IGCSE Grade (10)

Topic 3
Atomic Structure
and the Periodic Table
“The Atom”
­ The atom is the smallest building unit of an element.
• The atom consists of:
1. Nucleus at the center (massive) [p+ , n0] ∴ The nucleus is positively charged.
2. Negative electrons rotate around the nucleus in energy levels (shells & orbits).
[p+ , n0 , e–] are subatomic particles. ×
● p+
○ n0
× e–
×
The mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus as mass of (e–) is negligible if
compared to the mass of (p+) and (n0).

Particle Symbol Mass (amu) Charge

Proton p 1 +1
Neutron n 1 0
Electron e 1/1840 –1

Symbol of element
Z
Nucleon number = number of p+ + n0 A X Proton number = number of p+
(Atomic number)
(Mass number)

Example: 7Li3 [proton number = 3 , nucleon number = 7] (p+ = 3 , e– = 3) ∴

n0 = 7 – 3 = 4

N.B. (number of p+ = number of e–), so the atom is electrically neutral.

IGCSE Grade (10)

The heaviest atom has 7 energy levels.

K L M N O PQ
+
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2e– 8e– 18e– 32e–

The last energy level cannot hold more than 8 electrons.

× ×
×× ××
× ×
× + × × × + × ×
× × × × × ×
× ×
×× ××
××
Na11 (2, 8, 1) 17
Cl (2, 8, 7)

× ××
×× ××
×× ××
× ×
× × + × × × × + × ×
× × × × × × × ×
× ×
×× ××
×× ××

K19 (2, 8, 8, 1) Ca20 (2, 8, 8, 2)

Fe26: 2, 8, …, 2 As33: 2, 8, 18, … Sr38: 2, 8, …, 8, 2 Pd46: 2, 8, 18, …, 2

IGCSE Grade (10)

“Isotopes”
1 1 1
1H 2H 3H

p+ = 1 p+ = 1 p+ = 1
e– = 1 e– = 1 e– = 1
n0 = 1 – 1 = 0n0 = 2 – 1 = 1 n0 = 3 – 1 = 2
(Protium) (Deuterium) (Tritium)
17 17
35Cl 37Cl

• Isotopes: are atoms of same element having same number of protons [p+] but
different number of neutrons [n0].
N.B.
Isotopes of an element have 1- same chemical properties (same atomic no.)
2-Different physical properties e.g. density, rate of diffusion, radioactivity (different
nucleon no.)
• Radioactivity:
­ Is the spontaneous decay of radioactive isotopes which release radiation.
• Radioactive isotopes:
­ Isotopes which have unstable nuclei due to the extra number of neutrons and give out
radiation.

Uses of radioactive isotopes:

Medical uses:
1. Treatment of cancer cells by Cobalt 60.
2. Check the function of thyroid gland using Iodine ­131.
3. Location of tumors.
4. Sterilization of medical equipments.
Industrial uses:
1. Locating leaks in gas or oil pipes.
2. Check the thickness of metallic and plastic sheets.
3. Monitor the level of filling liquids in containers.
4. Uranium (U­ 235) used as fuel in nuclear power stations.
IGCSE Grade (10)

“The Periodic Table”

­ The elements are arranged according to the increase of their atomic number
(proton no.).
­ There are 16 groups and 7 periods.
­ The group number indicates the number of electrons in the last energy level
(valence e–).
­ The period number indicates number of energy level.
 IGCSE Grade (10)

Chemical Bonding
• Except noble gases, elements react with each other:
1. In order to reach stability.
2. To obtain outer most energy level filled with electrons.
3. To have the configuration of nearest noble gases.

“Elements”

Metals Non-metals

[1, 2, 3 electrons in outer most energy level] [4, 5, 6 or 7 electrons in outer most energy level]

Loses electrons Gains electrons Share electrons with

(Form +ve ions) (Form –ve ions) non­metal or H atom

Electrostatic attraction force (oppositely­ 1 pair single / 2 pairs double / 3 pairs triple

charged)

[ionic bond] [covalent bond]

“Ionic Bond”
­ Is an electrostatic attraction force between +ve ion and –ve ion due to transfer of
electrons from metal to non­metal.
Example:
(NaCl) (MgO) (CaCl2)
Na11: 2, 8, 1 & Cl17: 2, 8, 7 Mg12: 2, 8, 2 & O8: 2, 6 Ca20: 2, 8, 8, 2 &Cl20: 2, 8 7

×× – ×× 2– ×× –
+ ● 2+ ● 2+
Na × Cl ×× Mg ● O ×
× Ca 2 ●× Cl ××
×× ×× ××
IGCSE Grade (10)
• Ion: is a charged atom or group of atoms formed by the gain or loss of electrons
(unequal number of protons and electrons).
• Ionic compound: a compound formed of ions joined by ionic bond.

• Ionic structure [ionic lattice]: is a regular arrangement of opposite charged ions, held together by

strong electrostatic attraction force (molecules just ions).

