Transducos

- 81
instrumentation

and
cUlements
daa

of humidity.
hygrometer is used for the
measurement

4 Leaky capacitance
inductive transducer ?
What is tranducer. In
a.38
transducer is the most simple form of displacement
An inductive in self or mutual
inductance.
Ans.
displacement is converted into change like
used for measurement of physical quantities
asducer,
transducers are
lr inductive
vibration etc.
Practically

force, pressure,
velocity,
displacement,
inductive transducers.
types of
Give diferent inductance with number
of
a39
based on principle of change in
Ans.: Transducer
1. Trans
1.
turms inductance with permeability.
based on principle of change in
9. Transducer of change in
indutance with
reluctance.

based on principle
3. Transducer
LVDT ?
What is linear displacement by
hich is used to
measure
a40 transducer which
It is a passive
into corresponding
electrical signal ie. voltage.
Ans. : displacement
converting t h e .linear

transformer
called differential and two
LVDT is
Why transformer with one primary winding
a.41
consists a between the
VDT
:Basically LVI LVDT is the difference
voltage of Differential
Ans. output
The oui called Linear Variable
windings.
econdary ence it is
econdary voltages. Henc
S e c o
alternatively

Transformer ( L V D T ) .

Write advantages
of LVDT. for displacement
almost linear
a42
The output voltage of LVDT
is
Ans.: 1. Linearity:
upto 5 mm.

voltage is continuous, stepless.

The change in output
2. Infinite
resolution :
more on the equipment used for the
resolution depends
The effective LVDT.
rather than on the
measurement

and hence requires less

reasonably high output,
3. High output: LVDT gives
amplification afterwards.

about 300 mV/mm; i.e.,

: LVDT has high sensitivity of
4. High sensitivity of 300 mV.
1 mm displacement of
the core produces a output voltage

Q43 Write amy three disadvantages of LVDT.

differential
AS.1. Comparatively large displacements are necessary for appreciable
output. this interterence can
hey are sensitive to stray magnetic fields. However,
be reduced by shielding
3. The dynamic response is limited by the mass of the core.
4.
Temperature affects the transducer. ************************
* *********"*******

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M e a s u r e m e n t s a n dI n s t r u m e n t a t i o n 6- 84

Explain
photoconductive effect. Give
effect.
main
Q.54
tranducers.
e Pno.
material, the
types of
photoc
Treretr
When light energy in the
falls on a
radia
Ans.:
bonds re broken
bro and large number of
ionizes the
are

bonds.
These

effectively
increases ber
number current rier and
This ial Such phenomenon 1s known as photoconductive effect the
eledecrease
ctron-hole pairs
Th ae neof
Re

of photoconductive
transducers as followe
uctive
here
nert
tvpes are two m
Photoconductive cells, b) Photodiodes
a)
photovoltaic effect ? What are the most
Q.55 What is
transducers ? commonhy used
Ans. When an open circuited p-n junction is illuminataa photorolottaarie
electron-hole pairs are generated near the junction. Typicallv la
across the terminals which act as voltage source. The phemo umber
oneroy is converted into nomenon in which
electrical energy ie.
voltage is commonlv
effect. The most commonly used photovoltaic transducers are mly called photowolta
a) Photovoltaic cell b) Phototransistors.
Q.56 What is thermistor?
Ans.: Thermistor is basically a thermal-resistor. In general
semiconductor device which behaves thermisthr
as thermal resistor
Coefficient (NTC). The meaning of
having Negative Teme enture
negative thermal coefficient means the resistane
thermistor decreases with increase in the ance of
temperature.
Q.57 List materials used for thermistors.
Ans. The material used for thermistor is
semiconductor material.
composed of semiconductor materials like sintered mixtures of The thermistors are
oxides of sulphides, selenides
manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron, copper, magnesium, titanium, uranium et
The resistance of such
thermistors may range from 10 2 100 kQ
temperature. at ambient
Q.58 List
advantages of thermistors.
Ans. 1. Small size and low cost.
2.
Comparatively large change in resistance for a given change in temperite
3. Fast response over a narrow
Q.59 List
temperature range.
An8.
disadoantages of thermistors.
The resistance versus temperature characteristic is highly nonnea
2. Not suitable over a wide
temperature range.
s e or high resistance of thermistor, shielded cables have to be u
minimize interference.

