Collecting Data
Presented By:
Dr.Deepthi Athuluru
Dept. of Public Health Dentistry
DATA
• A dictionary defines data as facts or figures
from which conclusions may be drawn.
• A collective recording of observations either
numerical or otherwise is called data
Statistics is a tool for converting data
into
Statistics
information
Data Information
•But where then does data come from ?
•How is it gathered ?
•How do we ensure its accurate ?
•Is the data reliable?
•Is it representative of the population from which
it was drawn?
5.3
Methods of Collecting Data
• Direct Observation
• Experiments, and
• Surveys.
Methods
Mailing paper questionnaires to respondents,
who fill them out and mail them back
Having interviewers call to respondents on the
telephone and ask them the question in a
telephone interview
• Sending the interviewers to the
respondent’s home or office to administer
the questions in face-to-face interviews
Depending upon the nature of the
variable data is classified into 2
broad categories
• Qualitative Data
• Quantitative Data:-
1. discrete
2. continuous
• Qualitative data :-
(characterized by words)
when the data is collected on
the basis of attributes or qualities like
sex, malocclusions, cavity etc.
• Quantitative data :- (characterized by
numbers)
when the data is collected through
measurement, like arch length, fluoride
concentration etc.
• Discrete data :-
when the variable under observation
takes only fixed values like whole numbers.
• Continuous data :-
if the variable can take any value in a
given range, decimal or fractional.
Quantitative: numbers breadth generalizability
Qualitative: words depth specific
Remember, "Not everything that counts can be counted."
Quantitative methods –
Qualitative methods
Quantitative Qualitative
Surveys Focus groups
Questionnaires
Tests Unstructured
interviews
Existing databases Unstructured
observations
Common data collection methods
•Survey •Testimonials
•Case study •Tests
•Interview •Photographs,
•Observation videotapes, slides
•Group assessment •Diaries, journals,
logs
•Expert or peer
reviews •Document review
and analysis
•Portfolio reviews
Are the data reliable and valid?
• Validity:
Are you measuring what you think you are
measuring?
• Reliability:
if something was measured again using the
same instrument, would it produce the
same (or nearly the same) results?
• The main sources of data are :-
1) surveys
2) experiments
3) records in OPD
• Data can be collected through either :-
1) primary source
2) secondary source
• Primary Source :-
Here the data is obtained by the investigator
himself. This is a first hand information.
• Advantages :-
Precise information and reliable.
• Disadvantages :-
Time consuming, expensive.
• Primary data can be obtained using :-
1) Direct personal
2) Oral health examination
3) Questionnaire method
• Secondary Source :-
The data already recorded is utilized
to serve the purpose of the objectives of
study.
Ex:- The records of opd of the dental
clinics.
Data Gathering Techniques
• Observation
• Questioning
Data domains
Cognitive -- paper and pencil
Affective -- interview
Psychomotor -- observation
Data Presentation
The objective of classification of data is to
make the data simple, concise, meaningful and
interesting and helpful in further analysis.
There are 2 methods of presenting data:-
1) Tabulation
2) Diagrams
• Tabulation :-
Is the first step before the data is used
for analysis or interpretation.
• In the process of tabulation the following
type of classification are encountered.
1) Geographical i.e area wise
2) Chronological i.e on the basis of time
3) Qualitative i.e. according to attribute
4) Quantitative i.e. in terms of magnitude
TABLE FORMAT :
Number of Primary Health Centres in India at 5-year Intervals during 1970-1990
YEAR No.of PHCs
1970 5015
1975 5293
1980 5484
1985 7284
1990 18,981
• Classification by Space :-
1) Data are classified by location of occurrence
2) Arrangement of set of categories in
alphabetical order of the terms defining these
categories,
3) In the order of their geographical location
may be found to be suitable in many cases.
Table 2
Number of Literates in Rural and Urban Areas in India (state wise list).
No.of literates ( in thousands)
STATES
RURAL URBAN
Andhra Pradesh 14,821 10,119
Assam 7921 1709
Bihar 20,358 6485
Maharastra 22,164 20,774
Gujarat 12,096 9179
Kerala 16,443 6228
Madhya Pradesh 14,464 9027
Tamil Nadu 17,424 12,958
Karnataka 12,267 8812
Orissa 10,303 2608
Punjab 6253 3699
Rajastan 8189 5428
Uttar Pradesh 33,079 13,968
West Bengal 20,337 12,382
TOTAL 216,119 123,376
• Chronological i.e. On the basis of time :-
1) In this case data are classified by time of
occurrence of the observations
2) Arrangement of categories is almost
always in chronological order
Table 3
Number of Primary Health Centres in India at 5-year Intervals during 1970-1990
YEAR No.of PHCs
1970 5015
1975 5293
1980 5484
1985 7284
1990 18,981
• Classification by attribute :-
1) When the data represent observations made
on a qualitative characteristic the classification in
such a case is made according to this qualities.
