Name: Mehroosa Bari Roll Number: CA541687

Course: Higher Education Semester: Autumn 2020

Level: MA/M.Ed Total Marks: 100

Assignment 1

Q.1 Critically discuss the provisions of higher education in Pakistan. How these provisions

are linked with the current socio-economic status of our country?

The education system of a country plays a vital role in its social, cultural, political, and

economic advancement. Most countries around the world focus on laying a strong base for their

educational set up through perceptive policies and realistic plans. A policy is a summarised set of

principles that has been authorized to establish broader parameters of actions. According to

Trowler, an education policy is the description of actions which should be followed achieving

desired goals. An educational policy is vital for setting a sustainable system of education for a

country.

Pakistan as a new state inherited a weak educational infrastructure. The country on the

eve of its independence had 9073 primary schools, 2070 secondary schools, 11 professional

colleges, 42 non-professional colleges, and two universities. The newly established state

organized a conference ‘The Pakistan Educational Conference’ that was held between 27th

November and 1st December 1947. This conference is considered as the foundation stone for the

educational system of Pakistan. The proceedings of this conference set a direction for the future

education policies of the state. This conference was followed by a series of conferences,

commissions and reforms including Report of the Commission on National Education, 1959; the
New Education Policy, 1970; the Education Policy,1972-80; National Education Policy and

Implementation Programme, 1979; National Education Policies 1972, 1998-2010, and 2009.

Pakistan has a relatively young higher education sector. At the time of partition, the

country had only one university which had less than 1,000 students enrolled—the University of

the Punjab in Lahore. Since then, increased participation rates in elementary and secondary

education, as well as the surging youth population growth of recent years, have led to a rapid

expansion of the system. Tertiary enrollments spiked from only 305,000 in 1990 to 1.9 million in

2018, according to UNESCO. There are currently 209 recognized degree-awarding institutions

(DAIs), up from 59 in 2001 and 139 in 2010. The majority of HEIs and tertiary students are

clustered in the province of Punjab.

Despite this growth, however, overall participation rates in tertiary education remain

extremely low in Pakistan: The country’s tertiary GER stood at only 9 percent in 2018, compared

with 29 percent in neighboring India and 21 percent in Bangladesh.

Government funding for public higher education, which accounts for about 70 percent of

operating costs, is vastly insufficient, especially in light of Pakistan’s debt crisis and recent

austerity budgets. The government of Prime Minister Imran Khan, inaugurated in 2018, cut the

higher education budget by 37 percent in 2019, while holding back funds previously allotted to

the HEC. As a result of these cuts, some public universities had to slash their graduate programs

and are unable to pay salaries and pensions. In an attempt to curb expenditures, public

universities in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have recently been barred from admitting

new students altogether.

even by South Asian standards. Consider that Pakistan in 2017 spent only 2.9 percent of its GDP

on education, whereas Nepal allocated 5.1 percent. India, by comparison, spent 4.6 percent of its

GDP on education in 2016. While Pakistan’s current National Education Policy of 2017 calls for

spending to increase to 4 percent, expenditures on education are estimated to have actually

decreased to 2.4 percent of GDP in 2018/19.

As in other critically underfunded systems, this lack of resources negatively affects the

quality of Pakistani HEIs. Beyond the dearth of funds, many observers note that the efficiency of

the Pakistani system is also undermined by poorly managed top-down governance structures, a

lack of qualified faculty and cooperation between institutions, red tape, comparatively high

levels of corruption, and patronage networks in which positions are filled based on political

allegiances rather than objective qualifications.

While Pakistan has made good strides in improving the quality of its institutions over the

past decades, it needs to significantly strengthen its higher education system to nurture the

human resources needed for the development of a modern knowledge-based economy. In 2017

the Global Human Capital Index, which measures how well countries develop their human

capital, ranked Pakistan 125th out of 130 countries, representing 93 percent of the world’s

population.

University Admissions

Undergraduate admissions criteria in Pakistan vary by institution, but the

HSSC/Intermediate Examination Certificate is nearly always required, although applicants may

minimum grade average of 50 percent or above (second division pass) is required by most

institutions, but the threshold in more competitive disciplines like engineering and medicine is

usually higher (at least 60 percent). Since upper-secondary education programs are offered in

different streams, an HSSC in a stream related to the intended major is a typical requirement as

well.

