AQUATIC ECOLOGY AND RESOURCES

Module 4: Non-Fish Aquatic Resources

After the completion of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Familiarize with how coral reefs are made,

2. Gain knowledge on the importance of seaweeds in the Philippines,
3. Discuss how Non-Fish organisms contribute to the ecology in an environment.
4. Discuss the functions of sea grasses, mangroves, invertebrates, and deep sea resources

I. TRUE OR FALSE: Write True if the statement is correct and False if it is wrong.
________1. Sea grasses thrive well in muddy to sandy shallow coastal waters.
________2. Coral polyps grow in clear, deep ocean water with a minimum depth of 50 meters.
________3. The biggest cause of mangrove destruction in the Philippines has been the uncontrolled
conversion of mangrove forests into fishpond.
________4. Corals may be colonial or solitary, but most of the corals are solitary.
________5. Coral colonies grow by having the polyps bud off new polyps asexually.
________6. The Philippines is one of the richest in Mangrove resources since then and now.
________7. Sea grasses are plants that bear fruits.
________8. Agar is a product that can be derived from seaweeds.
________9. Mangrove destructions in the Philippines are caused mainly by typhoon and flood.
________10. Some of the world’s largest coral reefs were formed 500 trillion years ago.

This section treats on the biology of non-fish aquatic resources; (Distribution & Taxonomy, Life
cycle, Community Relationships, Reproduction, Recruitment, Biological Adaptations, & how Non-Fish
organisms contribute to the ecology in an environment.

• Threatened species is included in this section because of the alarming dwindling rate of bio
diversely-rich floral & faunal species in the country. This loss has been contributed to man-made
activities such as pollution and & lose management of the country’s wildlife.

MARINE PLANT RESOURCES

• These include macro-algae or seaweeds belonging to Classes chlorophyceae (Green),

Phaeophyceae (Brown), & Rhodophyceae (Red), whose gross morphology (e.g. color
pigmentation) makes them easy to recognize and classify. Also discussed are halophytes such as
sea grasses, & macrophytes or flowering plants growing at the edges of seashores dominated by
mangrove species.

• The Philippine seaweed as aquatic resource is well documented (Michanek, 1975). Philippine
seaweed have been studied by several Filipino & Foreign researchers alike for their biological
importance (e.g. Velasquez, Doty, Umezaki, Trono, Menez, Calumpong, Liao, Cordero & others)
and their commercial uses (MCI-Philippines, Shemberg, among others) to cite seaweed
processors.
 Seaweeds grow up on predominantly rocky shorelines & extend their growth toward the sea
wherever there is a hard bottom providing stable anchorage, & where physical & chemical parameters
are favorable

Morphologically, seaweeds are easily identified by the color they manifest externally (e.g. green
due to the dominance of chlorophyll, brown due to pigment fucoxanthin, & Red due to the pigment
phycoerythrin). However in identifying seaweeds to the species level, it is necessary to study their
internal morphological & reproductive structures. It is unsafe to classify & identify seaweeds solely on
their gross or external morphological features.

Colors of seaweeds, dictated by the dominants pigments present & other morphological
characteristics in some instances are influenced by ecological factors & give rise to the emergence of
eco-morphological variants. An example is the greenish coloration of Eucheuma & Kappaphycus
growing in the shallow intertidal zone where the sun’s effect is strongest.

Ecologically, green seaweeds such as Ulva & Entermorpha abound on rock surfaces submerged
during high tide or rich by splashes of seawater. Other greens like Caulerpa, Codium, and Halimeda are
permanently submerged throughout their lives. Brown Sargassum, Turbinaria, Hormophysa, Padina, &
Dictyota is anchored on rocks and other hard substrates that are rarely exposed during high tide. Most
red seaweeds are found in the deeper portion of the sea, except Porphyra, Liagora, Nemalion, &
Gelidiopsis that are prominent in the upper tidal portion of the shoreline sprinkled by splashes of
seawater.

Thus, Gracilaria, Gelidiella, Hypnea, Eucheuma, Kappaphycus, Laurencia, Halymenia,

Acanthophora, Carpopeltis, and corallinaceous Amphiroa, Corallina, & Rhodopeltis grow up in patches,
form colonies, or grow on coarser algal species like some species of Hypnea Plocamium. The
carageenophytic Eucheuma & Kappaphycus found growing in the shallower portion of the intertidal zone
appear greenish due to the ‘destructive’ effect of sunlight on the unstable red pigment phycoerythrin,
thus exposing the green pigment chlorophyll instead.

Sea grasses abound where the substrate is sandy-corally to muddy. These afford the root system or
rhizoids to hold on to sand particles or bits of broken corals & shells that will anchor these halophytic
plants. In the more sandy-muddy-clayish bottom, Thalassia allows its massive root system to develop
extensively to form turtle grass colonies. The long lanceolate plant body or thallus (plural: thalli) serve as
host to fragile epiphytic algae (e.g. green Chaetomorpha, brown Dictyota,& red Hypnea).

Mangroves are among the more resistant vegetation on earth because they can survive & grow in both
salty & estuarine water situations (Spalding et al; 1997). These aquatic flowering plants grow in patches
or colonies fringing the coastlines of the Philippines. The more salt water resistant mangrove species (e.g.
growing on atolls or rock formations) are submerged in high tide for hours while the freshwater resistant
species (Nypa frutiscans) occupy the landward portions of the shoreline. Freshwater resistant species are
more dominant in the mangrove swamp habitat.
 • In the aquatic ecosystem, coral reefs, atolls, & several species of mangrove from the first line of
defense from strong water movement (e.g. tsunami), before water hits the land mass.

• The identification of mangrove plants use standard taxonomic techniques or approaches

(e.g. critical study of both vegetative & reproductive structures).

Fresh Plant Resources

Macrophytes are larger plants that are rooted, attached, and floating in freshwater bodies. These are
composed of algae (Charophyta,e.g, Chara), Chara), mosses(Bryophyta), ferns(pteridophyta),
flowering plants that are monocotyledonous (seeds with one cotyledon,e.g,grasses),and dicotyledonous
plants (seeds with a pair of cotyledon,r.g, lotus).

The plant’s body is soft or herbaceous processing characteristics of terrestrial monocot and dicot plants
(e.g, developed leaves, stems, roots, fruits and seeds)

One way of classifying macrophytes is to categorize according to plant position, growth structure, and
adaptations

1. Spatial- Categories are based on plant position in the water column and nature of attachment to
substratum

2. Morphological- Categories are based on growth and similarity of shape, structure and habit

3. Survival- Categories are based on survival adaptation unfavourable seas

Freshwater plant taxonomists find the growth forms of aquatic macrophytes an important guide to its
classification.

Emergent- the plants are rooted in the soil substrate below the water surface, while shoots and
reproductive organs remain suspended above the water surface.

2. Floating-leaved- the plants are rooted at the bottom, but their leaves are afloat on the surface. Leaves
float parallel to water surface, with petiole length generally proportional to water depth in areas to four
meters deep.

3. Free-floating-there are two types namely:

a. the plant is unattached, its roots may dangle in the water and the shoots appear above
the water surface.

b. the plant may be submerged but entangled among other macrophytes.

