has to answer the question in such a way as to demonstrate sufficient knowledge of the subject to pass
the exam. Many science programs require students pursuing a bachelor’s degree to finish the program by taking an
oral exam or a combination of oral and written exams to show how well a student has understood the material
studied in the program. Usually, study guides or a syllabus are made available so that the students may prepare for
the exam by reviewing practice questions and topics likely to be on the exam. Sometimes, the oral exam is offered
in schools as an alternative to a written exam for students with a learning disability, like dysgraphia, developmental
coordination disorder or non-verbal learning disorder. Often parents of the students have to request that the oral
exam be given to their child in lieu of the written exam.

Purpose of oral examination is:

(a) to test oral skills that cannot be tested through written examinations. (b) to confirm and probe further
evidences gathered through written examination whenever desired (viva);

(c) to judge the extent to which such skills are warranted by the nature of subject; and

(d) to make quick oral review for informal assessment of what the pupils have learnt or their deficiencies.
Advantages
• Evaluates quick thinking or reactions.

• Evaluates the student’s thought processes.

• Can be evaluated by multiple listeners simultaneously.

Disadvantages
• Limited number of students may be examined at any one time.

• Difficult to standardize.

• Examiner may unintentionally give clues to the examinee.

• Time-consuming and labor-intensive.

• Subjective.

9.3.2 Essay type tests

An essay test is an assessment technique that requires students to thoroughly respond to a question or prompt by
developing, organizing, and writing an original composition. The purpose of an essay test is to assess students’
abilities to construct a logical, cohesive, and persuasive writing piece.

Advantages of essay type tests

(i) Such tests induce good study habits in the pupils.

(ii) The guess work can be eliminated to large extent.

(iii) Such tests are easier to prepare and administer.

(iv) By this type of tests, it is possible to measure all degrees of comprehensiveness and accuracy.

(v) Such tests can be used by all type of schools.

(vi) These help in developing the power of logical thinking, critical reasoning, systematic presentation etc. in
the students.

(vii) Such tests provide an opportunity to the child to show his initiative, originality of thought, fertility of their
imagination, etc.

(viii) This type of tests are considered to be best for measuring ability to organise idea effectively, ability to
criticise or justify a statement, ability to interpret etc.

Limitations of essay type tests

Defects from the point of view of students
(i) The essay type tests are less objective and so they lack validity. This type of test can reveal child’s cramming
capacity only.

(ii) These tests lack reliability. A student is compelled to have a selective reading. He depends more on guess
papers and so there is an element of chance.
(iii) It keeps the students busy and fall of nervous tension. The study does not spread over the whole year and is
limited to a short period just before the examinations. Thus a habit of irregular study is developed in the student.
(b) Defects of essay-type tests from the point of view of the teacher
(i) The teacher covers only a limited and important portion of course because his aim is to see that maximum
number of his students pass the examination.

(ii) The teaching programme of the teacher is wholly examination oriented and the basic principle of teaching his
students are given least consideration.

(iii) The teacher is compelled to encourage his students to cramming, which is not a psychological method of
teaching.

(iv) Since a teacher is judged by the results of his students, so everything becomes subservient to the examinations.

(v) To show good results sometimes the teacher devotes a good deal of his time to indulge in guess work which
affects his teaching.

(c) Defects from the point of view of achievement

(i) Essay type tests are not comprehensive and some students may get good marks only because the questions have
been set from the portion prepared by them.

(ii) These tests are not objective and the score of a student depends on various factors such as examiners mood etc.

(iii) This type of tests is not useful from the point of view of improvement.
They fail to throw light on the defects of teaching-learning process or the defects of the curriculum.

9.3.3 Objective tests

This is a test consisting of factual questions requiring extremely short answers that can be quickly and
unambiguously scored by anyone with an answer key. They are tests that call for short answer which may consist
of one word, a phrase or a sentence.

Advantages of objective type items

• A large amount of study material can be tested in a very short period of time.

• Economy of time.

• Objectivity of scoring.

• No bluffing.

• It reduces the subjective element of the examiner to the minimum

Limitations of objective type items

• Difficulty in preparing good items.

• Problem of guessing.

• Problem of cheating.

• Inefficiency in testing complicated skills.

• High printing cost.

• Emphasis on testing superficial knowledge.

Types of objective tests – 4 types

• True – False Items (Alternate Response Type)

• Multiple Choice Items

• Matching Type Items

• Completion Type Test Items

1) True –False test items

Here, a factual statement is made and the learner is required to respond with either true or false depending on the
correctness of the statement. These are easy to prepare, can be marked objectively and cover a wide range of topics

Advantages
• can test a large body of material

• these are easy to score

Disadvantages
• Difficult to construct questions that are definitely or unequivocally true or false.

• These are prone to guessing.

2) Matching items
Involves connecting contents of one list to contents in another list. The learners are presented with two columns of
items, for instance column A and column B to match content in both columns correctly.

Advantages
• Measures primarily associations and relationships as well as sequence of events.

• Can be used to measure questions beginning with who, when, where and what

• Relatively easy to construct.

• These are easy to score

Disadvantages
• Difficult to properly design. Multiple matches may be possible within the columns.

• Items used must bear some similarity.

• Unclear directions how matching will occur.

3) Multiple choice test items

In a multiple choice item, a statement of fact is made. It is followed by four or five alternative responses from
which only the best or correct one must be selected. The statement or question is termed as ‘stem’. The alternatives
or choices are termed as ‘options’ and the ‘key is the correct alternative. The other options are called ‘distracters’.
Advantages
• Measures a variety of levels of learning.

• These are easy to score.

• Can be analyzed to yield a variety of statistics.

• When well constructed, has proven to be an effective assessment tool.

Disadvantages
• Difficult to construct effective questions that measure higher order of thinking and contain a number of
plausible distracters.

4) Completion type test items

In this, learners are required to supply the words or figures which have been left out. These may be presented in the
form of questions or phrases in which a learner is required to respond with a word or several statements.

Advantages
• Relatively easy to construct.

• Can cover a wide range of content.

• Reduces guessing.

Disadvantages
• Primarily used for lower levels of thinking.

• Prone to ambiguity.

• Must be constructed carefully so as not to provide too many clues to the correct answer.

• Scoring is dependent on the judgment of the evaluator.

Other classification of tests includes: Criterion referenced test (CRT)

CRT ascertains an individual’s status with reference to a well defined behaviour domain. It enables one to describe
what an individual can do without reference to the performance of others. CRT measurement tells about the
absolute standard or quality of the attained knowledge of an individual. It describes a pupils performance in terms
of his mastery of the content in a well defined content domain or his achievement with respect to a specific
instructional objective or criterion for success objective based question find place in these test and the teacher, thus
can aim at constructing a balanced test paper to find out how far the objectives set or the methods used are
appropriate.

Characteristics of CRT
1. Its main objective is to measure students’ achievement of curriculum based skills.

2. It is prepared for a particular grade or course level.

3. It has balanced representation of goals and objectives.

4. It is used to evaluate the curriculum plans instruction progress and group students interaction.

5. It can be administered before and after instruction.

Merits
1. To discover the inadequacies in learner’s learning and assist the weaker section of learner to reach the level of
other students through a regular programme of remedial instruction.

2. To identity the master learners and non -master learners of a class.

3. To find out the level of attainment of various objectives of instruction.

4. To find out the level at which a particular concept has been learnt.

5. To better placement of concepts at different grade levels

Limitations
1. CRT tells only whether a learner has reached proficiency in a task area but does not show how good or poor is
the learner’s level of ability.

2. Task included in the criterion-referenced test may be highly influenced by a given teachers interest or biases,
leading to general validity problem.

3. It is important for only a small fraction of important educational achievements. On the contrary
promotion and assessment of various skills is a very important function of the school and it requires norm-
references testing

Norm-Referenced test (NRT)

Meaning: NRT is designed to measure the growth in a student’s attainment and to confer the level of attainment
with the level reached by other students and norm group.

Characteristics
1. Its basic purpose is to measure students’ achievement in curriculum based skills.

2. It is prepared for a particular grade level.

3. It is administered after instruction.

4. It classifies achievement as above average, average or below average for a given grade.

Merits
1. In aptitude testing for making differential prediction.

2. To get a reliable rank ordering of the pupils with respect to the achievement we are measuring.

3. To identity the pupils who have mastered the essentials of the course more than the others.

4. To select the best of the applicants for a particular programme.

5. To find out how effective a programme is in comparison to other possible programme.

Limitations
1. Test items that are answered correctly by most of the pupils are not inched in there tests because of their in
adequate contribution to response variance. There will be the items that deal with important concepts of course
contact.

2. There is lack of congruence between what the test measures and what is stressed in a local curriculum.
3. Norm-referencing promotes unhealthy competition and is injurious to self-concepts of law scoring students.

Teacher made test (TMT)

Meaning: TMT are prepared by teacher for local use, gaining knowledge and mainly personality, interest, aptitude
of the pupils.

Characteristics
1. The attempt to assess comprehensively to the extent and degree of students progress with reference to specific
classroom activities.
2. The teacher is at liberty to conduct the tests any number of times to any class.

Merits
1. These motivate the students.

2. These are simple to use.

3. These provide information for a report on the progress of students.

4. These provide immediate feedback.

Limitations
1. These are often ambiguous and unclear.

2. These are either too short or too lengthy.

3. These do not over the entire content.

4. These are usually hurriedly conducted.

Standardised tests (ST)

Meaning: Tests which are administered on a very large group by teacher, psychologists, educationists, researchers
for determining their reliability, validity and establishing the norms are known as standardised tests. A standardised
test is one in which the procedure, apparatus and scoring have been fixed so that precisely the same tests can be
given at different times and places.

Characteristics
1. These are based on uniform curriculum.

2. These are concerned with whole field of knowledge or ability tested.

3. The content is also standardised.

4. The administration of the tests is also standardised.

5. It is constructed by specialist or experts.

6. The validity and reliability of a standardised test is that ensures right from the beginning of its construction.

Merits
1. These give us objective and impartial information about an individual.