Additionally, applicants may have to sit for admission tests or interviews, especially at

top-tier institutions. Most typically, this is an internal assessment devised by the institution, but

it’s increasingly common for institutions to rely on external tests, such as the National Aptitude

Test conducted by Pakistan’s National Testing Service. Some private institutions may also accept

foreign tests, such as the U.S.-based SAT. Applicants who’ve earned secondary credentials

outside of Pakistan must obtain an equivalency certificate from the Inter Board Committee of

Chairmen to be considered for admission. It should be noted that colleges or teaching institutions

in the public sector are bound by the admission requirements set by the degree-awarding

university to which they are affiliated.

Types of Higher Education Institutions

Like neighboring India, Pakistan has a higher education system made up of relatively few

degree-granting universities but close to 3,000 colleges and other teaching institutions that are

affiliated with these universities. Authorized DAIs are mostly chartered universities but also

include research institutes or military academies. DAIs can be either public or private and are

approved (chartered) by the federal or provincial governments based on the recommendations of

the Higher Education Commission (HEC).

be either public or private, but only public DAIs are allowed to have affiliated colleges, and most

colleges are, in effect, public institutions. Relying on affiliated colleges to teach degree programs

affords universities a comparatively easy and cost-effective way to scale up capacity, especially

in remote areas. The number of affiliated colleges in Pakistan has consequently mushroomed

since the 1990s.

Even so, access to colleges remains heavily skewed toward urban areas. What’s more,

since even public colleges are to some extent dependent on tuition fees, many only offer

programs in popular fields of study that don’t require large investments in facilities. As noted in

a recent HEC-sponsored study, “science subjects … are avoided by colleges because there is

need of science laboratories to run those programs. … There is little interest of affiliated colleges

to have research-oriented courses. Again it may increase their cost to hire those faculty who can

conduct quality oriented research science programs that require lab facilities.”

To become affiliated with DAIs, colleges must meet certain minimum requirements set

forth by the HEC and the affiliating university, which determines the syllabi, conducts periodic

examinations—including annual progression exams and graduation exams—and awards the final

degree. Colleges may offer a range of more general programs in arts and sciences, whereas

others are mono-specialized in disciplines like business administration, education, or

engineering. While it is the norm for a college to affiliate with just one DAI, some—particularly

those with more diverse general programs of study—may be affiliated with more than one

institution. The HEI with the most affiliated colleges is the University of Punjab with more than

600 colleges. Overall, there are now about 2,900 affiliated colleges in Pakistan.
 In addition to affiliated colleges, there’s a smaller number of constituent colleges, also

referred to as campuses, directly administered by the universities. Whereas most affiliated

colleges teach only undergraduate programs, these colleges offer both undergraduate and

graduate programs.

A relatively new phenomenon is the establishment of a system of community colleges.

Like other colleges, community colleges are teaching institutions affiliated with a DAI, but they

are designed to offer more applied programs that lead to employment-geared associate degrees.

One example of this trend is a pilot program launched by the Punjab Higher Education Council

to establish a number of community colleges to address the need for skilled labor in the province.

Universities

Of the 209 DAIs/universities recognized by the HEC, 126—or 60 percent—are public.

Private higher education is relatively new in Pakistan and was, in fact, banned under leftist

governments in the 1970s and early 1980s. After it was re-introduced, the number of private

HEIs grew substantially, helping to absorb the rising demand for higher education. While there

were only two private HEIs in Pakistan at the beginning of the 1990s, there are now 83 private

DAIs, enrolling some 19 percent of all university students.

It should be noted, however, that the future growth potential of private higher education

in Pakistan is limited by what the market is able to bear, particularly with regard to expensive

higher quality institutions, many of which require tuition fees that are out of reach for most of

Pakistan’s population. The fees charged by private HEIs vary greatly by institution but can be as

high as 480,000 rupees (USD$3,106) per semester. By comparison, semester fees at public
institutions are relatively nominal, averaging 60,000 to 90,000 rupees (USD$390 to USD$585).

(For context, Pakistan’s gross national income per capita was USD$1,590 in 2018).

Prestigious private institutions like Aga Khan University and the Lahore University of

Management Sciences, Pakistan’s first private universities, are among the country’s top

institutions. However, many private providers are smaller, specialized, market-oriented

institutions of lesser quality that mainly offer programs in fields like business management and

information technology. Private institutions offer fewer graduate programs than public HEIs, and

many don’t engage in academic research activities.