4. Submerged-the plant is anchored on hard substratum that keeps it underwater, except for some species
where reproductive parts are seen on water surface.
5. Phreatophytes - the plats have roots reaching the capillary zone, overlying the water table. They grow
at margins of lakes, along riverbanks, irrigation canals, reservoirs, and rice paddies.

Distribution and Taxonomy

• The earth is host to several million species of animals, plants, and microorganisms. Plants and
animals live in every habitable niche, including land (terrestrial) and marine and
freshwater(aquatic).some microorganisms are also airborne.

• The aquatic animal resources other than fish include those living in marine habitat (sponges,
sea urchins, shell, corals, and whales)and in freshwater (snails, turtles, snake, and crocodiles.
While aquatic plants are principally (seaweeds, seagrasses, macrophytes and mangroves)

• Thus, organisms which have certain basic features in common are grouped together into
Kingdom, the largest unit of classification. It is split into smaller units called Phylum (plural: phyla).
Phylum is divided into Class, and class is divided into Order. Order is divided into Family, while
family is divided into Genera. Genera is divided into Species.

• In identifying organisms, both internal and external characteristics are used. The three most
often used characteristics:

• 1.external structure 2.cell structure 3.chemical constitution

• External structure-one simply uses the naked eyes to observe the gross morphological features of
an organism to identify and classify them in terms of colour, shape of leaves, and manner of
branching.

• Cell structure-consideration, the use of the transmission electron microscope is necessary to

separate very closely identical groups of organism like bacteria.

• Chemical constitution-approach in identifying organisms is used when external and cell structures
findings appear unconvincing to the researcher. This method of identification is time-consuming
because it involves various procedures such as doing chromatography, electrophoresis to
compare amino acids in the proteins, or sequence of bases in their DNA,

• Organisms may be classified into groups by adopting three methods:

• 1. Orthodox taxonomy 2.numerical taxonomy 3. Cladistics taxonomy

• Orthodox taxonomy is conveniently adopted by grouping organisms based on the presence or

absence of basic features.

• Numerical taxonomy computers play an important role in resolving the closeness of organisms
that belong to different groups by considering the total number of individual features which they
commonly share.

• Cladistics or branched-systems of classification of organisms based on similar lines of descent

hereditary factors.
 • Plants and animals are named by their genera and species which are composed of the scientific
name derived by adopting the binomial system introduced by Carolous Linnaeus. For plants,
naming and describing new species are governed by the International Code Botanical
Nomenclature crafted by the world renowned plant taxonomists.

• Cladistics or branched-systems of classification of organisms based on similar lines of descent

hereditary factors.

• Plants and animals are named by their genera and species which are composed of the scientific
name derived by adopting the binomial system introduced by Carolous Linnaeus. For plants,
naming and describing new species are governed by the International Code Botanical
Nomenclature crafted by the world renowned plant taxonomists.

• Species, the smallest unit f the taxonomic classifications defined as a group of closely related
individuals capable of inter breeding and producing fertile offspring.

• Genus is the first level in the binomial name of plants and animals while species is the second
name.they represent the scientific name (e.g, Chanos chanos). Genus is composed of a group of
very closely related, but genetically isolated, species. Followed by family in the taxonomic
classification that includes related genera sharing many common characteristics (e.g, marine red
algae Galidiella of family Gelidiaceae)

• Next to the Family is the higher unit Order which includes related families based on generalized
characteristics of organisms(e.g, mangrove plant Order Palmales) next in the hierarchical
taxonomic scheme are Class and Phylum, with Kingdom at the highest unit in the taxonomic
classification. All three units are classified based on even more general characteristics of
organisms (e.g, Animal Class Reptilia, Animal Phylum Mollusca, and Kingdom Plantae or Plant
Kingdom)

• Generic and specific names use Latin words and italicized when typewritten; otherwise it is simply
underlined separately with the genus starting in a capital letter.

FOR PLANT ORGANISMS KINGDOM PLANTAE

• The plants have multi-cellular eukaryotes and manufactured food by photosynthesis. Typically,
cells have cellulose cell cover or cell wall, sap vacuole, plastids, and several photosynthetic
pigments, especially chlorophyll. Plants reproduce sexually and asexually.

Fresh Water Trophic Structure

• Fresh water plant and animal communities abound with predators and herbivores species.
Predatory species nibble algae growing in rocks, and in mangroves. There are five basic feeding
mechanisms in a community of fresh water animals according to Moore and Ramamurthy (1984).

• Shredders- These chew, mine, bore and gouge large particles such as leaves, stems and branches
which may be fresh or dead.

• Grazers/ Scrapers- They graze and scrape the periphyton off other surfaces.
 • Collectors/Filterers- These filters particulate matters fresh or dead from the water.

• Collector/ Gatherer- These feeds on small particulate matters but gather the fine detritus off the
sediments or other surfaces rather than the open sea.

• Predators- These are subdivided into engulfers, which eat the whole prey either by swallowing it
whole or chewing it, and piercers which pierce the prey and suck the fluids out.

Marine Communities

• Assemblages of both plant and animals are dominant in rocky shores of the intertidal zone. Here,
communities show both vertical and horizontal stratification of the living organisms. To illustrate
this stratification, Chapman (1979) adopted the following classification of the seashore.

1 Classification by dominant species- A measure of dominance for seaweeds vegetation which is

commonly arrives at in a subjective way. In cold temperature seas, the greatest biomass proportion on
any given community usually belongs to a single species, and this is regarded as the dominant.

2 Numerical Classification- The degree of similarity between the quadrate samples is used to construct a
hierarchical classification. Alternatively, the relative distribution or similarity of species may be used.

3 Floristic Classification- All of the plants species are considered together to produce taxonomic hierarchy,
the basic unit of which is the association. This is the phytosociological approach.

• Chapman (1979) provides the methodologies of these three classifications:

By dominant species- There are two approaches considered namely:

– using seaweeds abundance or biomass, and

– a function definition of dominant species can exert on other species in the community.

• By numerical techniques- Russel (1972), following the numerical techniques of classifying algal
species found in the eulittoral and littoral zones, suggested two types of data analyses: a) cluster
analysis, and b) analysis of community analysis.

3 By floristic classification- The purpose of introducing this classification by phytosociologists is to establish

a taxonomic hierarchy of vegetation units in the same vein the Carolous Linnaeus produced species,
agglomerated into the genera, genera to families, families into orders, orders into classes, and the like.

• There are known schools of phytosociology, namely:

– Upsalla School

– Zurich-Montpellier Group
 • Both phytosociological schools differ in objectives and method used, although the Zurich-
Montpellier approach is more acceptable. This approach is considered more subjective and
dependent on the experience of the phytosociologists. Here, specifics plot are selected based on
visual assessments of vegetation homogeneity (e.g in algal community).

• This is followed by the determination of the importance of species in the same plots using two
coefficients: cover- abundance and sociability.

The cover- abundance coefficient index is estimated as:

5- Covering more than 3\4 of a sample plot

4- Covering between 1\2 and 3\4 of a sample plot.

3- Covering between 1\4 and ½ sample plot

2- with any number of individuals covering 1\20 to 1\4 of sample plot, or for very
numerous individuals covering less than 1\20 of the area.