2. These provide information in much less time than provided by any other device.
3. These tests measure those aspects of the behavior which otherwise could not be obtained.

9.3.4 Diagnostic testing

The teaching in schools is carried out in a planned way. In it, the teachers try to find out at regular intervals how
much the students have learnt out of what has been taught to them. The tests that are prepared to measure it are
known as achievement tests. The results of these tests present a new problem before the teachers that which part of
the subject matter taught, the students could not learn properly and why. The tests which are prepared to find out
the causes ofit are known as diagnostic tests. In other words, diagnostic tests are those tests by which the
hindrances and difficulties in the process of learning of a unit of subject matter of the students are found out. On
the basis of analysis of the obtained data from diagnostic tests, the weaknesses of the students are identified and the
remedial measures to be taken by the students, the teachers and the guardians are found out. The diagnostic tests
are useful only when the causes found are removed. So long a diagnostic test is not concerned with remedial
teaching or activity, it remains incomplete.

Thus, the diagnostic test is the test which is constructed in order to find out the causes of failure of a student or
group of students in learning a particular part of subject matter taught to them and with the help of which findings
remedial suggestions are given.

Objectives of diagnostic tests

1. To provide educational and vocational guidance to students and guardians on the basis of traits realized from
specific subject-related learning unit.

2. To make teaching-learning circumstances effective.

3. To make evaluation process more meaningful and effective.

4. To arrange for remedial teaching.

5. To give advice to a teacher for proper improvement in his teacher process.

6. To know about the weaknesses, deficiencies and difficulties of a student.

7. To assist in the selection of different tests, techniques and tools for knowing the causes related to the problem.

8. To assist in the selection of different types of questions for the construction of different achievement tests.

9. To amend textbooks of different subjects on the basis of the specific points and shortcomings and to make them
more useful for students.

Characteristics of diagnostic tests

A diagnostic test should have the following characteristics in order to its beings useful for teachers and students:

1. These tests are standardized, but some specialists opine that diagnostic tests should not be standardized.

2. Time limit for these tests is not specified.

3. These tests form an essential part of the curriculum.

4. These tests reveal the form of mental process of a learner.

5. These tests are according to the specific objectives.

6. The basis of these tests is formed by such facts or norms which are established on the basis of experiments.
7. These tests do not measure a child’s ability, but diagnose his weakness in order to provide for remedy.

8. These tests are analytical and analyse all parts of a process fully.

9. Scores obtained by students are not attached any importance in these tests.
They only see the level of difficulty of questions which a student can solve.

10. These tests test the progress of a student objectively.

Construction and standardization of diagnostic tests

The subject for which a diagnostic test has to be constructed, is at first analyzed minutely and it is determined what
concepts, principles, theories, rules, facts, formulae or processes have to be attached importance. Besides, those
mental faculties of students have to be analyzed which are directly related to such knowledge, such as reasoning,
logic, thinking power, observation power etc. For example, ability in mathematics requires to link to many
fundamental theories, rules and formulae, such as multiplication, division, addition, subtraction etc. Besides, many
mental abilities are also very important in it such as logic, thinking power and observation power etc. After this,
different mental processes at application in that subject are analyzed and noted down, and then on the related
concept, theory, rule, formula or process or mental processes, several questions are formulated. These questions are
very simple and are written in the ascending order of difficulty. In order to find out the difficulty spots of a student,
the question is noted down after which the student is not able to solve any question, by which it is predicted that
the student is unable to solve the questions of the given difficulty. Though the construction of diagnostic tests and
their standardization process is similar to the achievement tests, yet these tests are somewhat different. A
diagnostic test is an original skill test, while an achievement test is constructed not with a view to its relation in the
realization of a skill, rather it only tells about the general achievement in a subject. A diagnostic test can be
individual oriented or group-oriented. An individual-oriented test comprises of test items related to the weaknesses
and abilities of a particular student, while in a group-oriented test, test items are constructed keeping in view the
specific group errors or weaknesses. For construction of test items, common and specific errors of the students are
collected. Stems and distractors of test items are specified keeping in view the type of errors and their direction.
The minuteness with which the distractors are determined will bring diversity to the test. Therefore, individual and
group errors of students should be minutely studied in order to convert observations into test items.
Interpretation Notes of scores is done under individual and group errors respectively, and different remedial
teaching methods are adopted for these two types of errors.

Process of diagnostic test

Following are the five important steps of the process of instructional diagnosis:
1. Selection of Students for Diagnosis: At first those students are located who find it difficult to adjust in the
school. These are those students who are weak in one or more subjects, and are not able to adjust well with some
other activities of the school. The following methods can be used to locate such students: (a) Each student has
peculiar causes for his weakness. Therefore, the students who need diagnosis should come to the teacher
themselves. (b) Such students can be selected on the basis of test results held in school from time to time. (c)
Teachers can select such students on the basis of their experience. (d) The students giving unsatisfactory
performance in achievement should be given achievement tests and intelligence tests in order to locate them. (e)
Some students have very high IQ but their performance is very low, and there can be some students who stand first
in the class but are not able to adjust with the social environment. Such low-achievers and misfits should be located
very carefully. (f) The interview method can prove to be very effective for locating such students.

2. Identify Difficulty Points: To know what student is facing what type of difficulty, diagnostic and performance
or achievement tests can be administered which can be teacher-made or standardized. However, the most suitable
tool for this are the diagnostic tests, which present the correct picture of a student’s weaknesses and abilities.
Though the scope of each diagnostic test is limited and narrow, yet the manner in which these test the narrow and
limited field, is unique. The diagnostic importance of a test depends more on the teacher, and less on the form of
the test. Sometimes, informal tests too prove helpful in this field. “Such informal and observation charts usually
indicate the correct level on which to start remedial instruction.” — Durrell In brief, by diagnostic tests is seen the
difficulty level of which a student can solve questions based on concepts, laws, processes, formulae and principles
etc, and at what places he finds it difficult.

3. Analysis of Difficulty Points: It is very difficult to ascertain why a student is committing a particular type of
error again and again, because the mind of each student functions in a peculiar manner. Having ascertained
the nature of subject-related weakness and level of difficulty of a student, a teacher sets out on the task of locating
its causes. A teacher tries to locate its cause amongst one or more of the following causes : physical defects,
emotional instability, disinterest, indifference, bad habits, lack of general or specific intelligence, school related
causes (lack of good teaching, bad behaviour by teachers or classmates, failure in tests, disinterest of teacher in the
student, prejudiced behaviour, harsh discipline etc.), domestic causes (bad behaviour or ill-treatment by parents
and other family members or relatives, lack of proper resources for study, lack of suitable environment, poverty,
business in domestic tasks etc.). Sometimes, he can estimate the causes and tries to ascertain them on the basis of
his experience or interview.

4. Remedial Procedures: Having diagnosed a student’s weakness, now is the time to undertake procedures for its
remedy. A suitable plan for the removal of weakness and error is constructed which comprises of the details of the
weakness and its causes, and measures to be undertaken for its remedy. If a number of students have committed the
same type of error, then they may be treated collectively, and if the error is individual, then it should be remedied
individually.

A teacher should keep the following aspects in mind while using remedial measures:

(a) These methods are not foolproof against idiots.

(b) If remedial work does not succeed, then the form of the programme should be changed.

(c) The students who are making progress should be admired for motivation.

(d) These tests are not so successful with brilliant students as they are effective with dull students.

(e) It may take time to eradicate bad habits of brilliant students, therefore, a teacher should work with patience.

(f) There should be a graph and chart of each student’s progress.

(g) The subject in which a student is weak, he should be given related literature, magazines, periodicals etc. to
read.

(h) In order to make work more lively, attractive aids and effective method of teaching should be used.

5. Preventive Measures: If we desire that a student may not commit any error in the subject in future, then we
should effect such changes in his school and domestic environment so that his problem of maladjustment can be
permanently eradicated. For this, we have to construct a multidimensional project, so that the student can be given
a suitable environment; such as, improvement in school environment, amendment to curriculum, improvement in
examination system, construction of suitable ability tests, better environment etc. Prognostic tests can be
administered to see whether a student is ready to learn abstract topics or not. When a student is weak in learning
arithmetic as well as lacks intelligence, it would be proper to teach him generalized arithmetic. A prognostic test is
constructed with this in view. These tests predict a student’s learning in future.

9.4 LET US SUM UP

Testing is one of the significant and most usable technique in any system of examination or evaluation. It envisages
the use of instruments or tools for gathering information or data. In written examinations, question paper is one of
the most potent tools employed for collecting and obtaining information about pupils’ achievement. The use of oral
tests in instructional process would continue to provide the diagnosis, feedback and their use as instructional tool
for readiness testing and review of lessons. An essay test is an assessment technique that requires students to
thoroughly respond to a question or prompt by developing, organizing, and writing an original composition. The
purpose of an essay test is to assess students abilities to construct a logical, cohesive, and persuasive writing piece.
An objective test item is defined as one for which the scoring rules are so exhaustive and specific that they do not
allow scorers to make subjective inferences or judgements; thereby, any scorer that marks an item following the
rules will assign the same test score. The diagnostic test is the test which is constructed in order to find out the
causes of failure of a student or group of students in learning a particular part of subject matter taught to them and
with the help of which findings remedial suggestions are given.

9.6 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Astin, A. W. (1991). Assessment for Excellence : The Philosophy and Practice of Assessment and Evaluation in
Higher Education. Phoenix, AZ : Oryx.

Chauhan, S. S. (1978). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi : Vikas Publication House Pvt. Ltd.

Ebel, R. L., & Freshie, D.A. (2009). Essentials of Educational Measurement. New Delhi : PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.

Mangal, S.K. (1984). Psychological Foundations of Education. Ludhiana : Prakash Publishers.

Nitko, A.J. (2001). Educational Assessment of Students (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall.

Rossi, P. H., Lipsey, M. L., & Freeman, H. E. (2003). Evaluation : A Systematic Approach (7th ed.). Newbury
Park, CA : Sage.

