Computer Architecture And organization Unit –1 Data Representation

Chapter 1 – Data Representation

1.1 – Data Types

 Registers contain either data or control information

 Control information is a bit or group of bits used to specify the sequence of
command signals needed for data manipulation
 Data are numbers and other binary-coded information that are operated on
 Possible data types in registers:
o Numbers used in computations
o Letters of the alphabet used in data processing
o Other discrete symbols used for specific purposes
 All types of data, except binary numbers, are represented in binary-coded form

 A number system of base, or radix, r is a system that uses distinct symbols for r
digits
 Numbers are represented by a string of digit symbols
 The string of digits 724.5 represents the quantity

7 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 4 x 100 + 5 x 10-1

 The string of digits 101101 in the binary number system represents the quantity

1 x 25 + 0 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 45

 (101101)2 = (45)10
 We will also use the octal (radix 8) and hexidecimal (radix 16) number systems

(736.4)8 = 7 x 82 + 3 x 81 + 6 x 80 + 4 x 8-1 = (478.5)10

(F3)16 = F x 161 + 3 x 160 = (243)10

 Conversion from decimal to radix r system is carried out by separating the

number into its integer and fraction parts and converting each part separately
 Divide the integer successively by r and accumulate the remainders
 Multiply the fraction successively by r until the fraction becomes zero Each octal
digit corresponds to three binary digits
 Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to four binary digits
 Rather than specifying numbers in binary form, refer to them in octal or
hexadecimal and reduce the number of digits by 1/3 or ¼, respectively.

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 A binary code is a group of n bits that assume up to 2n distinct combinations

 A four bit code is necessary to represent the ten decimal digits – 6 are unused

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD):-

 The most popular decimal code is called binary-coded decimal (BCD)

 This is weighted code and also known as 8421 code.
 BCD number consisting of four bits group (called as Nibble)
 BCD number ranges from 0 to 9 in decimal & 0000 to 1001 in binary.
 BCD is different from converting a decimal number to binary
 For example 99, when converted to binary, is 1100011
 99 when represented in BCD is 1001 1001.

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ASCII:
 The standard alphanumeric binary code is ASCII
 ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
 This uses seven bits to code ie. 27 =128 characters.
 However, Manufacturers have added an eight bit to this coding scheme, which
provide for 256 characters
 This eight bit coding scheme is referred to as an 8 bit ASCII.
 Binary codes are required since registers can hold binary information only.
 It includes 128 characters: 33 are non printing control character that affect how text
and space is processed.
 95 are printable characters, includingspace.
 It is very well known fact that computers can manage internally only 0s (zeros) and
1s (ones).

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Complements

 Complements are used in digital computers for simplifying subtraction and logical
manipulation
 Two types of complements for each base r system: r’s complement and (r – 1)’s
complement
 Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r – 1)’s complement of N is
defined as (rn – 1) – N

 For decimal, the 9’s complement of N is (10n – 1) – N

 The 9’s complement of 546700 is 999999 – 546700 = 453299

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 The 9’s complement of 453299 is 999999 – 453299 = 546700

 For binary, the 1’s complement of N is (2n – 1) – N
 The 1’s complement of 1011001 is 1111111 – 1011001 = 0100110
 The 1’s complement is the true complement of the number – just toggle all bits

 The r’s complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as rn – N

 This is the same as adding 1 to the (r – 1)’s complement
 The 10’s complement of 2389 is 7610 + 1 = 7611
 The 2’s complement of 101100 is 010011 + 1 = 010100

 Subtraction of unsigned n-digit numbers: M – N

o Add M to the r’s complement of N – this results in
M + (rn – N) = M – N + rn
o If M  N, the sum will produce an end carry rn which is discarded
o If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry and is equal to
rn – (N – M), which is the r’s complement of (N – M). To obtain the
answer in a familiar form, take the r’s complement of the sum and place a
negative sign in front.

Example: 72532 – 13250 = 59282. The 10’s complement of 13250 is 86750.

M = 72352
10’s comp. of N = +86750
Sum = 159282
Discard end carry = -100000
Answer = 59282

Example for M < N: 13250 – 72532 = -59282

M = 13250
10’s comp. of N = +27468
Sum = 40718
No end carry
Answer = -59282 (10’s comp. of 40718)

Example for X = 1010100 and Y = 1000011

X = 1010100
2’s comp. of Y = +0111101
Sum = 10010001
Discard end carry = -10000000
Answer X – Y = 0010001

Y = 1000011
2’s comp. of X = +0101100
Sum = 1101111

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No end carry
Answer = -0010001 (2’s comp. of 1101111)

Fixed-Point Representation

 Positive integers and zero can be represented by unsigned numbers

 Negative numbers must be represented by signed numbers since + and – signs are
not available, only 1’s and 0’s are
 Signed numbers have msb as 0 for positive and 1 for negative – msb is the sign bit
 Two ways to designate binary point position in a register
o Fixed point position
o Floating-point representation
 Fixed point position usually uses one of the two following positions
o A binary point in the extreme left of the register to make it a fraction
o A binary point in the extreme right of the register to make it an integer
o In both cases, a binary point is not actually present
 The floating-point representations uses a second register to designate the position
of the binary point in the first register

 When an integer is positive, the msb, or sign bit, is 0 and the remaining bits
represent the magnitude
 When an integer is negative, the msb, or sign bit, is 1, but the rest of the number
can be represented in one of three ways
o Signed-magnitude representation
o Signed-1’s complement representation
o Signed-2’s complement representation