1- Numerous, but less than 1\20 of the sample plot +- sparce and covering only a little of the sample plot-
rare and covering only a small part of the plot, usually once specimen in a plot.

The sociability of coefficient index is recorded. Thus:

5- in large, solid stands, very dense

4- in small colonies or mats, rather dense populations

3- in small patches, distinct group

2- in small groups or cluster tufts

1- growing singly

• Some phytosociologist working on cover- abundance coefficient index determination (den Hartog
1959) used the basic taxonomic units also known as association, equivalent in rank to the Linnean
species. Below associations are sub- associations, variants and facies; above it are alliances, orders
and classes. Association refers to a community of plants and animals, each with more or less
constant composition and important character species. Further, character species are found in
the samples of one community type but maybe absent or less important in othe communities.
Community Interactions

• Other marine phytosociology using coefficient of cover- abundance was recorded from the
Mediterranean.

The vertical and horizontal distribution of marine organism s on the seashore is influenced by the
interactions of biotic and abiotic factors. The occurrences of zones on the shore have simplified the
structuring of intertidal benthic plants and animals into:

1 Abiotic Effects- Intertidal organisms are subjective to varied tidal environment, rhythms of their
submergence and emergence.

• On the tidal environment factor, zonation of intertidal organisms as affected by their varying
physiological tolerant limits, including non- overlapping tolerance ranges of some benthos.
Species though, have their lower limit above mean tide level.

• The study of Doty reports that the daily two high tides and low tides bring about rapid change in
the time of submergence-emergence that finally cause zonal discontinuities or critical tide levels
of seaweeds.

• On the effect of physico-chemical factors on zonation, den Hartog (1968) pointed out the major
role of salinity. Intertidal organisms are subjected to constant salinity changes during submersion,
but salinity level increase during immersion. Increase in salinity may be cause by desiccation or
salt content may be rain. Likewise, den hartog added that air, light and salinity are the three
abiotic factors affecting zonation of intertidal organisms.

2. Biotic effects- Zonation is attributed to the biotic interaction as the primary effects are modified by
some abiotic factors.

• Factors such as predation and competition play important roles in the zonation of benthic marine
plants and animals. The level of complexity on interspecific competition is best illustrated by
Paine’s ( 1971) work in New Zealand as cited in Chapman (1979).

• Paine observe that the dominant organisms in the intertidal zone include starfish ( stichaster
australis), mussel ( Perna canaliculatus).

3 Successions on Marine habitat

Succession takes place following series disturbances on a rocky shore that paves the way for a
change in species composition and subsequent colonization of a new space.
 Disturbance caused by force of sea waves pounding on rocky habitats creates clearances
or vacant areas. Also, succession may be preceded by ice- scouring living organisms in tropical waters.

Life Cycle

• Living organisms, including human beings, undergo progressive sequence of changes starting from
fertilization stage. During this process referred to as life cycle, the organisms normally produces
a new generation of individuals capable of repeating the same process of changes.

• Reproduction in organisms is done sexually and asexually- the other method by vegetative
propagation.

1.Sexual reproduction- involves the fusion of gametes or specialized sex cells, derived from two different
individuals. A haploid gamete is not capable of developing further unless it fuses with another haploid
gamete.

– In asexual reproduction, there are neither gametes involved nor participation of two
individuals.

Reproduction process is more than proliferation of new generation of organisms. The fusion of gametes,
in sexual reproduction, results in the mixing of genetic material from two different individuals. This brings
about the introduction of new characteristics of the results offspring.

• In sexual reproduction, the process involve is the union of gametes. Gametes that differ from each
other in structure, size, and behavior are reflected to as heterogametes, e.g eggs and sperm,
syngamy take place when sperm penetrates an egg and transfers it nucleus, and through
fertilization produces a zygote.

• In some organisms, one gamete is migratory or motile and the other immotile or
stratitionary. This is similar to the development of the sperm and eggs in higher form of organisms.
Primitive seaweeds and coelenterates show fully differentiated eggs and sperms- the latter similar
with human sperm.

• Alteration of generation in animals has been a subject of experimental exercise. The colonial
hydroids ( e.g Obelia) exhibit an alteration between a gamete- producing jelly like organisms
called medusa and an asexually reproducing hydra – like polyp. Reproduction wise, the process
appears like a true alteration of generations.

Reproduction and Recruitment

The reproduction and life history of seaweeds and mangroves and their recruitment process are treated
in this topic.
1. Vegetative Propagation

This type of reproduction is exemplified by fragmentation or cuttings, involving the

separation of a vegetative part from a parent plant. (e.g branch like part) to develop into a new
independent plant.

• In the filamentous brown algae Ectocarpus and Sphacelaria (order Ectocarpales),

vegetative parts like propagates are severed by strong water action.

2. Asexual Reproduction

Marine algae ( e.g green and brown) from sexual reproductive spores called zoospores.
These sporesare usually without cell walls but are capable of developing their own cell covering.
Zoospores are unicellular bodies provided with flagellar structures formed within specialized cells called
sporangia.\

– A sporangium is morphologically similar to orimary vegetative cell. In filamentous green

algae ( e.g ulothriz clamydomonas), vegetative cells are transformed and later produced
Zoospores.

– Other brown algae ( e.g Padina and Lamemaria) have sporangia appearing like aggregated
macroscopic fruiting bodies calle sori ( round 1973). These are green to brown colored raised
spots underneath the matured leaf blades. In other members of the order laminarisales ( e.g
alaria) are held by sphorophylls as special reproductive leaf blades.

– Red algae have reproductive bodies that are non- motile due to the absence of flagella.
Some species of red algae have morphologically different sporangial bopdies that produces
spores.

Sexual reproduction

– In marine algae, this method of reproductive range from simple top complex shows fusion
of gametes known as syngamy.

• Biological adaptation and Contribution to Ecology

• It involves plants and animals population as the basic unit. This necessitates prior
consideration on the evolutionary adaptation which happens in the population level instead of
the individual specie.

• Population of organisms that are unable to evolve, adopt and change are prone to extinction.
Plant and animal species have evolved more than three million years ago and still pursuit today.

• In aquatic situation, specie that were able to pursuit despite predator and space have get to
contend with biological limitations ( e.g food supply and nutrient with ecological factors),

• These adaptation may be categorized as follows :

• Adaptation to accommodate the physical environment

• Adaptation to secure food and avoid being eaten

 • Adaptation to ensure successful reproduction

• Plant and animal Population that succeed the adaptation are determined by their capacity to
reproduced and endure stressful condition. Success in reproduction is measured by the amount
of energy invested against the quantity of surviving offspring and their ability to offset population
loss. Energy used in the production is divided among cost of reproduction and it varies with the
type of reproductive strategies involved.

Threatened Species

• The Philippine aquatic and terrestrial habitats are homes to hundreds of endemic plant and animal
species (PAWB, 1998). The country, dubbed as a center of species diversity and endemism,
accounts for 1,100 terrestrial vertebrate species. The CIF – Philippines (2004) Final Report
showed:

• more than 576 bird species (34%) are endemic;

• more than 204 mammal species (54%) are endemic;

• more than 101 amphibian species (78%) are endemic;

• more 258 reptile species (66%) are endemic.