Sedlacek, W. E. (2004). Beyond the Big Test : Non Cognitive Assessment in Higher Education. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

UNIT-IV SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Differentiation is the law of nature. True, it is in the case of human society. Human society is not homogeneous but
heterogeneous. Men differ from one other, in many respects; Human beings are equal so far as their bodily
structure is concerned. But the physical appearance of individuals, their intellectual, moral, philosophical, mental,
economic, religious, political and other aspects are different. No two individuals are exactly alike. Diversity and
inequality are inherent in society. All societies are arranging their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and
equality. Inequality is found in all societies irrespective of time or place. Personal characteristics such as beauty,
skill, physical strength and personality may all play a role in the perpetuation of inequality. However, there are also
patterns of inequality associated with the social positions people occupy. The term social inequality refers to the
socially created inequalities. Stratification is a particular form of social inequality. It refers to the presence of social
groups which are ranked one above the other in terms of the power, prestige and wealth their members possess.
Those who belong to a particular group or stratum will have some awareness of common interest and common
identity. Apart from the natural differences, human beings are also differentiated according to socially approved
criteria. In one word, when individuals and groups are ranked, according to some commonly accepted basis of
valuation in a hierarchy of status levels based upon the inequality of social positions, social stratification occurs.
Social stratification means division of society into different strata or layers. It involves a hierarchy of social groups.
Members of a particular layer have a common identity. They have a similar life style.

10.3 MEANING OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

By stratification we mean that arrangement of any social group or society by which positions are hierarchically
divided. Stratification is a phenomenon present in all societies that have produced a surplus. Stratification is the
process by which members of society rank themselves and one another in hierarchies with respect to the amount of
desirable goods they possess.

Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring
hierarchy of status is known as stratification”.

Gisbert, “Social Stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories linked with each other
by the relationship of superiority and subordination”.

Raymond W. Murry, “Social Stratification is a horizontal division of society into ‘high’ and; lower’ social units”.

From these definitions it can be observed that Social Stratification is: (i) A hierarchy of status groups;

(ii) The recognition of the superior-inferior stratification; and

(iii) Some degree of permanence of the structure.

As it is clear from the above, all societies exhibit some system of hierarchy whereby its members are placed in
positions that are higher or lower, superior or inferior, in relation to each other. Stratification tends to perpetuate
these differences in status. Hence, through this process people are fixed in the structure of the society. In some
cases, status may become hereditary. Differentiation may be considered the first stage preceding stratification in
society, sorted and classified into groups. It does not, however, mean that all differentiation leads to stratification in
society.

10.3.1 Characteristics of social stratification

The project has the following characteristics:

1. It is social
Stratification is social in the sense that it does not represent inequality which is biologically based. It is true that
factors such as strength, intelligence, age, sex can often serve as the basis on which status are distinguished. But
such differences by themselves are not sufficient to explain why some statuses receive more power, property and
prestige than others.

Biological traits do not determine social superiority and inferiority until they are socially recognized. For example,
manager of an industry attains a dominant position not by physical strength, nor by his age, but by having socially
defined traits. His education, training skills, experience, personality, character etc. are found to be more important
than his biological qualities.

2. It is ancient
The stratification system is very old. Stratification was present even in the small wandering bands. Age and sex
wear the main criteria of stratification. Difference between the rich and poor, powerful and humble, freemen and
slaves was there in almost all the ancient civilization.

3. It is universal
Social stratification is a worldwide phenomenon. Difference between rich and poor, the ‘haves’ or ‘have notes’ is
evident everywhere. Even in the non-literate societies stratification is very much present. As Sorokin has said, ‘all
permanently organized groups are stratified.’

4. It is in diverse forms
Social stratification has never been uniform in all societies. The ancient Roman society was stratified into two
strata: the Patricians and the Plebians .The Aryan society was divided into four Varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and the Sudras, the ancient Greek society in to freemen and slaves, the ancient Chinese society into
mandarins, merchants, Farmer and soldiers. Class and estate seem to be the general forms of stratification found in
the modern world.

5. It is consequential
The stratification system has its own consequences. The most important, most desired and often the scarcest things
in human life are distributed unequally because of stratification. The system leads to two kinds of consequences: (i)
Life chances and (ii) Life style.

Life chances refer to such things as infant mortality, longevity, physical and mental illness, marital conflict,
separation and divorce. Life styles include the mode of housing, residential area, education, means of recreation,
relation between parent and children, modes of conveyance and so on.

6. Hierarchical
Social stratification refers to the hierarchical society. Being hierarchical in nature, social stratification is
reproduced from generation to generation. If a person belongs to a certain class, his/her generations will continue
belonging to the same class. For example, some people will always be regarded to be more powerful than others.

On the basis of these characteristics, it can be observed that social stratification is ubiquitous. It is based on the
factors such as strength, intelligence, age, sex as the basis on which status are distinguished. The stratification
system has its own consequences. It has varied forms in societies and never adapted to a particular form. The roles
and privileges of children differ from those of adults; and those of good hunters or warriors differ from those of the
rank and file. It is not customary to speak of a society as stratified if every individual has an equal chance to
succeed to whatever statuses are open.

10.3.2 Origin of stratification

Regarding the origin of stratification many views have been given. According to Davis, social stratification has
come into being due to the functional necessity of the social system. Karl Marx also mentioned that social factors
are responsible for the emergence of different social strata, i.e. social stratification. Racial differences accompanied
by dissimilarity also lead to stratification. There are two main theories concerning the origin of social stratification:
(i) theory of economic determinism of Karl Marx, which is often referred to as the Conflict Theory, and (ii) the
functionalist theory.

(i) Theory of economic determinism or conflict theory

According to Marx, economic factors are responsible for the emergence of different social strata or social classes.
Therefore, social classes are defined by their relation to the means of production. Thus, there are, in every society
two mutually conflicting classes- the class of the capitalists and the class of the workers or the rich and the poor.
Since these two classes have mutually opposite interests, conflicts between the two are inevitable;-Marx had
maintained.

Gumplowicz and Oppenheimer and others have argued that the origin of social stratification is to be found in the
conquest of one group by another. The conquering group normally dominates the conquered. The conquered group
is forced to accept the lower status and lower class life. C.C. North also has expressed more or less the same
opinion.

(ii) Functionalist theory

Kingsley Davis, Sorokin, MacIver and others have rejected the conflict theory of Marx. Sorokin maintained that
conflict may facilitate stratification but has never originated it. He attributed social stratification mainly to
inherited individual differences in environmental conditions.

Kingsley Davis has stated that the stratification system is universal. According to him, it has come into being due
to the functional necessity of the social system. The main functional necessity is “the requirement faced by any
society of placing and motivating individuals in the social structure”. Social stratification is an unconsciously
filled by the most qualified persons.
The conflict theory of Marx emphasizes conflict between large and stable groups, with strong community
sentiments, while the Functional theory emphasizes the integrating function of social stratification based upon
individual merit and reward. Both have their own merits and demerits.

10.3.3 Bases of classification or stratification

There are various bases on which social stratification is done which are as follows:

1. Economic condition- There has always been a barrier between rich and poor people. The amount a man earns
tells his power in society.

2. Social class- It is a classification which is done both on the basis of economy and caste. It is popularly
followed in India.

3. Gender- It is a basis of classification from the ancient times which was for a long time male society
dominated by women.

4. Religion- Every man his/her own religion, but this is also a basis of stratification since a long time. In India,
although it is said that there is unity in diversity but on several occasions, people can be seen on the basis of
differentiating religion openly. For example, the beef ban has become a hot topic because of the religion issue
involved.

5. Social network- It is a phenomenon which is generally observed in elite people. They have connections with
other high-class people making them the most powerful.

10.3.4 Types of social stratification

Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we find different type of stratification.

The major types of stratification are

(i) Caste (ii) Class (iii) Estate (iv) Slavery
(i) Caste is a hereditary endogamous social group in which a person’s rank and its accompanying rights and
obligations are ascribed on the basis of his birth into a particular group. For example-Brahmins, Kshyatryas,
Vaishyas and Sudra Caste.

(ii) Class-Stratification on the basis of class is dominant in modern society.

In this, a person’s position depends to a very great extent upon achievement and his ability to use to advantage
the inborn characteristics and wealth that he may possess.

(iii) Estate system of medieval Europe provides another system of stratification which gave much emphasis to
birth as well as to wealth and possessions. Each estate had a state.

(iv) Slavery had economic basis. In slavery, every slave had his master to whom he was subjected. The master’s
power over the slave was unlimited.

10.3.5 Elements of Social Stratification

All stratification systems have some common elements. These elements have been identified as differentiation,
ranking, evaluation and rewarding. Tumin has been referred to discuss the elements of social stratification.

♣ Status differentiation: Status differentiation is the process by which social positions are determined and
distinguished from one another by way of associating a distinctive role, a set of rights and responsibilities such as
father and mother.
Status differentiation operates more effectively when: (1) Tasks are clearly defined.
(2) Authority and responsibility are distinguished. (3) Mechanism for recruiting and training exists.
(4) Adequate sanctions including rewards and punishment exist to motivate persons.

Responsibilities, resources and rights are assigned to status and not to particular individuals. For only by doing, so
societies can establish general and uniform rules or norms that will apply to many and diverse individuals who are
to occupy the same status e.g. all the different women who will play the role of a parent.

Differentiation is not independent process in itself. The most important criteria for understanding the process of
differentiation is ranking.

♣ Ranking : Ranking is done on the basis of:

(1) Personal characteristics that people are thought to need if they are to learn and perform the roles effectively
such as intelligence, aggressiveness and politeness.

(2) The skills and abilities that are believed necessary for adequate role performance such, as surgical, numerical
or linguistic skills.

(3) General qualities of the task e.g. difficulty, cleanliness, danger and so forth. Purpose of ranking is to identify
the right person for the right position.

Ranking non-evaluative i.e. jobs are rated as harder or easier, cleaner or dirtier, safer or more dangerous and people
are judged slower, smarter or more skillful than others without implying that some are socially more important and
others less because of these characteristics.

Ranking is a selective process in the sense that only some statuses are selected for comparative ranking and of all
criteria of ranking only some are actually used in ranking process e.g. the status of Father-Mother is not ranked.