Most public universities, by contrast, are large multi-faculty research institutions that

offer a full range of academic programs, including PhD programs, which are almost exclusively

offered by public DAIs. The University of the Punjab has five campuses, more than 70

departments, and about 46,000 on-campus students. Pakistan’s largest public university in terms

of enrollments, and simultaneously one of the largest universities in the world, is Allama Iqbal

Open University, an open distance education provider with 1.4 million students.

Like other countries on the Indian subcontinent, Pakistan used to have bachelor’s degree

programs that were only two or three years in length—a short duration by international

standards. The traditional degree system was mostly structured into two-year bachelor’s

programs (pass degree) followed by a two-year master’s degree (2+2), or more specialized

three-year bachelor’s programs (honors degrees) followed by a one-year master’s degree (3+1).

However, the structure of higher education qualifications has undergone significant

changes in recent years, transitioning to a four-year bachelor’s degree, followed by a one- to

framework spans eight levels, from elementary education to doctoral studies, emulating common

academic qualifications frameworks worldwide.

It should be noted, however, that while most DAIs have moved to the new structure,

vestiges of the old system still exist with some institutions still awarding the old 2+2 or 3+1

qualifications. Further complicating matters, academic institutions have developed a wide range

of “bridging programs” to enable graduates from the traditional, short bachelor’s programs to

enroll in graduate programs within the current system. Other changes include the introduction of

a new two-year associate degree and the adoption of a U.S.-style semester and credit system.

These changes not only replace the traditional system of annual examinations and mark sheets,

they also facilitate the global recognition of Pakistani qualifications and international student

exchange. Following are short profiles of the new credit system, the most common grading scale,

and the primary benchmark credentials of the current system.

Q.2 Explain the need of universities in a society and discuss the functions of a university

with particular reference to leadership and research.

Throughout their long history universities have regularly been confronted with

intensive discussions about their place in society. In some periods these discussions

resulted in incremental adaptations and reforms within fairly stable organizational and

normative frames, while in other periods more fundamental changes and reforms were

introduced affecting the universities’ mission, governance, funding, organization,

functioning, and the ideas underlying their institutional foundation. It can be argued that

universities are currently facing again fundamental discussions about what they are
expected to accomplish for society, how they are to be made more accountable to

society, and what kind of relationship they should have with core organizations and

actors in society. In the current discussions a variety of arguments can be identified

about the need for universities to contribute more directly and effectively to economic

growth, social inclusion, and cultural diversity. Important trends inspiring the discussions

include political changes, growing worries about grand challenges, social crises, and the

emergence of the knowledge-based economy. The new demands from society imply

that universities are expected to become more strategic, proactive and explicit in the

development, operationalization, implementation and presentation of their relationships

with society, in other words, their ‘third mission’. This third mission has emerged over

the last decades as an equally important part of the universities’ social contract or pact

with society as the primary two missions of education and research. The third mission

has replaced the traditional, rather vague notion of university services to society. It

requires that universities themselves take the responsibility for linking their primary

activities through mutually beneficial partnerships to social and cultural needs in society,

to demands from politics and the economy. In order to be successful, this responsibility

must be incorporated in the universities’ strategic frameworks, which accordingly have

to be developed and implemented around all three missions. While there is general

acceptance and acknowledgement of this principle starting-point, there is no agreed

upon common understanding of the exact nature of the third mission in the academic

literature, nor among the main external stakeholders of the university, including national

governments. In many countries state authorities have over the last decades withdrawn

from their traditional position of being the sole or main provider of services in areas such
as health care and education, thereby creating a gap in the provision of these services.