• Biodiversity comes from the words biological and diversity, initially used in the USA. The word
biodiversity is a buzzword among biologist and ecologists. A biodiverse country is one which has
a great variety and variability of organisms found on earth and the environment in which they
live. It includes the variety among different individuals, species and ecosystems.

• According to the CIF – Philippines: “The Philippines’ vast 36,289km coastline holds an estimated
27,000 square kilometers of coral species (Veron 2000). In the Calamianes region alone, 20
undescribed coral species were discovered recently (Werner and Allen, 2000). There are 40
species of mangrove (Zamora, 1995) and more than 2,000 species of reef fishes (Nanola et al.,
2000), 800 species of marine algae, 16 species of sea grass, 23 species of cetaceans, and 5 species
of sea turtles, making the Philippines one of the world’s richest countries in terms of coastal and
marine species. The country is also considered as the top marine biodiversity hotspot in the worlds
(Roberts et al., 2002)”

• The 2003 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened
Species (Hilton-Taylor, 2003) places 416 Philippine wildlife species under the critically endangered
list (next to extinction, endangered and vulnerable categories), in which:

• 68 are threatened birds (59 endemic species);

• 197 are threatened plants (167 endemic species);

• 51 are threatened mammals (41 endemic species), including the dugong (Dugong dugon) and
humpback whale (Mega-ptera novaeangeliae);

• 23 are threatened amphibians (all endemic species);

 • 9 are threatened reptiles including 4 species of sea turtles (3 endemic species); and,

• 16 are threatened invertebrates, which include 13 species of insects, 3 mollusks (2 giant clams),
and endemic gastropod.

• Finally, the report identified several pressures to biodiversity as the following:

• Unsustainable utilization of resources leads to the distribution of old-growth forests, freshwater

and marine ecosystems that lead to an extinction crises (Ong et al., 2002).

• Extractive industries such as logging and mining have destroyed most of the forests (Mallari et al.,
2001).

• High human population density and growth rates have further aggravated the situation as
rainforests were converted to agricultural areas and plantations to meet the demands of a
growing population (Chicotta et al., 2000).

• Many economic systems and policies failed to put value on the environment and its resources
(Romero, 1995).

• Deficiencies in knowledge of biodiversity and its maintenance.

Megadiverse Countries and Hotspots

• Mittermeier et al. (1997) used the term megadiversity to refer to “17 countries that hold the
greatest numbers of species of living organisms, especially among the best-known groups of
plants, birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians.”

• The Philippines belongs to the 17 megadiverse countries as it owns 70% to 80% of global
diversity (Mittermeier et al., 1997; Ong et al., 2002). The country accounts for over 52,177
described species, more than half of which are found nowhere else in the world (Ong et al., 2002).

• However, Mayers et al., (2000) and Heaney and Regalado (1998), reported that the
Philippines is counted among the 25 biodiversity hotspots because of the tremendous population
or socioeconomic threats besetting its resources.

Some Threatened Marine Oganisms

The Philippines` reaction to check, minimize or stop the upsurge of its biodiverse flora and fauna was to
pass legal measures such as RA No.9147 and other administrative Orders (e.g., DENRAO No. 2007-1)
among others. RA No. 9147 otherwise known as the``Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection
Act``includes more stringent roles on the collection of plants and animals.

• Critically Endangered Species- refers to a species or such species facing extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild in the immediate future. This includes varieties, formae, or intraspecific
categories;
 • Endangered Species- refers to a species or subspecies that is not critically endangered but whose
survival in the water is unlikely if the caused factors continue. This shall include varieties, formae,
or other intraspecific categories;

• Other Threatened Species- refers to a species or subspecies that are not critically endangered
nor vulnerable but is under threat from adverse factors, such as over collection throughout its
range and is likely to move to the vulnerable category in the near future. This shall include
varieties, formae, or other intraspecific categories;

• Threatened Species- is a general term to denote species or subspecies that is critically-

endangered, vulnerable or other accepted categories of wildlife whose populations are at risk of
extinction. This shall include varieties,formae,or other intraspecific categories;

• Vulnerable Species- refers to a species or subspecies that are not critically endangered nor
endangered categories but is under threat from adverse factors throughout its range and is likely
to move to the endangered category in the future. This shall include varieties, formae, or other
intraspecific categories.

Non-fish aquatic marine resources of commercial value

This section presents select non-fish aquatic marine resources, including plants species, of
commercial value. Aquatic animals are represented by sponges (poriferans); echinoderms such as
holothurians (sea cucumber), sea urchin, star fish, and brittle star; mollusks (gastropods, cephalopods,
and bivalves); coelenterates (coral, sea anemone, jellyfish, and hydra); and the crustaceans (shrimps,
prawn, crab and lobster). The more advanced species of animals such as reptiles (snakes, crocodiles,
turtles) and mammals are briefly discussed.

The aquatic plants represented by marine macro-algae or sea weeds (e.g., green: caulerpa,
codium, enteromorpha, monostroma and ulva; brown: hydroclathrus and sargassum; red: porphyra,
eucheuma,kappaphycus, gracilaria and gelidiella). Seagrasses include thalassia and mangroves (e.g. nypa,
rhizophora).

Sponges

Poriferans are non-fish aquatic resources represented here by sponges. Sponges are the simplest
many celled animals with two cell layers usually supported by calcareous or siliceous spicules. They are
hermaphroditic animals and multiply by fertilizing their own eggs. The eggs develops into minute larvae
capable of swimming for a short period of time. Later , the larvae attach themselves to submerged rocks,
stones, shells, and seaweeds. They grow together with neighbouring sponges of the same species, and
reproduce by generation. They vary in color from orange, brown, purple, ivory white, yellow, to black, or
red.
 The skeleton of commercial sponge species is composed of spongin tissue and contains no
siliceous spicules. There are five species of commercially useful sponges found in the Philippine waters.
These are 1) wool sponge, 2) bath sponge, 3) grass sponge 4)yellow sponge, 5) velvet sponge

Wool sponge – looks like and inverted pineapple, but has a regular
outline and is voluminous in form. It is soft and absorbent and grows
to a size of 18 inches in diameter or more.

Bath sponge – relatively large and caked-shaped. It is less durable,

less resilient, and easily loses elasticity.

Grass sponge – grows to a size as large as that of the wool and bath
sponges. It is dirty brown in color, highly resilient , elastic , and softer
in texture.

Yellow sponge – is attractive in appearance due to its yellow or

yellowish-brown color. It has most elastic and resilient body among the
five sponges of commercial value. However

Velvet sponge – is spherical in shape , smooth, soft to touch, fine, and

durable. This sponge can absorb and retain a large volume of water in
its body.

Sponges are easy to collect either by dredging, diving, harpooning, hooking, trawling, or by wading

Uses of sponges
  1 bath and toilet purposes

 2 cleaning

 3 decoration

 4 furniture purposes

 5 industrial purposes

 6 mattress

 7 padding dresses

 8 pillow

 9 washing dishes

 10 washing vehicles

 Likewise, bank tellers, jewellers, and leather workers use sponges for specific purposes,

Echinoderms

Echinoderms, considered among the country’s valuable marine products, grow abundantly in the
country’s marine waters. Some of the echinoderms found in the Philippines are the holothurians or sea
cucumbers, sea urchins, starfishes, and brittle stars. Of these, the sea cucumbers are the most
commercially valuable , and the brittle stars have the least use to man.