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS" An up thrust for knowledge

 35 Transducers
n s t r u m e n t a t l c

Measun a n d

Differential Transducer (LVDT)

6 . 1 2Linear
a r Va
Varlable
May-05, 12, 16, Dec,-03, 06, O8, 09, 12, 13, 15
a change in position of a body or a
vector quantily representing
is a or angular (rotational) motion. With
It
It can be linear
reference.reference.

t o a
to
respect to
a other quantities, such as force, strese
D i s p l a c

r e s p e c t

icer, manytransduce
w i t h

displacement In ccase of
can
displacement, the
found.
be found. inear
point
of a c c e l e r a t i o n

few centimeters. A
the help help and a few micrometer to a

may range from

relocity,
mea
Pesse measuremer

detect the static

or dynamic displacement by
magniltude of
displacement transducers

whose displacement is to be
to the point or body
m a j o r i l yo fe
inks
itable mechanical lini coupled
of
measured trans
work on the principle
displacement
ical
strain gauge.
T h em a i n e l e c t r i c e

:Transduceris transformer
differential
variable
1 .Variable r e s i s t a n c e

Transducer is linear with variable gap

plate capacitor
2 Variable i n d u c t a n c e

:Transducer is parallel
3 Variable capacitance displacement.
to measure angular
Used variable
resolvers:
transducer
transducer is the
and d i s p l a cement
ement
This is
4
Synchros
more popular type of to displacement.
the displacement.
and according
is varied variable
simple
A simple the
inductance
b e t w e e n the
two coils (linear
wherein inductance
type mutual r e l u c t a n c e sensor).
inductance
the (variable
achieved either
by varying self
inductances
suitable
transformer) or by varying make LVDT
most

diferential and good stability element in the

accuracy, sensing
high the basic
The very fine resolution, LVDT forms element of electronic
Appln
measuring device. It is also a basic
as a position- acceleration.
of pressure,
load, and level
indicators.
measurement
- measuring
units, and
Comparators,thickness
of LVDT
Construction and Working consists of
6.12.1 differential
transformer
variable
linear a hollow
6.12.1, the wound on
Fig. in the and S2
secondary windings S
As lhustrated
are
and two but they
P number of turns
nge primary winding have an equal
each
other.
former. The secondaries coils oppose
narical induced in the
opposition so that the e.m.f.s range rou
InSeries frequency may whose
source,
connected to an a.c. The posiion
SAT Winding is the hollow former.
iron core slides inside
K H z , A movable soft between the a.c.
excited primary
of th linkage
le core deternmines the flux made up of nickel-iron
alloy
winding and each of the two secondary windings. The c o r e measured
is sloted to be
losses., The displacemernt
is
4plied ngitudinally to reduce eddy current center, or
reterence

applied to an arm
ind.aached
to the core. With the core
in the
each
PRtion, the and since they oppusE
thes, the ououtputCEe.m.fs
he in the_secondaries are equal,
voltage will be zero volt.
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS"- An up thrust for knowledge
 Measurements and Instrumentation 6- 36

A.C. Input
Tranethra
A -

Ein
P Eout
A
099099900000-
Core Armn
Displacement
CORE
O000-
Est
E2
Core

Fig. 6.12.1 Linear variable

Eout
differential transformer
When an externally applied force
moves the core to the left-hand position,
Output
voltage
more magnetic flux links the left-hand coil
than the right-hand coil. The e.m.f.
induced in the left-hand coil, E_1 is B
therefore larger than the induced e.m.f. of
Core posion
the right-hand coil, Es2. The magnitude of
"

the output voltage is then equal to the

difference between the two secondary
voltages and it is in phase with the
voltage of the left-hand coil.
Similarly, when the core is forced to Core
o re Core Core
move to the right, more flux links the Core Core at O Core
right-hand coil than the left-hand coil and at A Null position at B
the resulting output voltage, which is the Fig. 6.12.2 Output voltage of LVDT at
different core positions
difference betweern Es2 and Es1, is now in
phase with the e.m.f. of the right-hand coil.
Thus the LVDT output voltage is a function of the core positon. movement