2) Alphabetical arrangement of categories may
be suitable for general purpose table
3) In the case of special purpose table
arrangement may be made in the order of
importance of these categories
Table 4
Patients who attended Leprosy Clinics during 1993
Type of leprosy No. of patients
Tuberculoid 604
Lepromatous 272
Indeterminate 72
Borderline 48
TOTAL 996
Classification by the size of observations :-
1. when the data represent observations of
some characteristic on a numerical scale,
classification is made on the basis of the individual
observations.
2. The range of observations is suitable divided
into smaller divisions called class intervals.
3. The numerical scale adopted may be either
discrete or continuous.
Table 5
Distribution of Single Live Born with respect to Birth Weight
Birth Weight (grams) No.of children (n)
< 1500 24
1500 - 1999 60
2000 - 2499 422
2500 and above 3202
TOTAL 3708
Principles (in tabulation of data) :-
1. Every table should contain a title, should
be concise and meaningful.
2. The tables should be numbered
3. The heading of columns or rows should be
clear and concise .eg: ht in cm, age in
years , wt in kg etc
4. The number of class intervals should be
sufficient to condense the data bringing
out their significant features .
5. The class intervals should be at equal
width
6. Uniform size class intervals are preferable
7. Sometimes open end class intervals are
used
8. The class intervals should be clearly defined
to avoid ambiguity .eg- 0-4, 5-9, 10-14 etc.
9. Units of measurements should be specified.
10. If the data is not original , the source of
the data should be mentioned at the bottom
of the table.
11. Groups should be tabulated in ascending or
descending order.
12. If certain data is omitted or excluded deliberately,
the reason for same should be given.
13. For many arithmetic calculations the midpoint of
each class interval will be used as a representative
of each item in that interval.
14. The interval should be so chosen that the mid
point of each interval is approximately the average
of the items in that interval.
15. It will be convenient if mid points and limits are
whole numbers.
16. The class intervals should be same through
out table except in case of age
• 0-<1 (infant up to 1yr)
• 1-4 (toddlers 1to 5yrs but not completed 5
yrs)
• 5-14 ( School children < 15yrs)
Presentation by Graphs and Diagrams:-
Diagrams and graphs are extremely useful
because
1. They are attractive to the eyes
2. Give a birds eye view of the entire data
3. Have a lasting impression on the mind
of the layman
4. Facilitate comparison of data.
Basic rules in the construction
of diagrams and graphs :-
1. Every diagram must be given a
title
2. It should be simple
3. The vertical axis is always labeled
as the ‘y’ axis. It is also “ordinate”.
4. The horizontal axis is always
labeled as ‘x’ axis . It is also called
“abscissa”.
5. The x axis and y axis meet at right
angles at a point called origin (o)
6. The values of variables are
presented on the x axis and the
frequency on y axis
7. The number of lines drawn in any graph should
not be many so that the diagram does not look
clumpsy.
8. The scale of presentation for the x axis and y axis
should be mentioned at the right hand corner of
the graph
9. The scale of division of two axis should be
proportional and the division should be mark
along with the details of the variables and
frequencies presented on the axis.
Presentation of quantitative data is
through graphs, the common
graphs in use are:-
1. Histogram
2. Frequency polygon
3. Frequency curve
4. Line graph
5. Scatter or dot diagram
Presentation of qualitative data is
through diagrams, the common
diagrams in use are:-
1. Bar diagram
2. Pie/sector diagram
3. Pictogram or picture diagram
4. Map diagram or spot map
Line diagram:
• This diagram is useful to study changes of
values in the variable overtime.
• Simplest type of diagram.
• On the X axis the time such as hours, days,
weeks, months or years are represented.
• The value of any quantity pertaining to this is
represented along the Y axis.
OP
500
450 467
400 400 402
NO OF OUT-PATIENTS
380 367 380
350 346 354
300 300 289
250 250 265
200
150
100
50
0
Nov-06
May-06
Feb-06
Apr-06
Aug-06
Dec-06
Mar-06
Jan-06
Jun-06
Jul-06
Sep-06
Oct-06
Frequency polygon:
1. The most commonly
used graphic device to
illustrate statistical
distribution.
2. Used to represent
frequency distribution
of quantitative data.
3. Useful to compare 2 or
more frequency
distributions.
• A frequency polygon is a variation of a
histogram, in which the bars are replaced by
lines connecting the midpoints of the tops
of the bars.
• Advocates of the frequency polygon argue
that the purpose of a histogram is to show
the shape of the data distribution and
removing the bars makes the shape clearer
and smoother.