They are looking, amongst others, at universities for filling at least part of the gap,

without always clarifying which contributions are expected. In addition, there are

essential differences among countries in the extent to which the state authorities have

withdrawn from the provision of services, and in the nature and size of the gap. Further,

universities themselves use many interpretations of the third mission in their strategies,

while there is considerable variation among universities in the concepts and terms they

use when referring to their third mission practices. This is evident in the national and

university case studies included in this study. But while criticism on the apparent lack of

serious progress in the development and implementation of the universities’ third

mission is in some respects understandable, it is reasonable to argue that a careful

examination of the universities’ third mission and more general the universities’ place in

society also allows for another interpretation. The variations among countries and

individual institutions can also be regarded as a strength and an indication of the

important impact of national contexts, as well as of the remarkable adaptiveness and

robustness of universities. At the same time, universities could become more strategic

and professional in managing, organizing and institutionalizing their third mission, as

well as in communicating their reciprocal relationship with various actors and groups

with society. A number of issues are at stake here. First, there is an urgent need for

operationalizing and clarifying the political and legal interpretation of the universities’

third mission in order to prevent a further growth of the gap between the demands from

society towards its universities and the capacity of the universities to satisfy the

demands. Such a clarification is required to make society’s expectations more realistic,

fill. This would also expose the growing varieties among societies when it comes to the

expected role of the universities in providing specific services. The question: “What kind

of university do we want for what kind of society?” will not be answered the same in

each country. Second, universities themselves could become less general, implicit and

abstract, and more explicit and focused in the operationalization and presentation of

their third mission, and in the way they communicate their third mission activities and

achievements. They are increasingly promoting their commitment to knowledge transfer

and community engagement, and their knowledge-based expertise in tackling grand

challenges. However, in the current dynamics of the democratization of knowledge,

universities can be expected to go beyond a taken for granted cognitive authority

position in order to be able to convince society of the value and relevance of their

contributions to a better world.

Q.3 Critically discuss the previsions of Higher Education in the Education Policy

1998-2010

The education system of a country plays a vital role in its social, cultural, political, and

economic advancement. Most countries around the world focus on laying a strong base for their

educational set up through perceptive policies and realistic plans. A policy is a summarised set of

principles that has been authorized to establish broader parameters of actions. According to

Trowler, an education policy is the description of actions which should be followed achieving

desired goals. An educational policy is vital for setting a sustainable system of education for a

country.
 In March 1998, the education policy known as Education Policy 1998-2010 was

promulgated. This policy, like the previous ones, emphasised the importance of higher education

and highlighted a wide range of deficiencies at this level. A number of structural as well

functional changes were identified in order to achieve the policy objectives. The policy

recommendations regarding higher education were: allocation of nonlapsable funds to

universities; exemption of import of educational equipment from tax; raising of funding of

education from 2.2% to 4% of GNP; expansion of access to higher education to the 5% of the

relevant age group; introduction of 3 years bachelors degree with due preference in university

admission and priority in government recruitments; strengthening of the laboratories and

libraries in universities; provision of special funds for research; and strengthening of universities

to generate their own funds. Other recommendations included: modernisation of curricula at the

university level; revision of the universities act; establishment of a National Testing Service

(NTS); upgrading of the departments with good performance into centers of excellence; taking

measures for faculty development and incentives to teachers; introduction of tenure track system

for appointment of university teachers; establishing linkages with institutions in foreign

countries, and linkages with industry; introducing internal and external academic audits of

universities; and increasing scholarships for faculty and students for higher education. These

policy recommendations regarding higher education were consistent and aligned with the

national needs. These were followed during the coming years and resulted in substantial

qualitative and quantitative expansion of the higher education sector. There have been some

critics of the expansion of the higher education sector who argue this could severely impact the

higher education in terms of quality and academic standards. In 1999 the democratic government
of the state was overthrown by the military and the new regime initiated a major reform

programme in higher education of the country introducing Education Sector Reforms 2001-2004

It was emphasised that a vibrant higher education sector was essential for the

technological advancement and socio-economic development of the country. Therefore, the main

focus of these reforms was on the improvement of accessibility and quality of higher education

besides the increased enrolment and more emphasis on science and technology at this level. The

policy recommended in respect of private and public sectors was very liberal in order to enhance

access to higher education, and consequently there have been a threefold increase in the number

of universities and degree awarding institutions in the country. The main recommendations

coming out of these reforms included a replacement of the general bachelor degree programmes

by a four years Honours programmes; a rise in the funding for higher education from the then

0.39% of GNP to 2% of GNP by the year 2010; creation of endowment funds for research in

universities; establishment of an academy for university teachers; revision of the service

structure for university teachers; strengthening of libraries and laboratories in the higher

education institutions; and development of linkages of higher education with industry and the

society in general outside the academia.

The military led regime proved quite helpful in the development of higher education.