Otage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount a moton

e C O r e . 5y noting which output is increasing or decreasing tne u

2sses through
core
yaltage inverts in phase a_ the
can be determined. The output greateris the
a.c.
the 8
the central null position. Further as the core moves from the center,greater the output
difference in value between E and
E2 and conseque

knoweug
trust for
ECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS"- An up
Meesurements end Instrumentation
6- 37 Transduocers

ot the output voltage is a function of the distance

taoe. Therefore the amplitude indicates the direction of the motion.
while the polarnty
or Pnase
Op moves,

output voltage of an LVDT

is a linear function of the core
The amount of motion
limited range of
within a
displacement
LVDT
and Disadvantages of
6.12.2 Avantages

Advantages of LVDDT
of LVDT is almost linear for displacement upto
1. Linearity : The output voltage
5 mm
stepless. The
2. Infinite Resolution : The change in output voltage is continuous,
on the equipment used tor the measurement
effective resolution depends more

rather than on the LVDT.

LVDT gives reasonably high output, and hence requires less
3. High Output:
 Neasurwents and lIistrumentatkwi
10
6.8.2 Derlvatlon of Gauge Factor
he
gauge factor is defined an the unit change in reaiatance per init ehage in
lenglh
Tt is denoted as K or S. It in also called senaltlvlty of the atralin
HAR
S AR/R
A/
where S Gauge tactor or senaltivity
R Gauge wire resistace
AR= Change in wire resistance
conditton
wire in unstresned
Length of the gauge
stressed condition.
Al =
Change in length in and it is
under tenaile streAN deformed
resistance wire ls
Derivation: Consider that the

by Al as shown in the Fig. 6.8.2. 42-m

resistance of wire material in
Let P Specific
Length of the wire in
m
I=
A = Cross-section of the wire in m
o is applied to
this wire along
When uniform stress
because of
R changes to R+ AR
thelength, the resistance area.
R changos
change in length and cross-sectional to
A R+AR
a=Stress
Per unit change in length
A 1/l =

Per unit change in area

A A/A =

Per unit change in resistivity

Ap/p =

(specific resistance)
pl
Now R A

dR
do
AP
do A da
o pl dA
A2 da
I
A do
dp
Flg. 6.8.2 Deformed reslstance
wire
1 0A
Note that A2 do

Multiply both sides by

1 dR p d 1 pl dA , I p
R do RA do RA2 do RA do

R = pl on right hand side,

Using A
1 dR 1 d_1 dA ,1 dp
R do l do A do p do
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 M e a s u r e e n t s a n d instnumantation 17 Transducer

Cancelling
da from both sides,
IR ddA,dp
A
A AA Ap .(6.8.1)
AR
i.e R A
finite stress, total change n reststance is due to fractional change in
Thusfor
rdaer
Pomt
Koy resistivity.
and
arra
length,
wire,
Ad
circular
For a
OA

1 dA
A ds
1 0A
A ds 1(2d)s
(d2)
AA 2Ad . (6.8.2)
OA i.e. d
Cancelling ds A strain in lateral
is defined as the ratio of
for the wire
the Poisson's ratio ju
Now direction.
strain in the axial
direction to
Ada Poisson's rato
.. (6.8.3)
Ad A
(6.8.2) and (6.8.3) in equation (6.8.1),
Using equations
AR 2Ad, Ap
dR P
1+4]+

Ap
Neglecting piezoelectric effect,can be neglected.

S Gauge factor =A ARR1+2P

This is also denoted as G.
In general,
S C= 1+24 +4P/p
************" * ******** *******-************"********

where last term is due to

piezoelectric effect.
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