♣ Evaluation : Differentiation and ranking are further solidified by the evaluation process. Whereas the
ranking procedure pivots about the question of more of or less of, the evaluation process centres in the question
better and worse. Evaluation is both a personal and societal attribute.

That is, individuals assign a relative worth, a degree of preference and a priority of desirability to everything. To
the extent that evaluation is a learned quality, a consensus tends to develop within a culture individuals tend to
share a common set of values. This value consensus is the societal dimension crucial to evaluation stratification.

There are three dimensions of evaluation:

(1) Prestige
Which refers to honour and it involves the respectful behaviour. Radcliffe Brown says that among hunting societies
three groups usually are accorded special prestige: the elderly, those with supernatural powers, those who have
special personal attributes such as hunting skill. In the more advanced society, prestige is the commodity that is in
scarce supply and it is, therefore, more valued.

(2) Preferability
Those positions i.e. status roles which are preferred by majority of the people are evaluated higher e.g. “. I would
like to be a doctor.”

(3) Popularity
Those status roles which are popular, about which people know to be very prestigious are evaluated higher e.g.
nowadays there is fashion among students to go for Engineering job. It is the most popular occupation.
♣ Rewarding : Statuses which are differentiated, ranked and evaluated are allocated differential rewards in
terms of good things in life.

Social units such as families, subcultures, social classes and occupations that are socially differentiated are
differentially rewarded in various ways. Health care, education,’ income and positions of prominence are a few of
the advantages.

Rewards can be of two types:

(1) Abundant: Which are spiritual or psychic rather than material and are secured in the process of role
performing e.g. pleasure, love, and respect

(2) Scarce: Social stratification becomes relevant in this area of desired and scarce rewards. In society where
there is an unequal distribution of rewards, those who have power take hold these rewards.

In conclusion, it can be said that differentiation, ranking, evaluation and rewarding are the social process which
bring about shape and maintain the system of stratification.

10.3.6 Forms of Social Stratification

1. Open system : It is a system in which stratification is done on the basis of merit. Achieved status can be linked
to this system.

2. Closed system : It is a system in which stratification is done on the basis of parental influence, or says the
position of parents in the society. This system can be linked with Ascribed status. It is a system which has given
power to an individual on the basis of his/her birth.

Now a days, Social stratification is also done on the basis of class system which is also known as Modern
classification.

1. Upper class : They are influential people who have the foremost and most of the powers in their hand. They
have good connections in the society which make their work and needs fulfilled in the fraction of seconds.

2. Middle class : They are the group of people who neither come under Upper Class or Poor People. They
undergo a set pattern of struggle through their entire life. Neither are they very influential not they are the most
deprived people of society. They have to continue their struggle on a medium pace throughout the life. The number
of middle-class people is certainly more than upper class or poor people.

3. Lower class or poor people : They are the people who actually face poverty. They are deprived of their right
of living a wealthy life. They undergo an amount of struggle which other class people cannot go in their own life
because they are used to the facilities given.

10.3.7 Functions of social stratification

Wilbert Moore and Kingsley mentioned that stratification system came to be evolved in all the societies due to
functional necessity. As they have pointed out that the main functional necessity of the system is: “………the
requirement faced by any society of placing and motivating individuals in the social structure…” As analyzed by
Johnson certain things here can be noted about the “functional necessity” of class stratification system.

1. Encourages hard work: One of the main functions of class stratification is to induce people to work hard to
live up to values. Those who best fulfill the values of a particular society are normally rewarded with greater
prestige and social acceptance by others. It is known that occupations are ranked high if their functions are highly
important and the required personnel is very scarce. Hard work, prolonged training and heavy burden of
responsibility are associated with such occupational positions. People undertaking such works are rewarded with
money, prestige comforts etc. Still we cannot say that all those positions which are regarded as important are
adequately compensated for.
2. Ensures circulation of elites: To some extent class stratification helps to ensure what is often called “the
circulation of the elite”. When a high degree of prestige comforts and other rewards are offered for certain
positions, there will be some competition for them. This process of competition helps to ensure that the more
efficient people are able to rise to the top, where their ability can best be used.

3. Serves an economic function: The competitive aspect has a kind of economic function in that it helps to
ensure the rational use of available talent. It is also functionally necessary to offer differential rewards if the
positions at the top are largely ascribed as it is in the case of caste system. Even in caste system the people at the
top can lose their prestige if they fail to maintain certain standards. Hence, differential rewards provide the
incentives for the upper classes to work at maintaining their positions.

4. Prevents waste of resources: The stratification system prevents the waste of scarce resources. The men in the
elite class actually possess scarce and socially valued abilities and qualities, whether these are inherited or
acquired. Because of their possession of these qualities their enjoyment of some privileges such as extra comfort
and immunity from doing mental work, are functionally justified. For example, it would be a waste to pour the
resources of society into the training of doctors and engineers and then making them to work as peons and
attendants. When once certain individuals are chosen and are trained for certain difficult positions, it would be
dysfunctional to waste their time and energy on tasks for which there is enough manpower.

5. Stabilizes and reinforces the attitudes and skills: Members of a class normally try to limit their relations to
their own class. More intimate relationships are mostly found between fellow class members. Even this tendency
has its own function. It tends to stabilize and reinforce the attitudes and skills that may be the basis of upper-class
position. Those who have similar values and interests tend to associate comfortably with one another. Their
frequent association itself confirms their common values and interests.

6. Helps to pursue different professions or jobs: the values, attitudes and qualities of different classes do differ.
This difference is also functional for society to some extent. Because society needs manual as well as non-manual
workers. Many jobs are not attractive to highly trained or refined people for they are associated to aspire for certain
other jobs. Because of the early influence of family and socialization of the individuals imbibe in them certain
values, attitudes and qualities relevant to the social class to which they belong. This will influence their selection of
jobs.

7. Social control: Further, to the extent that ‘lower class’ cultural characteristics are essential to society, the
classes are, of course, functional. In fact, certain amount of mutual antagonism between social classes is also
functional. To some extent, upper class and lower class groups can act as negative reference groups for each other.
Thus, they act a means of social control also.

8. Controlling effect on the ‘shady’ world: Class stratification has another social control function. Even in the
‘shady’ world of gamblers and in the underworld of lower criminals, black marketers, racketeers, smugglers etc.,
the legitimate class structure has got respectability. They know that money is not a substitute for prestige but only a
compensation for renouncing it. Hence, instead of continuing in a profitable shady career, such people want to gain
respectability for their money and for their children. Thy try to enter legitimate fields and become philanthropists
and patrons of the arts. Thus the legitimate class structure continues to attract the shady classes and the
underworld.
This attraction exerts a social control function.

10.4 SOCIAL CHANGE

The human composition of societies changes over time, technologies expand, ideologies and values take on new
components; institutional functions and structures undergo reshaping. Hence, no society remains completely
static. Incessant changeability is very inherent nature of human society. Change is an ever-present phenomenon. It
is the law of nature. Social change has occurred in all societies and at all times. Every society and culture, no
matter how traditional and conservative, is constantly undergoing change. Society changes in ceaseless flux and
flow.

10.4.1 Meaning of social change

Change implies all variations in human societies, when changes occur in the modes of living of individuals and
social relation gets influenced, such changes are called social changes. Social change refers to the modifications
which take place in life pattern of people. It occurs because all societies are in a constant state of uncertainty. It
indicates the changes that take place in human interactions and interrelations. Society is a “web of social
relationships” and hence ‘social change’ obviously means a change in the system of social relationships. Thus, the
term ‘social change’ is used to desirable variations in social interaction, social processes and social organization. It
includes alterations in the structure and function of the society.

MacIver and Page, “Social Change refers to ‘a process’ responsive to many types of changes; to changes in the
manmade condition of life; to changes in the attitudes and beliefs of men, and to the changes that go beyond the
human control to the biological and the physical nature of things”.

Kingsley Davis, “By Social change is meant only such alternations as occur in social organization – that is, the
structure and functions of society”.

Morris Ginsberg defines, “By social change, I understand a change in social structure, e.g., the size of the society,
the composition or the balance of its parts or the type of its organization”.

Anderson and Parker define, “Social change involves alternations in the structure or functioning of societal forms
or processes themselves”.

M.D. Jenson, “Social change may be defined as modification in ways of doing and thinking of people”.

On the basis of these definitions, we reach at the conclusion that the two type of changes should be treated as two
facts of the same phenomenon.
(i) Changes in the structure of society

(ii) Changes in the values and social norms which bind the people together and help to maintain social order.

These changes should not be treated separately because a change in one automatically induces changes in the other.

10.4.2 Nature and characteristics of social change

The fact of social change has captivated the profoundest minds and still poses some of the great unsolved problems
in social sciences. The phenomenon of social change is not simple but complex. It is difficult to understand this in
its entirety. The unsolved problems are always pressurizing us to find an appropriate answer. To understand social
change well, we have to analyze the nature of social change which is as follows:

1. Social change is continuous: Society is undergoing endless changes.

These changes cannot be stopped. Society cannot be preserved in a museum to save it from the ravages of time.
From the dawn of history, down to this day society has been in continuous flux.

2. Social change is temporal: Change happens through time. Social change is temporal in the sense it denotes
the time-sequence. In fact, society exists only as a time-sequence. As MacIver says, “it is a becoming, not a
being; a process, not a product.” Innovation of new things, modification and renovation of the existing behaviour
and the discarding of the old behaviour patterns take time. But the mere passage of time does not cause as in the
biological process of ageing.
3. Social change is environmental: It must take place within a geographic or physical and cultural context. Both
these contexts have impact on human behaviour and in turn man changes them. Social changes never take place in
vacuum.

4. Social change is human change: The sociological significance of the change consists in the fact that it
involves the human aspect. The composition of society is not constant, but changing. The fact that people effect
changes and are themselves affected by it makes extremely important.

5. Social change results from interaction of a number of factors: A single factor may trigger a particular change,
but it is always associated with other factors. The physical, biological, technological, cultural and other factors
may, together bring about social change. This is due to the mutual interdependence of social phenomenon.