 Consider an 8-bit register and the number +14

o The only way to represent it is 00001110
 Consider an 8-bit register and the number –14
o Signed magnitude: 1 0001110
o Signed 1’s complement: 1 1110001
o Signed 2’s complement: 1 1110010
 Typically use signed 2’s complement

 Addition of two signed-magnitude numbers follow the normal rules

o If same signs, add the two magnitudes and use the common sign
o Differing signs, subtract the smaller from the larger and use the sign of the
larger magnitude
o Must compare the signs and magnitudes and then either add or subtract
 Addition of two signed 2’s complement numbers does not require a comparison or
subtraction – only addition and complementation
o Add the two numbers, including their sign bits
o Discard any carry out of the sign bit position
o All negative numbers must be in the 2’s complement form
o If the sum obtained is negative, then it is in 2’s complement form
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+6 00000110 -6 11111010
+13 00001101 +13 00001101
+19 00010011 +7 00000111

+6 00000110 -6 11111010
-13 11110011 -13 11110011
-7 11111001 -19 11101101

 Subtraction of two signed 2’s complement numbers is as follows

o Take the 2’s complement form of the subtrahend (including sign bit)
o Add it to the minuend (including the sign bit)
o A carry out of the sign bit position is discarded

 An overflow occurs when two numbers of n digits each are added and the sum
occupies n + 1 digits
 Overflows are problems since the width of a register is finite
 Therefore, a flag is set if this occurs and can be checked by the user
 Detection of an overflow depends on if the numbers are signed or unsigned
 For unsigned numbers, an overflow is detected from the end carry out of the msb
 For addition of signed numbers, an overflow cannot occur if one is positive and
one is negative – both have to have the same sign
 An overflow can be detected if the carry into the sign bit position and the carry
out of the sign bit position are not equal

+70 0 1000110 -70 1 0111010

+80 0 1010000 -80 1 0110000
+150 1 0010110 -150 0 1101010

 The representation of decimal numbers in registers is a function of the binary

code used to represent a decimal digit
 A 4-bit decimal code requires four flip-flops for each decimal digit
 This takes much more space than the equivalent binary representation and the
circuits required to perform decimal arithmetic are more complex
 Representation of signed decimal numbers in BCD is similar to the representation
of signed numbers in binary
 Either signed magnitude or signed complement systems
 The sign of a number is represented with four bits
o 0000 for +
o 1001 for –
 To obtain the 10’s complement of a BCD number, first take the 9’s complement
and then add one to the least significant digit

 Example: (+375) + (-240) = +135

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0 375 (0000 0011 0111 1010)BCD

+9 760 (1001 0111 0110 0000)BCD
0 135 (0000 0001 0011 0101)BCD

Floating-Point Representation

 The floating-point representation of a number has two parts

 The first part represents a signed, fixed-point number – the mantissa
 The second part designates the position of the binary point – the exponent
 The mantissa may be a fraction or an integer
 Example: the decimal number +6132.789 is
o Fraction: +0.6123789
o Exponent: +04
o Equivalent to +0.6132789 x 10+4
 A floating-point number is always interpreted to represent m x re
 Example: the binary number +1001.11 (with 8-bit fraction and 6-bit exponent)
o Fraction: 01001110
o Exponent: 000100
o Equivalent to +(.1001110)2 x 2+4
 A floating-point number is said to be normalized if the most significant digit of
the mantissa is nonzero
 The decimal number 350 is normalized, 00350 is not
 The 8-bit number 00011010 is not normalized
 Normalize it by fraction = 11010000 and exponent = -3
 Normalized numbers provide the maximum possible precision for the floating-
point number

3.5 – Other Binary Codes

 Digital systems can process data in discrete form only
 Continuous, or analog, information is converted into digital form by means of an
analog-to-digital converter
 The reflected binary or Gray code, is sometimes used for the converted digital
data
 The Gray code changes by only one bit as it sequences from one number to the
next
 Gray code counters are sometimes used to provide the timing sequences that
control the operations in a digital system

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 Binary codes for decimal digits require a minimum of four bits

 Other codes besides BCD exist to represent decimal digits.

 The 2421 code and the excess-3 code are both self-complementing

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 The 9’s complement of each digit is obtained by complementing each bit in the
code
 The 2421 code is a weighted code
 The bits are multiplied by indicated weights and the sum gives the decimal digit
 The excess-3 code is obtained from the corresponding BCD code added to 3

Error Detection Codes

 Transmitted binary information is subject to noise that could change bits 1 to 0

and vice versa
 An error detection code is a binary code that detects digital errors during
transmission
 The detected errors cannot be corrected, but can prompt the data to be
retransmitted
 The most common error detection code used is the parity bit
 A parity bit is an extra bit included with a binary message to make the total
number of 1’s either odd or even

 The P(odd) bit is chosen to make the sum of 1’s in all four bits odd
 The even-parity scheme has the disadvantage of having a bit combination of all
0’s
 Procedure during transmission:
o At the sending end, the message is applied to a parity generator
o The message, including the parity bit, is transmitted
o At the receiving end, all the incoming bits are applied to a parity checker
o Any odd number of errors are detected

 Parity generators and checkers are constructed with XOR gates (odd function)
 An odd function generates 1 iff an odd number if input variables are 1
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