Morphologically most adult echinoderms have bodies that are radially symmetrical, divided into
five equal rays or arms (e.g. starfish and brittle star). Some species have soft and leathery body cover like
the sea cucumber. Others have firm and almost immovable bodies like the sea urchins.

The varied body structures of echinoderms are attributed to the amount of mineral matters
deposited in the body wall. The body walls are often covered with knobs (e.g., sea urchin)

Echinoderms have well – developed alimentary canal which has both mouth and anus. Their
combined respiratory and locomotory systems form a complex structure called water vascular system.
This system consists of a ring vessel about the mouth, where a number of tubes radiate to what are known
as ambulacral areas in each ray
A sea cucumber is a sausage – like holothurians that has a rubbery body
without bony skeleton and contains a few scattered calcareous
supporting elements called ossicles. It has tube feet on its mouth,
modified into tentacles push the food and water into the mouth. It feeds
on minute invertebrates that it filters from the marine water. Its colors
range from brown, spotted brown

The sea cucumber are gathered by dredging during high tide; otherwise, they are simply
handpicked under the stones, corals, and seaweeds at ebb tide. This holothurian animals is a delicacy
among Orientals. The Japanese and Chinese use it in the preparation of soups and other seafoods recipes.
However, to the Filipinos, the sea cucumber is not much a delicacy, although it could be made into value-
added products such as popped sea cucumber or ‘sitsaron’, a delicacy among fisherfolks. A recipe was
developed by Calmorin. Using sea cucumber in a noodle preparation called pancit luglog’.

Sea urchins have unattached, disk – shaped shells, and

movable spines on the dorsal side of the body. They have
organs to balance called saphaeridia. These are microscopic,
button-like bodies which are scattered over its body. Its
chewing apparatus consisiting of five converging jaws and
accessory ossicles or bone-like parts.

Some sea urchins have shallows, sharp spines that contain toxic substance and cause pain when
these are broken off and get stuck in human skin. It is advisable to use thick leather gloves when collecting
spinous sea urchin species. However, many sea urchins are useful to human. In some parts of the country,
especially Mindanao (e.g. Zamboanga del Norte), sea urchins are sold commercially as food. The gonads
or reproductive glands are either scooped and eaten fresh or salted and sold local markets. The shells of
sand dollars are dried and used as paper weights. The striped spines of some species of sea urchins are
made into door-bell chimes, decorations, and jewelry.

Starfish is peculiar in not having eyes, but can detect light aided
by a photosensitive eyespot located at the outer end of the
ambulacral groove. The animal usually has five arms, but may
have more in some species. It is brilliant colors varying from
orange, brown, to violet. Its creeping movement is made
possible by its tube feet that allow it to move about the
seabed. Some species are seen living et ebb-tide level, and
some are found borne atop larger seaweeds.

Uses of echinoderms

 1 food

 2 decoration

 3 medicine

As stated earlier, among the echinoderms representatives, sea cucumbers, have the highest
commercial value. Dried sea cucumbers are exported to Japan, China, and other countries where these
are processed into several food products. Recently, holothurians are being cultured in the laboratory for
its varied uses. This marine animals is among the country’s 10 commercially important commodities.

Mollusks

In the tropical waters of the indo-pacific, mollusks are easily the most abundant, colourful,
beautiful, expensive (e.g. Conus Gloria Maris), and varied among the marine animals. The seashells, the
more popular representative of mollusks, are often gathered along beaches cast ashore following a strong
water movement.

Mollusks are classified into three types:

1) gastropods

2) cephalopods

3) pelecypods.

Gastropods are univalved shellfish. They are found inhabiting all the ocean of the world. Their
ability to swim or crawl is due to the well-developed muscular foot. They feed on algae and other
microscopic animals/ zooplanktons. Their simple eyes barely help in identifying light from dark colors, and
are unable to distinguish sizes and shapes. The shell is composed of lime materials secreted by the mantle.
 Univalve shellfish are gathered mostly by dredging. Their shells are made into variety of beautiful
items from necklace, earrings, bar pins/ brooch, ash trays, flower vase, picture frame, key holder, button,
wall decor, to curtain drapery, and others. Some examples of gastropods are triton , helmet, true conch,
moon snail, cowrie, sundial, turban, tun, frog shell, tulip, and nutmeg.

Cephalopods are represented by squid, cuttlefish, and octopus. These are the most developed
mollusks with a head partly surrounded by prehensile tentacles and with highly developed camera- type
eyes. Squid and cuttlefish have 10 tentacles and a shell inside.

Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis)

Octopus, a mollusks under class cephalopoda, has no

shell. It has eight tentacles, from which its generic
nomenclature is derived. It moves by swimming, made
possible by jet propulsion process or by its fleshy fins on
the sides of its body. It is highly carnivorous, feeding
mostly on crustaceans, small fish, and other mollusks
species.

Commercial fisherman in the Philippines use bag net, beach seine, purse seine, otter trawl, and
round haul seine to catch squid. Meanwhile, substance fisherman use jigs shrimp- type , mold-type and
cylindrical type catching gadgets in catching squid.

 Pelecypods or bivalve (two-shelled) shellfish are bilaterally symmetrical with one foot. They have
two calcareous shells that are held tightly together by strong adductor muscles that produce scars
on the interior surfaces. If the two shells are similar with each other, the valve is said to be
equivalve; otherwise, it is inequivalve. Examples of equivalve are mussels and pens; and
inequivalve ones are oysters and window pane shells or ‘kapis’.

 The bivalve shellfish burrows in the sea bottom and feeds on phytoplankton and zooplankton
organisms. The shellfish is harvested by dredging and digging. Some bivalves are cultured to
augment production from the wild.

The shells are also made into different shell craft items like lampshades, chandelier, wind chimes,
plate saucer, ash tray, picture frame, figurine, and many other products. Some common bivalves found in
Philippine marine waters are mussel, scallop, telling clam, giant clam, lucine, cockle, pen pearl oyster,
jack knife clam, surf clam, bittersweet, ark shell, venus clam, thorny oyster, and paddock.

Pelecypoda (for example, scallops, cockles, clams, oysters, and mussels).

Cnidarians

The cnidarians (sometimes referred to as coelenterates) are non- fish aquatic marine resources
represented by coral, sea anemone, jellyfish, and hydra, except, most of the cnidarians have economic
importance.

The cnidarians (sometimes referred to as coelenterates) are non- fish aquatic marine resources
represented by coral, sea anemone, jellyfish, and hydra, except, most of the cnidarians have economic
importance.

Corals and corals reefs

Corals are classified as cnidarians under class anthozoa, and are predominantly colonial marine
organisms. These sea anemone like animals secrete calcareous substance found among hard/ stony coral
species.

Aside from being substrates for micro-algae, which serve as food to young animals, corals have
no known food use to man. However, coral reefs serve as habitat for fish youngs and sanctuary to various
fish species. The muro-ami method of catching fish has been found to be destructive to coral reefs as it
involves hammering hard corals to draw out fish to the nets. Corals are among the slow growing animal
organisms, only accumulating a few millimetres in length annually. Coral reefs, like the fringing type – the
great Barrier Reef of Australia, help reduce the impact of on-rushing water to the seashore.