6. Social change may create chain reaction: Change in one aspect of life may lead to a series of changes in its
other aspects. For example, change in rights, privileges and status of women has resulted in a series of changes in
home, family relationships and structure, the economic and to some extent, the political pattern of both rural and
urban society.

7. Social change involves rate and direction of change: In most discussions of social change some
direction is assumed. This direction is most necessarily inevitable. Sometimes, the direction is determined ideally.
Change towards such a destination is more appropriately regarded as progress. In actuality, social change may
tend towards any direction. The rate of change is also not governed by any universal laws. The rate of change
varies considerably from time to time and society to society depending upon its nature and character-open and
closed, rural and urban and others.

8. Social change may be planned or unplanned: The direction and tempo of social change are often conditioned
by human engineering. Plans, programmes and projects may be launched by man in order to determine and control
the rate and direction of social change. Unplanned change refers to change resulting from natural calamities such
as famines and floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc.

9. Short versus long-run changes: Some social changes may bring about immediate results while some others
may take years and decades to produce results. This distinction is significant, because a change which appears to
be very vital today may be nothing more than a temporary oscillation having nothing to do with the essential trends
of life, some years later. This is what historians mean when they say that time alone can place the events of the day
in their true perspective.

10. Social change is an objective term: The term social change describes one of the categorical processes. It has
no value judgments attached to it. Social Change is a phenomenon that is neither moral nor immoral, it is amoral. It
means the study of social change involves no-value judgment. It is ethically neutral. One can study change even
within the value system without being for against the change.

Apart from the above characteristic features it may be said that social change may be quantitative or qualitative. It
is a value free terms as it does imply any sense of good or bad, desirable or undesirable. It is a concept distinct
from evolution, process and development which are regarded as key concepts in literature of social change.

10.4.3 Types of social change

Four types of social change include:
• Alternative

• Redemptive

• Reformative

• Revolutionary
These different movements are distinguished by how much change they advocate and whether they target
individuals or the entirety of a society.

 Alternative social change: It operates at the individual level and seeks to change minor aspects of
behaviour. Campaigns against texting and driving are an example of alternative social change in the sense that they
advocate a small change in behaviour and advocate this change on a fairly small scale.

 Redemptive social change: It functions on the individual level but advocates a dramatic change within the
individual. The spread of religion is an example of redemptive social change. Recovery programs like Alcoholics
Anonymous are also examples of redemptive social change as they advocate dramatic personal change for a
specific portion of the population.

 Reformative social change: This type seeks to enact a specific change on a broad scale. The movement to
obtain marriage rights for same sex couples is an example of reformative social change. This movement seeks a
very specific set of changes but desires these changes on a wide scale.

 Revolutionary social change: This indicates dramatic change on a large scale. Revolutionary movements
seek to fundamentally restructure society. Examples of revolutionary social change include the American Civil
Rights Movement and the Russian Revolution of the early-20th century.

10.4.4 Process of social change

The process of social change may be depicted in the following manner:

10.4.5 Aspects of social change

 Economic aspect: Economic changes include changes in industry, trade, business, commerce, agriculture
and materialistic attitude.

 Political aspect: Political changes include changes in political power and administration of the state, such
as adopting the values of democracy, secularism, socialism, communism and fascism.

 Religious aspect: In religious aspect, we include those changes which affect changes in various religious
institutions like Gurudwara, Temple, Church, Mosque etc. Their importance in the present age has been decreased
because of modernization.

 Moral aspect: Moral changes are the changes in moral values, ideas, beliefs, such as co-education was not
thought to be good in ancient times. It is not regarded as immoral in the modern age.

 Cultural aspect: Cultural changes are the change in the culture , values, traditions and customs such as
dancing was thought to be an immoral act in the past, where as it is culturally accepted everywhere now.
Similarly, actors and actresses has become a role model for the present generation where as they were not socially
accepted earlier as the same.

 Scientific and technological aspect: Scientific and technological changes are caused by scientific and
technological discoveries and inventions.

It should be remembered that social change involves not only economic, political, religious, moral, scientific
technological changes but it also involves changes in mode of socialization of the individual and a basic change in
personality structure of individuals. Thus social change is the name given to the harmonious blending of changes in
various aspects of social change.

10.4.6 Factors of social change

 Demographic factors : Demography plays an important role in the process of social change. The term
“demography” has been derived from two Greek words, ‘Demos’ and ‘Graphs’ meaning the “people” and to
“draw” or “write” respectively which means scientific study of human population, primarily with respect to their
size, structure and their development. In the study of social change demographic factors have been viewed from
two different angles. They are the qualitative and quantitative. Qualitatively speaking it refers to physical
potentialities, mental abilities etc. that are determined by genetic order, though the hereditary quality of successive
generation play some role in cultural determination, it cannot be ascribed the place of a deterministic cause of
social change. But the demographic factor in its quantitative aspect has been playing the most decisive role in
causing social change.

 Biological factors: Accordingly biological factor plays an important role in the causation of social change.
An ordinarily biological factor refers to those which are concerned with the genetic constitution of the human
beings. Human beings use animals, birds, plants and herbs according to the direction of his own culture. At the
same time human beings protect themselves from different harmful elements. If there is increase or decrease of
these animals, birds, plants etc. it will bring a number of changes in human society. Rapid population growth
influences our environment causes poverty, food shortage and multiple health problems and thereby brings changes
in society. Migration accelerates the process of urbanization. Urbanization creates multiple problems like slum,
quality of health and life style. Similarly the nature and quality of human beings in a society influences the rate of
social change.

 Cultural factors: In sociology the word ‘Culture’ denotes acquired behavior which are shared by and
transmitted among the members of the society. Man learns his behavior and behavior which is learnt is called
culture. Singing, dancing, eating, playing belong to the category of culture. It includes all that man has acquired in
the mental and intellectual sphere of his individual and social life. It is the expression of our nature, in our modes
of living and thinking, in art, in literature, in recreation and enjoyment. The basic elements of culture like language,
religion, philosophy, literature, faith and values will take long time to change due to the influence of another
culture. The co-existence of two different cultures for a long period can cause cultural diffusion leading to changes
in both. India, for example, discarded age long customs like Sati and Child marriage because of her contact with
the Europeans.

 Technological factors: The technological factors also play important role in causing social change. It
implies an appropriate organization and systematic application of scientific knowledge to meet the human
requirements. Technology is a product of utilization. When the scientific knowledge is applied to the problems of
life, it becomes technology. Technology is fast growing. Modern age is the “Age of Technology”. Technology
changes society by changing our environments to which we In turn adopt. This change is usually in the material
environment and the adjustment that we make with these changes often modifies customs and social institution
initiates a corresponding social change. Developments in the field of transportation and communication reduced
the social distance which gave momentum to cultural diffusion and thereby to social change.

 Environmental factor: Refers to the changes that occur due to floods, earthquake, excessive rain, drought,
change of season etc. We can find imbalance in population which directly affects the social relationship and these
are modified by such natural occurrences. Variation in the availability of water resources and mineral resources can
also affect social change. If we think about a person or an individual who is growing under the roof of a particular
society and he lives among different kinds of people. So, the environment of society affects him and as we know
that an individual is a part of society who brings social change. Thus, environment factors also bring social change.

 Psychological factors: Some writers notice a psychological process in the formation of society and,
according to them, human relations based on the considerations of the individual mind and the group mind shape
and mould social systems. Therefore, when physical forces like floods, earthquakes and epidemics are considered
as factors causing social change, the importance of the psychological factor in that regard cannot be ignored.
Change in attitude of society towards family planning, dowry, caste system, women’s education etc. which brought
about radical changes in society are primarily psychological in nature.
 Education: Education is the most powerful factor of social change and it is discussed separately. Education
is the most powerful instrument of social change. It is through education that the society can bring desirable
changes and modernize itself. Education can transform society by providing opportunities and experiences through
which the individual can cultivate in him the adjustment with the emerging needs and philosophy of the changing
society. A sound social progress needs careful planning in every aspect of life– social, cultural, economic and
political. Education must be planned in a manner which is in keeping with the needs and aspirations of the people
as a whole.

 Westernization: Westernization means blind imitation of the social ways and values prevailing in western
countries. The trend towards Westernization in India can be seen in all fields— social, economic, political, cultural,
religious and educational. India is following the example of the West. In the social sphere we are following the
West in matters like dress, life style and town-planning etc.

 Industrialization: India is fully resolved to bring about fast industrialization. There is increase in
industrialization. Industries have taken the place of agriculture. Agriculture has itself transformed into an industry.
The application of science and technology to industry has increased substantially. Chemical fertilizers, improved
seeds, mechanical devices, pesticides etc. have come into wide spread use. Thus, industrialization in India is
responsible for social change.

 Modernization: Modernization is a process which brings desired types of changes in material as well as
non-material culture including the way of life as a whole. It brings positive changes in the social, economic,
industrial, technological, cultural, moral, religious and educational structure, value orientations, motivations,
achievements and aspirations. It means a value change, significant institutional modifications and improvement.

Thus, social change is brought about by a number of factors such as geographical, biological, demographic,
technological, industrial, economic, ideological, cultural, psychological, educational and voluntary acts of the
individual. Westernization, industrialization, politicization, urbanization, secularization, mechanicalization,
democratization, monopolization, capitalism, culturalization, materialism, Indianization and modernization are the
major factors influencing social change in India. It may thus be said that social changes are not caused by any one
single factor, but as Talcot Parson says, “there is plurality of possible origins of change”.

10.5 LET US SUM UP

Social inequality is a universal phenomenon in all societies. It can exist either in form of a hierarchy of groups or
individuals or it may exist without the creation of a hierarchy. In the former case it is called social hierarchy. While
in the latter case it is known as social differentiation for in almost all societies men and women are treated
unequally. If social inequality manifests itself in the form of a hierarchy involving ranking of groups then it is
known as social stratification, thus social stratification is a particular case of the social inequality. Social
stratification is essentially a group phenomenon. It is a process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a
more or less enduring hierarchy of status. Social stratification can be understood as an arrangement of any social
group or society into a hierarchy of positions that is unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation and
psychic gratification.