Group I II III IV V VI VII 0

Valence electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0

• Group number = valence electrons = valency = number of electrons lost Groups I,

II and III.
• Group number = valence electrons
Valency = 8­ group number = number of electrons gained or shared Groups IV to
VII
• Number of positive charges on the positive ion(s) must equal number of negative
charges on negative ion(s), so the net charge of any ionic compound is zero.

Compound ions (atomic groups / radicals):

Compound ions is a group of different atoms chemically bonded carries positive or
negative charge and behave as one atom during chemical reactions
IGCSE Grade (10)

“Covalent Bond”
­ Is formed when atoms of non­metals share one or more pair of electrons forming
molecules.
N.B. No ions.

Single covalent: [One pair]

Example:

(H2) (Cl2) (HCl)

1H: 1 17Cl: 2, 8, 7 1H: 1 17Cl: 2, 8, 7
×× ●● ××
H ×● H × Cl ●× Cl ● H ×● Cl ×
× ● ×
×× ●● ××

(H2O) (CH4)
1H: 1 8O: 2, 6 6C: 2, 4 1H: 1

●● ●●
H× H
O ● ●×
× ×● C
H● H ×● ●×
H H

Double covalent: [Two pairs]

(O2) (CO2)
8O: 2, 6 6C: 2, 4 8O: 2, 6
×× ●● ×× ××
× O ●● ×× O ●
●
×
× O ●● ×× C ×× ●● O ×
×
×
IGCSE Grade (10)
Triple covalent: [Three pairs]

(N2) (C2H2)
7N: 2, 5 6C: 2, 4 1H: 1

●× ● ●
×
× N ●× N ●
● H●× C ●● ●● C × ●H
●×

Differences between ionic and covalent compounds

Property Ionic compounds Covalent compounds

Elements in compound Metal and non­metal Two or more non­metals
Type of particle Only ions Uncharged molecules(small or
giant)
Volatility, melting point and High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points
boiling point because ions are held together because intermolecular forces
by strong forces are weak
Solubility Most are soluble in water but Most are insoluble in water but
insoluble in organic solvents soluble in organic solvents
Electrical conductivity Conduct when molten or In general do not conduct as
dissolved in water because the solids, liquids or in solution,
ions are free to move. Do not because there are no ions, only
conduct as solids, because the molecules. A few dissolve in
ions are stuck in the crystal water and form ions, and these
lattice will conduct in aqueous solution,
for example hydrogen chloride.
N.B. ­ In solid ionic compound the particles (ions) are charged and regularly arranged
in lattice held together with strong electrostatic attraction forces
ex. Sodium chloride (common salt).
­In solid molecular covalent compound the particles (molecules) are not charged
and held together by weak intermolecular forces ex. ice
IGCSE Grade (10)

“Macromolecules”
Contain big number of atoms joined together by:
­ Covalent bond (giant covalent structure)
­ Ionic bond (ionic lattice)
• Allotropes: different structural forms of an element in the same state.

N.B. Diamond and Graphite are allotropes.

Giant covalent structures

Diamond:

­ Is a crystalline form of Carbon (C), each C atom is strongly bonded to 4 C atoms by

covalent bonds in tetrahedral structure.

C C
C

Tetrahedral Structure

Properties of diamond Uses

Very high melting point
Hardest substance known Drilling; cutting glass and metals
Does not conduct electricity
Colourless crystals that glitter jewellery
 IGCSE Grade (10)
Graphite:

­ Each C atom is strongly bonded to 3 C atoms by covalent bond forming layers of

hexagons held by weak force of attraction.

roperties of graphite Uses

Black shiny solid
Soft with a slippery almost soapy feel: the layers can slip over each ­As a lubricant
other because of the weak bonds between layers ­In pencils (mixture
of graphite and clay)
Good conductor of electricity because the electrons between the To make electrodes
layers are mobile
High melting point because the strong bonds in the layers have to
break before the graphite can melt
IGCSE Grade (10)
Silicon IV oxide (silica or sand):
­ Each silicon atom is strongly bonded to four oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom is
strongly bonded to two silicon atoms in a tetrahedral structure.

O
Si
O O O

­ Silicon dioxide has same chemical properties of diamond

­ Used in 1. Sandpaper, as it is hardand can scratchthings.
i. bricks for lining furnaces, as it has high m.p.
ii. making glass and lenses, as it is hard andlet light through.

Metallic bonding
It is the electrostatic attraction force between regularly arranged positive metal ions, and
a mobile sea of delocalized electrons.

Properties of metals:

1. Have high m.p and b.p. due to the strong attraction force between positive metal
ions and the freely moving electrons.
2. Conduct electricity due to the free moving electrons within the structure.
3. Good conductors of heat, as the freely moving electrons within the structure transfer
heat energy along the metal .
4. Malleable and ductile. If a force is applied, the metal rows of ions slide over each
other.
5. Have high density, as the ions are very closely packed.
IGCSE Grade (10)