Some hydrozoans, which occur in colonies mimicking plantlike appearance, attach themselves to
rock or debris on the sea bottom. The skeletal framework of the corals are horny and others are largely
composed of calcium carbonate (lime) as seen on the hard or stony coral species. The skeleton of some
farm corrals forms coral reefs, atolls, and islets.

Among the corals found in the Philippine marine water are the brain coral (maendra cerebrum),
mushroom coral (fungia). Star coral ( astrea), staghorn coral, rock coral, oragan pipe, and black corals
(branched and unbranched)

Uses of corals

 1 decorations

 2 reefs, atolls and island formation

 3 personal adornment

 4 jewelry

 5 medicine

Sea anemone belong to class anthozoa. The animal flower like polyps which are cylindrical in form with
the mouth and surrounding tentacles located at one end. They are attached to rocks, piles, or shells of
hermit crabs. Many species grow large ,reaching 36 inches in diameter.
Sea anemone are widely distributed in the waters of Visayas and Sulu where they are made into decorative
items and jewelry.

Tube anemone

A jellyfish is a scyphozoan organism, it is free-swimming with a transparent, bell shaped, watery body that
bears tentacles. It is ‘treated’ as part of the floating plankton simply because it swims slowly, dictated by
its rhythmical muscular contractions. It feeds on zooplanktons which are taken in through a mouth
opening on the lower side of the body.

Jellyfish is dried, flavored, and used for food. In parts of Mindanao, such as Dipolog city, Zamboanga del
Norte, fisherfolks eat jellyfish in pickled form in Catbalogan, Western Samar, jellyfish is salted in concrete
tanks and sold as food items in local markets.

Crustaceans

Crustaceans are represented by shrimps, prawns, crabs, and lobster. They belong to the principal
group of Decapods, meaning ‘’having 10 feet’’. They have compound eyes and their bodies are joined to
the thoracic segment.

Shrimps and prawns have long abdomen and their bodies are compressed from side to side.

Crabs have short abdomens folded underneath the body. Generally, crab bodies are flattened or oval, and
covered with a protective carapace. Like other crustaceans, crabs have one pair of large anterior claws
and four pairs of legs at the thorax portion. The head has a segmented mouth, one pair of eyes borne by
movable stalks, and two pairs of antennae.

 Crabs are caught by using trawl and pot. Crabs of high commercial value in the Philippines are the
mudcrab (Scylla serrata) and the blue crab (neptunus pelagicus). Mudcrabs are commonly
cultured in ponds, but blue crabs (alimasag to Tagalogs, kasag to Ilonggos, masag to Warays, and
lambay to Cebuanos) are caught in the open seas. This is the most abundant marine species of
edible crabs in the country. Blue crabs are easily identified by the blue green colors of their
carapace and the presence of spike-like projections on each end of the carapace.

 The market value of the blue crab is lower compared to the mudcrab which may command a price
as high as 400 pesos per kilo. Majority of the crabs thrive in marine water, some in brackish water,
and a few species in freshwater.

Lobster is a larger decapods with long abdomen and a body compressed from top to bottom.

Shrimps, prawns, and crabs thrive in both brackish and marine waters. They are commonly
cultured in ponds to augment production output and meet the market demand. Shrimps and prawns have
contributed considerably to the economy of the country, particularly, shrimp (penaues indicus) or hipong
puti and prawn(peneaus monodon) or sugpo. The two species are exported in frozen form to other
countries, especially Japan and the United States.

On the other hand, lobsters or banagan are caught by means of traps. They have the highest
commercial value among the crustaceans found in the Philippines due to low quantity of catch from the
wild. Lobsters have yet to be successfully cultured in the laboratory and in the pond to augment the
production output. Exportation of lobsters competes poorly against crayfish, a relative of lobster. Crayfish
live in streams and burrow themselves on the banks. They feed upon animal and plant materials.

Of the non-fish aquatic resources, crustaceans are the most highly priced among the marine
resources of the country.

Seaweeds
 These are marines plants without true leaves, true stems, and true roots. Seaweeds are
conveniently distinguished by their external coloration dictated by the dominant pigments present in the
species. Thus, seaweeds are colored green (class Cholorophyceae), brown (class Phaeophyceae), and red(
class rhodophyceae), because of the dominance of chlorophyll, fucoxanthin, and phycoerythrin pigments,
respectively.

Seaweeds abound in tropical waters like the Philippine seas and the South China Sea. They are
generally shallow water dwellers anchored on hard substrata (e.g. submerged rocks). Some red seaweeds
shed their red pigmentation when growing in shallow waters. This is caused by destructive rays of the sun
on phycoerthrin that gives way to the green chlorophyll pigment.

Marine macro –algae or seaweeds may be grouped into edible and non-edible species. The edible
species are better known sea vegetables. They are rich in protein, carbohydrates, and iodine. In the
Philippines, some species are eaten fresh after blanching with lukewarm water, pickled, or mixed with
vegetables meat or fish stews. Others are semi-processed into gelatine dessert. The following are among
the sea vegetables species popularly eaten in the Philippines.

Caulerpa is a green sea vegetables that appears peculiar with its varied shaped ramuli or terminal
branchlets (e.g., grape-like, umbrella-like, or flattish and elongated). They can be found creeping on sandy-
rocky bottom. Also known as lato (Visayas/Mindanao), and ar-arucip (Ilocos), this is eaten fresh as salad
dipped in vinegar.

Codium is called poc-poclo by the Ilocanos. It is a green,

cylindrical, branched, and spongy green seaweed. The
edible species of codium hae cylindrical thalli and grow
vertically attached to submerged . (Thalli [singular:
thallus] are the body parts of non-flowering plants.) the
salad preparation is similar to Caulerpa.

Hydroclathrus is also known as bal-balulang

among the Ilocanos. This brown seaweed has a characteristic slimy thallus and net-like morphologically
and found growing attached on submerged rocks.
Sargassum is a brown seaweed called by the
Visayans as lusay or aragan to the Ilocanos. The
plant simulates land plants in having leaf-like
and branch/stem-like parts. Sargassum
dominate the rocky shoreline in their thalli are
partly exposed during low tide. Only the young
leaves/shoot are washed and mixed/cooked
with fish/meat/ or vegetable stews. Brown
seaweeds are rich in alginic acid used in
industries.

Porphyra has all of its three species growing wild in north-

eastern Luzon (Cagayan and Ilocos Norte). It is considered
the most expensive among sea vegetables found in the
country.

Gamet to the Ilocanos is considered a delicacy prepared as salad, mixed with crushed tomatoes,
sliced unripe mangoes, onions, with local fish paste (bagoong), and sprinkled with vinegar to taste. Once
porphyra is maricultured, it is expected to become another export winner considering the low production
and its high demand among Japanese, Koreans, and Chinese for food or soup preparation.

Eucheuma and Kappaphycus are carrageenophytic red seaweeds that are maricultured and the
county’s main sources of carrageenan used in several food preparations. These sea vegetables are eaten
fresh of pickled with vinegar as base. These are exported as dried. Unprocessed, or processed commercial
products.