Social Change is the change in the society. Society is a web of social relationships. Hence, social change is the
change in the social relationships. It is the change in these which alone we shall regard as social change, as human
society is constituted of human beings. Thus, whatever apparent alteration in the mutual behaviour between
individual takes place is a sign of social change. This fact of social change can be verified by glancing at the
history of a society. Man is a dynamic being. Hence, society can never remain static. It undergoes constant
variation.

10.7 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Baily F.G. (1963). Closed Social Stratification in India. European Journal of Sociology.
Grusky, D. B. (2011). Theories of Stratification and Inequality. In Ritzer, George and J. Michael Ryan (ed.). The
Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology. Wiley- Blackwell. pp. 622–624. Retrieved 23 June 2014.

Lane, D., (Art) (1984). Social Stratification and class in the Soviet Polity in the Modern Era. (ed. by Erik P.
Hoftmann, Robbinredericklaird Print in U.S.A.

Oesterdiekhoff, G. W. (2014). The Role of Developmental Psychology to Understanding History, Culture and
Social Change. Journal of Social Sciences, 10(4), 185- 195. doi:10.3844/jssp.2014

Rao, S. (2007). Principles of Sociology with an Introduction to Social Thought. New Delhi : S. Chand and
Company Ltd.

Sharma K.L. (2002). Social Stratification and Mobility. Jaipur : Rawat Publication.

Sharma K.L. (1997). Social Stratification in India : Issues and Themes. C.A. : SAGE Publications Pvt. Ltd

Singh, Y. (1974). Sociology of Society Stratification. In A survey of Research in Sociology and Social
Anthropology’, Vol.I, ICSSR, Popular Prakashan Bombay.

Srinivas, M.N. (1977). Social Change in Modern India. New Delhi : Orient Longman

Tumin, M.M. (1969). Social Stratification : The Forms and Function of Inequality. New Delhi : PranticeHall of
India Pvt. Ltd.

Vago, S. (1999). Social Change. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River. NJ : Prentice Hall.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-change/Mechanisms-of-social- change

UNIT-IV FUNDAMENTALS RIGHTS AND DUTIES

11.1 INTRODUCTION
As a citizen of India, we are entitled to certain rights as well as obliged to certain duties. It is our duty as
responsible citizens that we abide by these laws and carry out our duties. Similarly, knowledge of our fundamental
rights is important so as to prevent injustice. Particularly, in a democratic country like ours, there are rights that
must be guaranteed to every citizen. Similarly there are certain duties that must be performed by democratic
citizens. Which is why, the Constitution of India guarantees some rights to its citizens. They are known as
Fundamental Rights. Besides, the Indian Constitution also enlists certain core duties that every citizen is expected
to perform. These are known as Fundamental Duties. This lesson aims at discussing the details about the
Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties.

11.3 MEANING OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining principles powers and
duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles and the duties of citizens. It
is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world, containing articles in 25 parts, 12
schedules, 5 appendices and 98 amendments. Besides, the English version, there is an official Hindi translation. Dr.
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar is widely regarded as the Father of Indian Constitution.

Fundamental Rights is a charter of rights contained in Part III (Articles 12 to 35) of Constitution of India. The
development of constitutionally guaranteed fundamental human rights in India was inspired by historical examples
such as England’s Bill of Rights (1689), the United States Bill of Rights (approved on 17 September 1787, final
ratification on 15 December 1791) and France’s Declaration of the Rights of Man (created during the
revolution of 1789, and ratified on 26 August 1789). It is a fallacy to regard fundamental rights as a gift from the
State to its citizens. Individuals possess basic human rights independently of any Constitution by reason of the
basic fact that they are members of the human race. These fundamental rights are important as they possess
intrinsic value. Part III of the Constitution does confer fundamental rights and confirms their existence and gives
them protection. The fundamental rights were included in the constitution because they were considered essential
for the development of the personality of every individual and to preserve human dignity. These fundamental rights
guarantee civil freedom to all the citizens of India to allow them to live in peace and harmony. These are the basic
rights that every Indian citizen has the right to enjoy, irrespective of their caste, creed and religion, place of birth,
race, color or gender.

During the period of 1947 to 1949, Constitution of India developed and prescribed the fundamental obligations of
the State to its citizens and the duties and the rights of the citizens. These were developed under the following
sections which constitute the vital elements of the constitution.
• Fundamental Rights

• Directive Principles of State Policy

• Fundamental Duties

11.3.1 Fundamental rights

These rights are fundamental because of two reasons. First, these are mentioned in the Constitution which
guarantees them and the second, these are justiciable, i.e. enforceable through courts. Being justiciable means that
in case of their violation, the individual can approach courts for their protection. If a government enacts a law
that restricts any of these rights, it will be declared invalid by courts. Such rights are provided in Part III of the
Indian Constitution.

1. Right to Equality (Article 14-18)

Right to Equality is one of the six fundamental rights in the Indian constitution. It includes equality before law,
prohibition of discrimination on grounds of race, religion, gender and caste or birth place. It also includes equality
of opportunity in matters of employment, abolition of untouchability and titles. In simple words we can say that it
is the right to live with equal opportunities. It simply treats all people to be same and nobody can get a special
privilege which will dishonor any individual or group. As per Article 14 of our constitution, it guarantees that all
people shall be equally protected by the laws of the country. All human beings are born free and are equal in
dignity and rights. The state will treat people in the same circumstance alike. Right to Equality not only applies to
the citizens of India but also to all people within the territory of India. Every citizen, from Prime Minister to an
ordinary individual, is subjected to the same laws. All citizens have access to public places like shops, restaurants,
hotels, multiplexes. Similarly, no restriction with regards to use of well, bathing ghats, roads, playgrounds and
places of public resort maintained by government. It is not a rule of men, but a measure of liberty enjoyed by the
people. Law should neither be arbitrary nor should it guarantee privilege. We should always treat rich and poor,
high and low equal before the law. But the judiciary must be independent and impartial if the rule of Law can mean
anything real.

(i) Equality before law: The Constitution guarantees that all citizens will be equal before law. It means that
everyone will be equally protected by the laws of the country. No person is above law. It means that if two persons
commit the same crime, both of them will get the same punishment without any discrimination.

(ii) No Discrimination on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth: The State cannot discriminate
against a citizen on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. This is necessary to bring about social
equality. Every citizen of India has equal access to shops, restaurants, places of public entertainment or in the use
of wells, tanks or roads without any discrimination. However, the State can make special provisions or concessions
for women and children.

(iii) Equality of opportunity to all citizens in matter of public employment: The State cannot discriminate against
anyone in the matter of public employment. All citizens can apply and become employees of the State. Merits and
qualifications will be the basis of employment. However, there are some exceptions to this right. There is a special
provision for the reservation of posts for citizens belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other
Backward Classes (OBCs).

(iv) Abolition of untouchability: Practicing untouchability in any form has been made a punishable offence under
the law. This provision is an effort to uplift the social status of millions of Indians who had been looked down upon
andkept at a distance because of either their caste or the nature of their profession. But, it is really very unfortunate
that despite constitutional provisions, this social evil continues even today. Can you find any difference when you
see a nurse cleaning a patient, a mother cleaning her child and a lady cleaning a toilet in the illustration? Why do
people consider the cleaning of a toilet in a derogatory manner?

(v) Abolition of titles: All the British titles like Sir (Knighthood) or RaiBahadur which were given to the British
loyalists during the British rule, have been abolished because they created distinctions of artificial nature.
However, the President of India can confer civil and military awards to those who have rendered meritorious
service to the nation in different fields. The civil awards such as Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, PadamBhushan
and Padma Shri and the military awards like Veer Chakra, Paramveer Chakra, Ashok Chakra are conferred.

2. Right to Freedom (Article 19-22) Article 19 Article 19 guarantees six freedoms to every person. They are:
1. Freedom of speech and expression: The State guarantees freedom of speech and expression to every person.
However, the State can impose restrictions on the freedom of speech and expression in the interests of the integrity,
security and sovereignty of the country, friendly relations with foreign nations, for public order, with respect to
defamation, incitement to offence or contempt of court.

2. Freedom to assemble: The State guarantees every person the freedom to assemble peacefully without arms.
However, as above, reasonable restrictions can be imposed in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of the
country and public order.

3. Freedom to form associations/unions/cooperative societies: Again, the State can impose restrictions in the
interests of the integrity, security and sovereignty of the country, friendly relations with foreign nations, for public
order, with respect to defamation, incitement to offence or contempt of court. This freedom gives workers the right
to form trade union, which is thus a fundamental right.

 The Police Forces (Restriction of Rights) Act, 1966 prohibits police personnel from forming trade unions.

 The Constitution also allows the Parliament to pass a law restricting the right to form political association
to members of the armed fo rces , in tell igen ce b urea u s, per sons emp loye d wi th telecommunication
system.

4. Freedom to move freely: A citizen of India can move freely throughout the territory of India. But this right
can also be restricted on the grounds of security, public order or for protecting the interests of the Scheduled
Tribes.

5. Freedom of residence: Citizens of India have the right to reside in any part of the country. Although
restrictions can be imposed on the grounds of security, public order or for protecting the interests of the Scheduled
Tribes.

6. Freedom of profession: All citizens have the right to carry on any trade or profession/occupation, provided
the trade or occupation is not illegal or immoral. Also, the law does not prevent the State from making laws related
to technical or professional qualifications required for practicing the occupation or trade.

Article 20
Article 20 deals with the protection of citizens in respect of conviction for offences. This provides for three types
of protection of the individual against the State.
1. Retrospective criminal legislation: This is also known as ex-post facto criminal legislation. Under this, a
person cannot be convicted for an act that was committed at a time when the act had not been declared by law as an
offence.

 This means that criminal legislation cannot be given a retrospective effect.

 This immunity cannot be used against the provision of preventive detention, and also does not cover trial.

 The law also provides that a person cannot be subject to punishment greater than what is prescribed
by law for the offence committed.

