Data and Computer

Communications
Chapter 5 – Signal Encoding
Techniques
Signal Encoding Techniques
Digital Data, Digital Signal

• Digital signal
• discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
• each pulse is a signal element
• binary data encoded into signal elements
Some Terms

• unipolar
• polar
• data rate
• duration or length of a bit
• modulation rate
• mark and space
Interpreting Signals

• need to know
• timing of bits - when they start and end
• signal levels
• factors affecting signal interpretation
• signal to noise ratio
• data rate
• bandwidth
• encoding scheme
 Comparison of Encoding Schemes

• signal spectrum
• clocking
• error detection
• signal interference and noise immunity
• cost and complexity
Encoding Schemes
Nonreturn to Zero-Level
(NRZ-L)
• two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
• voltage constant during bit interval
• no transition I.e. no return to zero voltage
• such as absence of voltage for zero, constant positive voltage for one
• more often, negative voltage for one value and positive for the other
Nonreturn to Zero Inverted

• nonreturn to zero inverted on ones

• constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
• data encoded as presence or absence of signal
transition at beginning of bit time
• transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1
• no transition denotes binary 0
• example of differential encoding since have
• data represented by changes rather than levels
• more reliable detection of transition rather than level
• easy to lose sense of polarity
NRZ Pros & Cons

• Pros
• easy to engineer
• make good use of bandwidth
• Cons
• dc component
• lack of synchronization capability
• used for magnetic recording
• not often used for signal transmission
 Multilevel Binary
Bipolar-AMI
• Use more than two levels
• Bipolar-AMI
• zero represented by no line signal
• one represented by positive or negative pulse
• one pulses alternate in polarity
• no loss of sync if a long string of ones
• long runs of zeros still a problem
• no net dc component
• lower bandwidth
• easy error detection
Multilevel Binary
Pseudoternary
• one represented by absence of line signal
• zero represented by alternating positive and negative
• no advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI
• each used in some applications
 Multilevel Binary Issues

• synchronization with long runs of 0’s or 1’s

• can insert additional bits, cf ISDN
• scramble data (later)
• not as efficient as NRZ
• each signal element only represents one bit
• receiver distinguishes between three levels: +A, -A, 0
• a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
• requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same probability
of bit error
Manchester Encoding
• has transition in middle of each bit period
• transition serves as clock and data
• low to high represents one
• high to low represents zero
• used by IEEE 802.
Differential Manchester Encoding

• midbit transition is clocking only

• transition at start of bit period representing 0
• no transition at start of bit period representing 1
• this is a differential encoding scheme
• used by IEEE 802.5
Biphase Pros and Cons

• Con
• at least one transition per bit time and possibly two
• maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ
• requires more bandwidth
• Pros
• synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking)
• has no dc component
• has error detection
Modulation Rate
 Scrambling
• use scrambling to replace sequences that would
produce constant voltage
• these filling sequences must
• produce enough transitions to sync
• be recognized by receiver & replaced with original
• be same length as original
• design goals
• have no dc component
• have no long sequences of zero level line signal
• have no reduction in data rate
• give error detection capability
B8ZS and HDB3
Digital Data, Analog Signal

• main use is public telephone system

• has freq range of 300Hz to 3400Hz
• use modem (modulator-demodulator)
• encoding techniques
• Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
• Frequency shift keying (FSK)
• Phase shift keying (PK)
Modulation Techniques
 Amplitude Shift Keying
• encode 0/1 by different carrier amplitudes
• usually have one amplitude zero
• susceptible to sudden gain changes
• inefficient
• used for
• up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• very high speeds over optical fiber
 Binary Frequency Shift Keying

• most common is binary FSK (BFSK)

• two binary values represented by two different
frequencies (near carrier)
• less susceptible to error than ASK
• used for
• up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• high frequency radio
• even higher frequency on LANs using co-ax
 Multiple FSK
• each signalling element represents more than one bit
• more than two frequencies used
• more bandwidth efficient
• more prone to error
 Phase Shift Keying
• phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data
• binary PSK
• two phases represent two binary digits
• differential PSK
• phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some reference signal
 Quadrature PSK
• get more efficient use if each signal element represents more than one
bit
• eg. shifts of /2 (90o)
• each element represents two bits
• split input data stream in two & modulate onto carrier & phase shifted carrier
• can use 8 phase angles & more than one amplitude
• 9600bps modem uses 12 angles, four of which have two amplitudes
QPSK and OQPSK Modulators
Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation
Schemes
• bandwidth
• ASK/PSK bandwidth directly relates to bit rate
• multilevel PSK gives significant improvements
• in presence of noise:
• bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB superior to ASK and FSK
• for MFSK & MPSK have tradeoff between bandwidth efficiency and error
performance
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

• QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line

(ADSL) and some wireless
• combination of ASK and PSK
• logical extension of QPSK
• send two different signals simultaneously on same
carrier frequency
• use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
• each carrier is ASK modulated
• two independent signals over same medium
• demodulate and combine for original binary output
QAM Modulator
 QAM Variants
• two level ASK
• each of two streams in one of two states
• four state system
• essentially QPSK
• four level ASK
• combined stream in one of 16 states
• have 64 and 256 state systems
• improved data rate for given bandwidth
• but increased potential error rate
 Analog Data, Digital Signal
• digitization is conversion of analog data into digital data which can then:
• be transmitted using NRZ-L
• be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L
• be converted to analog signal
• analog to digital conversion done using a codec
• pulse code modulation
• delta modulation
Digitizing Analog Data
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• sampling theorem:
• “If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest
signal frequency, the samples contain all information in original signal”
• eg. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample per sec
• strictly have analog samples
• Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
• so assign each a digital value
PCM Example
PCM Block Diagram
Non-Linear Coding
Companding
 Delta Modulation
• analog input is approximated by a staircase function
• can move up or down one level () at each sample interval
• has binary behavior
• since function only moves up or down at each sample interval
• hence can encode each sample as single bit
• 1 for up or 0 for down
Delta Modulation Example
Delta Modulation Operation
 PCM verses Delta Modulation
• DM has simplicity compared to PCM
• but has worse SNR
• issue of bandwidth used
• eg. for good voice reproduction with PCM
• want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth 4khz
• need 8000 x 7 = 56kbps
• data compression can improve on this
• still growing demand for digital signals
• use of repeaters, TDM, efficient switching
• PCM preferred to DM for analog signals
Analog Data, Analog Signals

• modulate carrier frequency with analog data

• why modulate analog signals?
• higher frequency can give more efficient transmission
• permits frequency division multiplexing (chapter 8)
• types of modulation
• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase
Analog
Modulation
Techniques

• Amplitude Modulation
• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
Summary

• looked at signal encoding techniques

• digital data, digital signal
• analog data, digital signal
• digital data, analog signal
• analog data, analog signal