Gracilaria is a purplish red to bright red cylindrically branched seaweed commonly known as
gulaman- dagat among the fisherfolks. Like Eucheuma, Kappaphycus, Caulerpa, and Codium, gulaman-
dagat are commonly sold in wet markets. An important phycocolloid called agar is extracted from
Gracilaria used in laboratory as culture media.

Galidiella is kulot to the Ilocanos and gulaman to the Visayans. This seaweeds is wiry, loses its dark
reddish coloration, and becomes bleached when dried. The plant also yields agar extracted through
boiling and processed into home-made gelatine dessert, popular among the fisherfolks of Biliran Province,
Eastern Visayas.

Roughly, one million Filipinos are beneficiaries of seaweeds farming. Of which 60% are Muslims.
In 1990, seaweeds production (Eucheuma and Kappaphycus) reached 700,000 tons with a revenue
amounting to 12 million pesos.

This production figure has been increasing steadily every year as more culture fields are opened.
The major seaweed producing province are in Mindanao, specially Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, Basilan, and
Zamboanga provinces. These provinces account for 70% of the total Eucheuma and Kappaphycus
production, while the remaining 30%comes from Southern Tagalog and Central Visayas.

The Philippine Seaweed Industry export data in year 2000 shows that the total export of dried /
raw seaweeds (Eucheuma and Kappaphycus) was 35,770 metric tons. The processed product was in the
form of food grade carrageenan at 11,059 metric tons and Pet food 10,600 metric tons, valued US$
107,720,724. In 2002, seaweed production reached 805 metric tons or US$ 131 million (4 billion pesos).

Indeed, good quality through improved production and post harvest technologies hold the key to
a strong Philippine seaweed industry. The Department of Agriculture has projected seaweed production
to reach one million metric tons in two to three years.

Seagrass

 Thalasia, also called as ‘turtle grass’, has leaf parts that are green, flat, unbranched and held by
massive root system buried in soft sandy-corally bottom. The young leaf/ shoot is blanched and
cut into strips prior to salad preparation.

 Like most non-coralline marine algae, seagrass when decomposed are used as fertilizer/ soil
conditioner and applied directly on agriculture crops.

Reptiles

 Animals under class Reptilia have dry skin with scales. They breathe through their lungs. The eggs
are enclosed in a shell and are fertilized internally. Some species of reptiles are viviparous, which
means that its embryo is protected and nourished within the uterus. Exotic foods are prepared
out of turtles and snake meats, but it is leathery skin or hide sea snakes that are made into belts,
wallets, and other accessories. Turtle carapace are shelacked and sold as wall decor.

 Sea snakes inhabiting mangrove or brackish habitats are in demand for their striped skin which is
used for leather products. Gall bladder or spleen of certain snake species are believed medicinal
and its meat is considered an aphrodisiac.

In the Philippines, marine reptiles include turtles, crocodile, and snakes. Reptiles are among the
endangered animals in the country.

Turtles (Order Chelonia). The five living genera of marine turtles inhabiting the warm seas of the
worlds are well represented in the Philippines. They lay eggs in sandy shores, and after the youngs
hatched, they find their way to the sea. Those that survive from predators grow and develop into matured
animals by adapting to marine condition. Turtles, both marine and freshwater species, are among the
threatened animals in the Philippines.

The said five living genera of marine turtles are the following:

1 Dermochelys coriacea or ‘leatheback’ turtle (omnivorous)

2 Chelonia mydas or ‘green’ turle (herbivorous)

3 Erythromochelys imbricate or ‘hawksbill’ turtle (omnivorous)

 4 Caultta caretta and C. Gigas or ‘laggerhead’ turtle (carnivorous)

5 Lepidochelys olivacea and L.kempia or ‘ridley’ turtle (carnivorous and feeds on crabs and
mollusks)

Crocodile (order Crocodylia). This animal has one marine species (Crocodylus porosus) that lives
in the Indo-Pacific waters. Its body is six meters long on average. One of the longest crocodiles with a
recorded length of nine meters was reported in the Philippines. Adults of about three meters long are
already considered dangerous and can feed on mammals. Female crocodiles crawl out from the sea and
lat 25-60 eggs on land. Once hatched, young crocodile feed on water beetles and fish, but later make their
way to the aquatic habitat. This animal has been documented to live for 20 years or more.

Sea snakes (Order Squamata). These are approximately 16 genera of sea snakes in the Indo-Pacific
region. Pelanus platurus, sporting a yellow-belly, is considered widely distributed because of its ability to
cross oceans.

In the Philippines, black and white striped or banded sea snakes (Lapicauda sp,), live in estuarine,
brackish water, and mangrove swamps. They are attracted by light at night and pose a danger to
fisherfolks catching fish using light. Also, incidence of deaths due to snakebites have been reported among
the fishermen catching fish using hand-driven nets at night in brackish water.

Mangrove and Mangrove Forest/Swamps

Mangroves are flowering plants growing along the coastal and brackish water areas. These are
mostly composed of trees under Class Angiospermae. Aside from having true leaves, stems, and roots,
the embryos have two seed leaves or cotyledons. The leaves have varied outlines and show netted type
of venation. The stems and branches are woody and in cross-section show vascular bundles (Xylem and
phloem tissue) arranged in ring-like formation. The presence of cambial tissue explain for the appearance
of secondary growth in members of class Angiospermae. The country’s tropical location makes it ideal for
the presence of vegetational covers like the mangroves. These plants dot the shorelines and populate
swamps

Mangrove community has been reduced through the years due to man’s unchecked cutting of
trees. The more dominant genera of Philippine mangrove trees are Avicennia, Bruguiera, Ceriops,
Exoecaria, Nypa, Rhizophora, Sonnertia, and Xylocarpus.

Mangrove swamps serve as natural nurseries for fish and crustaceans such as shrimps. Man-made
pods containing brackish water are developed to increase aquaculture fishery production in the
Philippines and other Southeast Asian countries rich in mangroves. It is in these ponds that fish and
shellfish are grown until they reach marketable size. Several ponds share water through gates which serve
as passage of drained water and fresh water to from water sources.

In the Philippines, Nypa and Rhizophora are the most useful among the 40 genera of mangrove
plants. Matured nipa leaves are woven for roofing or into mats, baskets, and native raincoats purposes;
young leaves are used as cigarette wrappers, giving an added taste sought after by folks in rural areas.
Also, matured leaves are used as artificial habitat to attract fish in both fresh and sea water fishing
activities.

Native vinegar, processed from sweet sap collected from the Nypa inflorescence, when aged after
exposure to the sun, is part of the Filipino cuisine.

Also, native wine called locally as tuba, is produced from the sweet sap of nipa. Other useful parts
of the nipa plant are the edible young seeds and the matured seeds which are made into buttons. The
matured barks of Rhizophora, known locally as bakawan or bakhaw, are gathered as source of tannin.
Tannin gives as red coloration and a peculiar taste to the tuba from coconut sap (cocos nucifera), a popular
local wine.

Other mangrove trees have varied uses; from firewoods (e.g. Xylocarpus), as charcoal (e.g.
Bruguiera, Ceriops, and Rhizophora,) and as building materials (e.g. Brueguiera, Exoecaria, Luminitzera,
Rhizophora, and Xylocarpus). In folk medicine, mangroves are used for boils; as contraceptive, as
astringent, purgative; and to preserve hair by using its leaves, roots, bark, seeds, and pulps.