2. Double jeopardy: This indicates that a person cannot be convicted for the same offence more than once.

3. Prohibition against self-incrimination: This implies that no person accused of an offence shall be compelled
by the State to bear witness against himself.

Article 21
Article 21 states that no person shall be deprived of his life and personal liberty by the State except as per the
procedure established by law. This article has a wide scope and its interpretation has undergone many changes over
the decades.

 The Supreme Court has interpreted the right to life as the right to a dignified life.

 This is the most important right in one sense, because, without this right to life, all other fundamental
rights would be meaningless.

 It is this article that differentiates between a police state and a constitutional state.

Article 21(A)
This article was introduced by the 86th Constitutional Amendment in 2002. It provides that the State shall provide
free and compulsory education to all children between the ages of 6 and 14.

Article 22
Article 22 deals with the protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.

 This article is applicable to both citizens and non-citizens.

 This provision extends certain procedural safeguards for individuals in case of an arrest.

 It comes into the picture after a person has been arrested. It is not a fundamental right against detention and
arrest.

 The idea behind this right is to prevent arbitrary arrests and detention.

The article provides the following safeguards:

• Article 22(1) – Any person who is in custody has to be informed as to why he has been arrested. Further,
he cannot be denied the right to consult an advocate.

• Article 22(2) – The arrested individual should be produced before a judicial magistrate within 24 hours of
his arrest.

• Article 22(3) – No individual who has been arrested can be kept in custody for more than the period
determined by the judicial magistrate.
3. Right against exploitation (Articles 23-24)
Traditionally, the Indian society has been hierarchical that has encouraged exploitation in many forms. Which is
why, the Constitution makes provisions against exploitation. The citizens have been guaranteed the right against
exploitation through Articles 23 and 24 of the Constitution. These two provisions are:

Article 23 – Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labor:

Article 23(1) : Traffic in human beings and begar and other similar forms of forced labor are prohibited and any
contravention of this provision shall be an offence punishable in accordance with the law.

Article 23(2) : Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from imposing compulsory service for public
purposes, and in imposing such service the State shall not make any discrimination on grounds only of religion,
race, caste or class or any of them.

 Exploitation implies the misuse of others’ services by force and/or labor without payment.

 There were many marginalized communities in India who were forced to engage in manual and
agricultural labor without any payment.

 Labor without payment is known as begar.

 Article 23 forbids any form of exploitation.

 Also, one cannot be forced to engage in labor against his/her will even if remuneration is given.

 Forced labor is forbidden by the Constitution. It is considered forced labor if the less-than-minimum wage
is paid.

 This article also makes ‘bonded labor’ unconstitutional.

 Bonded labor is when a person is forced to offer services out of a loan/ debt that cannot be repaid.

 The Constitution makes coercion of any kind unconstitutional. Thus, forcing landless persons into labor
and forcing helpless women into prostitution is unconstitutional.

 The Article also makes trafficking unconstitutional.

 Trafficking involves the buying and selling of men and women for illegal and immoral activities.

 Even though the Constitution does not explicitly ban ‘slavery’, Article 23 has a wide scope because of the
inclusion of the terms ‘forced labor’ and ‘traffic’.

• Article 23 protects citizens not only against the state but also from private citizens.

 The State is obliged to protect citizens from these evils by taking punitive action against perpetrators of
these acts (which are considered crimes), and also take positive actions to abolish these evils from society.

 Under Article 35 of the Constitution, the Parliament is authorized to enact laws to punish acts prohibited
by Article 23.

 Clause 2 implies that compulsory services for public purposes (such as conscription to the armed forces)
are not unconstitutional.
Article 24 – Prohibition of employment of children in factories etc.

Article 24 says that “No child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or
engaged in any other hazardous employment.”This right aims at eliminating one of the most serious problems,
child labor, that India has been facing since ages. Children are assets of the society. It is their basic right to enjoy a
happy childhood and get education. But as shown in the illustration and as you also may have observed, in spite of
this constitutional provision, the problem of child labor is still continuing at many places. This malice can be
eliminated by creating public opinion against it.

4. Right to freedom of religion (Article 25-28)

One of the rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution is the right to Freedom of Religion. As a secular nation,
every citizen of India has the right to freedom of religion i.e. right to follow any religion. As one can find so many
religions being practiced in India, the constitution guarantees to every citizen the liberty to follow the religion of
their choice. According to this fundamental right, every citizen has the opportunity to practice and spread their
religion peacefully. And if any incidence of religious intolerance occurs in India, it is the duty of the Indian
government to curb these incidences and take strict actions against it. Right to freedom of religion is well described
in the Articles 25, 26, 27 and 28 of Indian constitution.

 Article 25: Freedom of conscience, free profession, practice and propagation of religion.

According to this right, every person is equally permitted to enjoy the freedom of conscience and the right to
acknowledge, practice and spread religion. However, this right is subject to certain restrictions to maintain public
law and order, morality and peace in the country. This article will not hinder the operation of any existing law or
prevent the State from making any law. It will also not restrict the working of any financial, economic, political or
secular activity which may be related to the religious practice. However, an institution run by the State is not
allowed to impart education that is pro-religion. And also the right to propagate a particular religion does not mean
the right to convert another individual as this will violate other individual’s right to freedom of conscience.

 Article 26 : Freedom to run religious affairs

According to the Constitution of India, freedom to run religious affairs include the freedom to establish and
maintain charitable institutions either to manage its own affairs in the matters of religion or to acquire and own
movable and immovable property and to take care of such property, without infringing the law. However, only
structured bodies such as religious denominations have the liberty to enjoy this right and the secular activity of
such associations can be administered by the government. This right does not apply to individuals. Religious
organizations can set up and control educational and other charitable institutions without any intervention of the
state, except in case of any threat to public law and order.

 Article 27 : No person shall be compelled to pay any tax for the promotion or maintenance of any religion
According to this article of Indian constitution, no person shall be forced to pay any taxes, the proceeds of which
are particularly appropriated in payment of expenses for the spread or protection of any particular religion or
religious denomination.

 Article 28 : Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational

institutions
According to this fundamental right, no religious instruction shall be offered in any educational institution wholly
maintained out of State funds. No person attending any educational institution acknowledged by the State or
receiving aid out of State funds shall be obliged to take part in any religious instruction that may be instructed or
taught in such institution or to attend any religious worship that may be performed in such institution or in any
premises. In case of a minor, his guardian has to give the consent for the same. Thus, article 28 forbids religious
instruction in a wholly State-funded educational institution and educational institutions receiving aid from the
State.
5. Cultural and educational rights (Article 29-30)
Cultural and educational rights provide the rights to all section of society and it saves their culture script or
language. The image of Indian society comes in our minds as a society full of diversity. In such a society with vast
diversity, our Constitution believes that diversity is our strength.

Thus one of the fundamental rights is the right of the minorities to save their culture. Minorities are groups which
have common language or religion and live in a particular part of the country. These communities have a culture,
language and a script of their own, and have the right to preserve and develop these.

All minorities, religious or linguistic, can establish their own educational institutions also. In this way, they can
preserve and develop their own culture. As we know democracy is the rule of the majority of people. But on the
other hand, minorities are also important for its successful working.

Thus, the protection of language, culture, and religion of minorities becomes important. There is a need for this so
that minorities may not feel neglected or undermined under the rule of the majority. Though people take pride in
their own culture and language, a special right that is Cultural and Educational Right is available in our
constitution.

Under these Articles, two major provisions are there:

 Protection of interests of minorities: Any minority community having a distinct language, script or culture
of its own shall have the right to preserve the same. The minority people can take admission into any educational
institution maintained by the government or receiving funds from government, on grounds only of religion, race,
caste, language or any of them.

 Right of minorities to set up and administer educational institutions: All Minorities, whether based on
religion or language, have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their own choice. The
government, while granting funds to educational institutions, will not differentiate against any educational
institution on the basis that it comes under the management of a minority community.

6. Right to constitutional remedies

There is a right in India which states that a person can move to Supreme Court if he/she wants to get their
fundamental rights protected. This right comes under article 32 for Supreme Court and article 226 for the high
court. It is known as the right to constitutional remedies. In this right, the Supreme Court, as well as High court, is
given the power to instill the fundamental rights. Furthermore, the power can be issued by local courts also to
extend the rights. Although, there is one act which comes under the military law known as the court-martial which
is exempted from this right. Under Article 32 Supreme court acts as a guarantor and defender of the fundamental
rights. Furthermore, it is originally under the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction power to issue the writs. Thus, it means
that a person can directly approach the Supreme court for the remedy instead through the way of appealing.

7. Right to education (RTE)

The Right to Education is added by introducing a new Article 21A in the Chapter on Fundamental Rights in
2002 by the 86th Constitutional Amendment. It was a long standing demand so that all children in the age group
of 6-14 years (and their parents) can claim compulsory and free education as a Fundamental Right. It is a major
step forward in making the country free of illiteracy. But this addition remained meaningless, as it could not be
enforced until 2009 when the Parliament passed the Right to Education Act, 2009. It is this Act which aims at
ensuring that every child who is between 6-14 years of age and is out of the school in India, goes to school and
receives quality education, that is his/her right.

11.3.2 Difference between fundamental rights and human rights

As per law, rights are considered as the reasonable claim of the individuals which are accepted by the society and
approved by statute. It can be fundamental rights or human rights. The rights which are fundamental to the life of
the citizens of a country are known as fundamental rights. On the other hand, human rights imply the rights
that belong to all the human beings irrespective of their nationality, race, caste, creed, gender, etc.
The points given below explain the difference between fundamental rights and human rights:

1. The fundamental rights of the citizens of a country, which are mentioned in the constitution and enforceable
under the law is known as fundamental rights. On the other end, human rights are the rights that a human being
needs to endure with respect and freedom.

2. Fundamental rights include only those rights which are elementary to a customary life. On the contrary,
human rights include those rights which are basic to an actual life and are absolute, i.e. it cannot be taken away.

3. While fundamental rights are country specific, i.e. these rights may differ from country to country, human
rights have a universal acceptance, meaning that all the human beings enjoy these rights.