Higher Education Commission (HEC) Pakistan was established in 2002. The HEC introduced

five year plans for higher education in order to address the challenges of access, quality and

relevance with national needs and consequently, the number of universities has increased from

42 (in 1980 to 175, 99 in public sector and 76 in private sector) in 2016, which can be regarded

as a leap in terms of quantitative development. The newly established universities, however, still
face problems in terms of developing infrastructure, enhancing quality and becoming

independent in financial terms.

Q.5 Discuss the system of higher education in Japan. What can be the implications of this

system for higher education system of Pakistan.

In the age of knowledge-based society and ongoing globalization, higher education institutions

have been asked to play increasingly important roles. Under such circumstances, Japanese higher

education has been highly appreciated. Excellent and diverse education and research activities

have been promoted under the well-balanced coordination with the establishment approval

system and the quality assurance and accreditation system, which is continually reviewed for

more efficient system. In Japan, academic freedom has been respected, as the Constitution of

Japan stipulates that every citizen shall be entitled to equal opportunities to receive education in

accordance with concerned laws and according to his or her ability. Also, it should be

emphasized that the Fundamental Law of Education stipulates that the independence, autonomy

and the merits of education and research by higher education institutions shall be respected. This

principle of self-governance has been assured by Japanese Supreme Court decision.

In Japan, higher education starts upon completion of a total of 12 years of primary education (6

years in elementary school) and secondary education (three years respectively in both lower and

upper secondary schools). Japanese higher education institutions include universities awarding

bachelor’s, master’s, doctor’s and professional degrees, junior colleges awarding associate’s

degree, and colleges of technology, where lower secondary school graduates are admitted and

receive practical and creative completion education throughout a five-year period, and
specialized training colleges (specialized schools) which offer specialized courses for the

purpose of developing professional or practical abilities or to foster culture.

In Japan, the percentage of 18-year-old population bracket students enrolling in

universities and junior colleges has steadily increased since the Second World War to exceed

50% as of now. If the percentages of students enrolling in colleges of technology and specialized

schools are added, the total percentage exceeds 70%. Judging from this situation, it is assumed

that Japan has already entered the stage of universal access to higher education.

・In Japan, universities are divided into following three categories by its founding basis:

national universities, which were originally established by the Japanese Government (currently

established by national university corporations), public universities, which are established by

local public entities or public university corporations, and private universities, which are

established by educational corporations. ・Both national government and local governments are

members of the public sector. However, while a national government represents the nation itself

and is managed under the single national rule, local governments are responsible for certain

areas, and provide basic services for people living there, responding to voices and situation of the

local residents. ・As for the system of school corporations, the system aims to assign a specific

corporative status to any specific individual or organization attempting to manage a regular

school. This system aims to render soundness to the management body of such individual or

organizations. Corporations shall prevent school management from being exploited for the

arbitrariness, interests and personal gain of a selected few, and shall possess the assets required

for education, such as school premises and buildings, in order to provide stable and continuous

school education to enrich and improve their educational conditions. ・National universities,

which have been established in all local prefectures as organizations targeting the improvement
and well-balanced development of Japanese higher education and academic research, have

played important roles as local research centers etc. In addition, national universities have been

reorganized as corporations since 2004, aiming to improve each university’s independence and

autonomy to enhance education and research activities. Public universities, which have been

established and managed by local public entities or public university corporations, have also

played important roles in providing higher education opportunities to local people and as

intellectual and cultural centers in the local community. Private universities have accounted for

about 80% of all universities and have had about 80% of all university students on their registers.

Each private university has promoted its own unique education and research activities based on

the spiritual legacy of its foundation. They have played important roles both qualitatively and

quantitatively, and have greatly contributed to the development of Japanese higher education.

Presently, there are over 1,200 universities and colleges which has about 3.22 million students in

Japan.

In Japan, all national universities, which were previously part of the Ministry, have been

reorganized as corporations since 2004. This incorporation of national universities aims to

improve their independence and autonomy, revitalize education and research activities, and thus

make universities more unique and attractive. Such reorganization has enabled each national

university to become independent from national frameworks in terms of personnel affairs,

budgetary matters, etc. and manage itself under its own responsibility and at its own discretion

under the leadership of the president.

Since 2004, the reorganization of public universities as corporations also has become an

option for local public entities. Following the system designed for national university
corporations, the public university corporation system has allowed any local public entity to

organize and manage corporations at its own discretion.