The recent tsunami that hit South Asia generated a number of reports on how mangrove trees
helped reduce the impact of the cascading waves hitting the land mass.

Swamplands like those in Luzon (e.g. Candaba Swamp in Pampanga, Liguasan Marsh in Cotabato,
an the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary in Agusan, Davao) serve as spawning ground and sanctuary for
mudfish and catfish. Other swamps and marshlands in Mindanao and the Visayas are natural fishponds
and virtually serve as stocking areas for commercial freshwater fish species. Thus it helps alleviate food
security concerns of the fisherfolks.

Deep-sea resources

One known deep-sea organism, a crinoid sea lily (Rhizocrinus lofotensis), was collected by George
Ossian Sars off Lofoten Fjord within the Arctic circle. Some portions of the Lofoten Fjord registered a depth
of 1700 fathoms.

The present knowledge about deep-sea organisms, starting from Ossian’s collection of the
crinoids specimen, was followed by several oceanic expeditions conducted mostly in the Arctic and
Antarctic oceans. Said collections, which included crinoids, have been documented and published in
several scientific journals.

Several attempts were made to plot the vertical stratification of benthic organisms. One of these
was the study made by Fell(1975) is herein reproduced as Table 1 below. It shows the maximum
measurement of the deepest trenches of the oceans which include the Philippine deep.

The inability of sunlight to penetrate the deep-sea floor explains the ‘’absence’’ of autotrophic
organisms in a particular areas. Thus, benthic Microphagus are believed to survive in deep-sea habitat by
getting food particles composed of plankton,’’as inflowing suspended materials, or as organisms in
bottom current’’.

There have been difficulties in determining which organisms are capable of inhabiting deep-sea
habitats devoid sunlight (energy supply). Ossasin’ s report about his crinoid collection generated ideas on
which tool or tools would be effective in collecting and documenting deep-sea organisms. The use of
photographs / camera plus dredging purposely for the benthos species, and the use of trawls for pelagic
ones, were introduced to researchers joining oceanic expeditions.

In the Philippines, there are limited data on the plant and animal organisms gathered from the
deeper portions of both the Pacific Ocean and South China Sea flanks of the country . the Philippine deep
has been reported to be source of deuterium and possibly some metals in the sea bottom.

In this cheaper, reference to deep-sea resources shall include pelagic organisms caught during
off-shore fishing activities using more 3 GT vessels, possibly within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).

The catch is mostly small and large pelagic fish species, demersal, and invertebrates (shellfish and
squids). A deep-sea molluscan (Nautilus pompilius), so called ‘Chambared Nautilus’. It lives in the waters
off Tanon Strait Between Negros and Cebu islands. Some were caught at 25-30 fathom deep or more
using traps, with fresh chicken meat as bait and lowered to the bottom. These traps are revisited the
following morning to harvest the nautilus, which is known to be nocturnal and feed at night.

Comparatively, these are records about marine animals collected from 9.74 kilometers deep
water environment

Phylum or other Group name Depth taken Trench location

generic name
(in Km)

Hyalonema Sponge(porifera) 6.86 Kurile

Neries Bristle 7.29 Banda

worm(annelid)

Scalpellum Barnacle(crustace 7.00 Kermadec

an)

Serolis Isopod(crustacean 3.70 (Abyssal)

)

Nucula Clam(mollusca) 6,77 Kermadec

Xylophaga Log-boring 6.29 Banda

Mollusk

Elpidia Sea 9.74 Bonin

cucumber(holutho
roidea)
 Urechinus Sea 4.48 (Cosmopolitan)
urchin(echinoidea
)

Bathycrinus Sea lily(crinoidea) 9.05 Kurile

Ampiophiura Brittle 6.04 Atlantic

star(opiuroidea)

Porcellanaster Sea star(asteroida) 7.58 Mariana

Erimicaster Sea star(asteroida) 7.24 Aleutian

Freyella Sea star(asteroida) 6.18 Kermadec

Macrourus Deep-sea 1.00 (Barthypelagic)

Cod(chordate)

Fishes caught from deep-water habitats have morphological adaptations for their survival. Thus,
some species have whip-like tail parts that allow them to frequent the sea bottom by swimming vertically.
Others have chemically luminescent organs (e.g. lanternfish family myctophidae) glow as they rise to the
surface at night. Apparently, there is hardly any commercially useful or edible species in the said list.

Examples of deep sea organisms

Anglerfish oarfish

Mammals

The final report of CI-Philippines (2000) cited 28 species of cetaceous animals or mammals living
in the Philippine seas. Among these mammals are species of dolphins (mostly marine, except for one
family living in freshwater) and whales.

Dolphin Sperm whale

Activity 1: Answer the following:

1 What are marine plant resources?

2 Name and describe the different types of marine plant resources.

3 Enumerate examples of each type of marine plant resources.

Activity 2

Differentiate the following and enumerate examples of each

1. Threatened species

2. Rare species

3. Endangered species

Activity 3

Describe the following and enumerate examples of each:

1. Cnidarian or coelenterate

2. Crustacean

3. Poriferan

4. Echinoderm

5. Mollusk

Activity 4

Draw and label the external parts of prawn and crab.

References:

1 Required Textbook/Workbook

1. Biswas, K.P. 2018. Practical manual of fisheries. Astral International Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi -
110 002.

2. Malik, A. 2018. Physiology of fishes. Thomson press ltd., New Delhi.

3. Findlay, S.E.G., and R.L. Sinsabaugh. 2003. Aquatic ecosystem: interactivity of dissolved
organic matter. Academic Press-USA.

2 Laboratory Manual (if with laboratory)

3 Reference Books

4 Electronic References (E-books/Websites)

 1. Romani et al., 2016. Aquatic biofilms: ecology, water quality, and waste water treatment.
Caister Academic Press. Norfolk, UK.

2. Bronmark, C., and L.A. Hansson. 2012. Chemical ecology in aquatic systems. Oxford
University Press. Great Clarendon St., Oxford.

3. Ogle, D.H. 2016. Introductory fisheries analysis with R. CRC Press. Taylor and Francis
Group. Northland College, Ashland, Wisconsin, USA

4. Rawat et al., 2015. Aquatic ecosystem biodiversity ecology and conservation. Springer
India.

5. Del-Claro, K., and R. Guillermo. 2019. Aquatic insects: behavior and ecology. Springer
Nature Switzerland AG.

6. Schmutz, S., and J. Sendzimr. 2018. Riverine ecosystem management: science for
governing towards a sustainable future. Springer Nature. Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham,
Switzerland.

7. Libert, P.M. and T.M. Kana. 2016. Aquatic microbial ecology and biogeochemistry: a dual
perspective. Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland.

8. Esch. G.W. 2016. Ecological parasitology: Reflections on 50 years of research in aquatic

ecosystems. WILEY Blackewell. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,. The Atrium, Southern Gate,
Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK.

9. Tortora et al., 2013. Microbiology: an introduction, 11th ed. Pearson Education, Inc.,
Permissions Department, 1900 E. Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025

10. Wikipedia

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