4. The fundamental rights rely on the basic principle of the right of freedom. As against, the human rights are
based on the right of life with dignity.

5. Fundamental rights are guaranteed under the constitution of the country, whereas the human rights are
recognized at international level.

6. Both fundamental and human rights are enforceable in nature, but the former is enforced by the law court,
and the latter is enforced by the United Nation Organization.

7. Fundamental rights are derived from the views of a democratic society. Conversely, human rights emerge
from the ideas of civilized nations.

Fundamental Rights and Human Rights are vital for the existence and development of individuals. It helps to create
an improved environment and better living conditions for people, as well as they, preserve their dignity.

11.4 FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

The Fundamental Duties were incorporated in Part IV-A of the Constitution by the Constitution 42nd Amendment
Act, 1976, during Emergency under Indira Gandhi’s government. Today, there are 11 Fundamental Duties
described under Article 51-A, of which 10 was introduced by the 42nd Amendment and the 11th was added by the
86th Amendment in 2002, during Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s government.

These are statutory duties, not enforceable by law, but a court may take them into account while adjudicating on a
matter. The idea behind their incorporation was to emphasize the obligation of the citizen in exchange for the
Fundamental Rights that he or she enjoys. The concept of Fundamental Duties is taken from the
Constitution of Russia.

The 10 fundamental duties are as follows:

• To oblige with the Indian Constitution and respect the National Anthem and Flag.

• To cherish and follow the noble ideas that inspired the national struggle for freedom

• To protect the integrity, sovereignty, and unity of India

• To defend the country and perform national services if and when the country requires

• To promote the spirit of harmony and brotherhood amongst all the people of India and renounce any
practices that are derogatory to women

• To cherish and preserve the rich national heritage of our composite culture
• To protect and improve the natural environment including lakes, wildlife, rivers, forests, etc.

• To develop scientific temper, humanism, and spirit of inquiry

• To safeguard all public property

• To strive towards excellence in all genres of individual and collective activities

The 11th fundamental duty which was added to this list is:

• To provide opportunities for education to children between 6-14 years of age, and duty as parents to ensure
that such opportunities are being awarded to their child.

The 11 fundamental duties look at the crisis in Indian society and become a tool for straightening it out. They serve
as a source of protection for the liberty of the people.

11.5 IMPORTANCE OF FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

• These duties are a constant reminder to citizens to build a free, healthy, and responsible society and they
are expected to not act as recklessly and not indulge in anti-social activities.

• For the growth of a democratic country like India, it is imperative that all fundamental duties are followed
by the citizens while respecting the integrity and promotion of cultural harmony in the country.

• These duties of an Indian citizen provides education to children, especially to children below 14 years of
age, safeguards the human rights, and is a major step towards the abolition of social injustice that is prevalent in
the society today.

• Environmental pollution has become a great cause of concern, not only for Indians but for humanity
around the globe. Unless we all take the pledge to keep our environment free from pollutants, there remains the
threat of undesirable consequences.

The 11 fundamental duties are not merely the expression of morals or religion, as the courts can take cognizance in
the matter to enforce and give effect to these constitutional obligations. Under Article 51A and as per the definition
of fundamental duties, it’s the responsibility of the citizens to build a free and healthy society, where all citizens
are treated equal.

11.6 NATURE OF FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

These duties are in the nature of a code of conduct. Since they are unjustifiable, there is no legal sanction behind
them. As you will find, a few of these duties are vague. For example, a common citizen may not understand what is
meant by ‘composite culture’, ‘rich heritage’ ‘humanism’, or ‘excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activities’. They will realize the importance of these duties only when these terms are simplified. A demand has
been made from time to time to revise the present list, simplify their language and make them more realistic and
meaningful and add some urgently required more realistic duties. As far as possible, they should be made
justiciable.

11.7 FEATURES OF FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

1. The fundamental duties contained both the moral as well as civic duties.
For example, cherishing noble ideals from freedom struggle is on moral lead however respecting the constitution,
national flag and national emblem is on civic lead.

2. Though some of the fundamental rights are extended to foreigners as well as aliens but fundamental duties are
only confined to Indian citizenship and do extend towards foreigners.
3. Like Directive Principles, Fundamental Duties are also non-enforceable in nature. The government cannot
enforce legal sanction for their violation.

4. The duties are essentially taken from the Indian tradition, mythology, religions and practices. Essentially these
were the duties that are the codification of tasks integral to the Indian way of life.

11.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

1. It serves as a constant reminder to the citizens while enjoying their rights, the citizens should be aware of their
duties, their nation and towards other citizens.

2. These serve as a warning to the people against the anti-social activities that disrespect the nation like burning
the flag, destroying the public property or disturbing public peace.

3. These help in the promotion of a sense of discipline and commitment towards the nation. They help in realizing
national goals by the active participation of citizens rather than mere spectators.

4. It helps the Court in determining the constitutionality of the law. For instance, any law passed by the
legislatures, when taken to Court for constitutional validity of the law, if it is giving force to any Fundamental
Duty, then such law would be taken as reasonable.

5. They can be enforced by the law; the parliament has the right to impose any type of penalty or punishment for
violating any of the Fundamental Duties.

Fundamental Duties of citizens serve a useful purpose. In particular, no democratic polity can ever succeed where
the citizen are not willing to be active participants in the process of governance by assuming responsibilities and
discharging citizenship duties and coming forward to give their best to the country. Some of the fundamental duties
enshrined in Article 51A have been incorporated in separate laws. For instance, the first duty includes respect for
the National Flag and the National Anthem. Disrespect is punishable by law. To value and preserve the rich
heritage of the mosaic that is India should help to weld our people into one nation but much more than Article 51A
will be needed to treat all human beings equally, to respect each religion and to confine it to the private sphere and
not make it a bone of contention between different communities of this land.

The most important task before us is to reconcile the claims of the individual citizen and those of the civic society.
To achieve this, it is important to orient the individual citizen to be conscious of his social and citizenship
responsibilities and so shape the society that we all become solicitous and considerate of the inalienable rights of
our fellow citizens.

Therefore, awareness of our citizenship duties is as important as awareness of our rights. Every right implies a
corresponding duty but every duty does not imply a corresponding right. Man does not live for himself alone. He
lives for the good of others as well as of himself. It is this knowledge of what is right and wrong that makes a man
responsible to himself and to the society and his knowledge is inculcated by imbibing and clearly understanding
one’s citizenship duties. The fundamental duties are the foundations of human dignity and national character. If
every citizen performs his duties irrespective of considerations of caste, creed, colour and language, most of the
malaise of the present day polity could be contained, if not eradicated, and the society as a whole uplifted. Rich or
poor, in power or out of power, obedience to citizenship duty, at all costs and risks, is the essence of civilized life.

11.9 LET US SUM UP

Rights are claims of an individual and these are essential for the development of himself or herself and that are
recognized by the society or the State. A duty is something that someone is required to do for any number of
reasons, including moral or legal obligations. Rights and duties are interdependent. Whereas all the rights are
recognized by the society, some of the most important rights are recognized by the State and enshrined in the
Constitution. Such rights are called Fundamental Rights. The Constitution guarantees six Fundamental Rights to
Indian citizens as follows: (i) Right to equality, (ii) Right to freedom, (iii) Right against exploitation, (iv) Right to
freedom of religion, (v) cultural and educational rights, and (vi) Right to constitutional remedies. While these
Fundamental Rights are universal, the Constitution provides for some exceptions and restrictions. The General
Assembly of the United Nations adopted several types of Human Rights in 1948 and enshrined them in Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. A number of the Human Rights have been given place as Fundamental Rights in the
Indian Constitution so that their implementation may become a legal duty of the government. The Human Rights
which could not find place under the Fundamental Rights have been taken care of under Directive Principles of
State Policy. Ten Fundamental Duties have been added in Part-IV of the Constitution under Art 51A in the year
1976 through the 42nd Constitutional Amendment. Unlike Fundamental Rights which are justiciable, the
Fundamental Duties are non-justiciable which means that their violation i.e. non-performance of these duties is
non-punishable.

11.11 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Bakshi P.M. The Constitution of India. 12th ed. New Delhi : Universal Law Publishing Co. Ltd.,

Basu, D. D. (1994). Introduction to the Constitution of India. New Delhi : Prentice Hall of India.

Blackshield, A.R. (1968). Fundamental Rights and the Economic Visibility of the Indian Nation. 10 J.I.L.I. 1.

Diwan, P. (1980). Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights towards the Constitutionally Proclaimed Goals of
Justice. XXXII P.U.L.R.

Guha, A.C. (1976). The Preamble, the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles. In S.L. Shankdhar (ed.)
The Constitution and the Parliament in India 69.

Mittal, J.K. (1970).Right to Equality in the Indian Constitution. Part I Public Law 36 (Spring).

O’Flaharty, W.D., & J.D.M., Derrett. (1981). The Concept of Duty in Asia; African Charter on Human and
People’s Right of 1981. OCLC : 3999328

Pandey J.N. The Constitutional Law of India. 9th ed., Allahabad : Central Law Agency.

Pylee, M.V. (1999). India’s Constitution. New Delhi : S. Chand and Company. Reddy, S. S. (1980).
Fundamentalness of Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles in the Indian Constitution. 22 J.I.L.I. 399.

Sharma, S.K. (1982). Directive Principle : A Mythical Egalitarianism,or a Reality. In ParasDiwan and Kumar (ed.)
1 Directive Principles Jurisprudence 237.

Sinha, S., Das, S.,& Rashmi, N. (2005). Social Science – Part II Textbook for Class IX. New Delhi : National
Council of Educational Research and Training.

Singh, J. P., Dubey, S., & Rashmi, N. (2005). Social Science – Part II Textbook for Class X. New Delhi : National
Council of Educational Research and Training.

Tripathi, P.K. (1972). Directive Principles of State Policy : The Lawyers Approach to Them Hitherto, Parochial,
Injurious and Unconstitutional.In Spotlights on constitutional Interpretation 291.

Venkataramiah, E.S. (1985). Some Thoughts on Social Justice. 25 J.I.L.I. 289.