Construction of frequency polygon:
1. To draw a frequency polygon, A point is marked in
the midpoint of the class interval, corresponding to
the frequency.
2. Then these points are connected by straight lines.
3. The first point and last point are joined to the
midpoint of previous and next class respectively.
4. Rather than leaving the graph suspended in space ,
we assume that there is another interval above and
below which is having frequency of 0 .
5. so the midpoint of group are assume having
frequency of 0.the group is now allowed to meet x-
axis on both the ends.
Advantages of frequency polygon:
• It is very easy to construct and very easy to
interpret.
• It is useful in portraying more than two
distributions on the same graph paper with
different colors. So it is very useful to compare 2 or
more than 2 distributions.
Frequency curve:-
When the number of observations are very large and groups
are more (ie; small class intervals) the frequency polygon
tends to loose its angulation and it forms a smooth curve
known as frequency curve.
Scatter diagram or dot diagram:
1. It is a graphic presentation of data.
2. It is used to show the nature of co-
relation between 2 variables
Bar diagram
1. This diagram is used to represent
qualitative data.
2. It represent only one variable.
3. The width of the bar remains the same
and only the length varies according to the
frequency in each category.
4. There are 3 types of bars:
a) simple bar
b) multiple bar
c) component bar diagram
• Simple bar:
The limitation of this method is that they can
represent only on the classification and hence
cannot be used for comparison
500 467 OP
450
400 402
400 380 367 380
346 354
350
NO OF OUT-PATIENTS
300 289
300 265
250
250
200
150
100
50
0
Oct-06
Nov-06
Jan-06
Jul-06
Dec-06
Feb-06
Jun-06
Aug-06
Apr-06
May-06
Sep-06
Mar-06
• Multiple bar:
1. This diagram is used to compare qualitative data with
respect to a single variable.
2. This diagram is similar to the bar diagram except that
for each category of the variable we have a set of bars of
the same width corresponding to the different section
without any gap in between the width and the length
corresponds to the frequency.
OP
467
500 IP
400
402
450
380
380
367
354
346
400
NO OF PATIENTS
300
350
289
265
250
300
250
154
200
120
150 102
90
86
78
70
67
60
100
59
48
45
50
0
Nov-06
Feb-06
Aug-06
Apr-06
May-06
Dec-06
Jul-06
Jun-06
Sep-06
Oct-06
Jan-06
Mar-06
Component bar diagram:
• This diagram is used to represent qualitative
data.
• It is desired to represent both the no of cases in
major groups as well as the subgroups
simultaneously
Histogram:
this diagram is used to
depict quantitative
data
1. It is a bar diagram
without gap between
bars.
2. If we draw frequencies
of each group or class
intervals in the form of
columns or rectangles
such a diagram is called
histogram.
3. It represents a frequency
distribution.
The histogram is constructed as follows:
1. On the X axis the size of the observation is marked.
2. Starting from 0 the limit of each class interval is
marked, the width corresponding to the width of the
class interval in the frequency distribution.
3. On the Y axis the frequencies are marked
4. A rectangle is drawn above each class interval with
height proportional to the frequency of that interval.
Advantages of Histogram:
Easy to understand
Disadvantages of Histogram:
• Only 1 histogram can be placed at a time.
• More time consuming to construct than a
frequency polygon.
Pie diagram:
1. These are popularly used
to show percentage break
downs for qualitative data.
2. It is so called because the
entire graph looks like a
pie and its components
represent slices cut from a
pie.
3. A circle is divided into
different sectors
corresponding to the
frequencies of the
distribution.
4. Some knowledge of circles
and degrees is necessary
5. The total angle at the center of the circle is 360
degrees and it represents the total frequency.
6. After the calculation of angle, segments are drawn
in the circle and the segments are shaded with
different shades or colors and an index is provided
for the shaded colors
7. Cannot be used to represent 2 or more data sets
Pictogram
1. Display of data through pictograms was
initiated by Dr Otto Neurath in 1923.
2. Data are displayed by the pictures of the
items to which the data pertain.
3. A single picture represents a fixed no.
4. They are the least satisfactory type of
diagrams.
5. They are inaccurate too.
Map diagram or spot map or cartograms:
1. These maps are used to show geographical
distribution of frequencies of a characteristics.
References
1. Kirkwood BR, Sterne JAC. Essentials in Medical
Statistics. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell; (2010).
2. Jay S. Kim And Ronald J. Dailey. Biostatistics For
Oral Healthcare. Blackwell Publishing Company.
2008
3. C.R Kothari. Research Methodology methods and
technologies. 2nd edition. New age international
private ltd publishers; 2004. reprint 2007
