CHAPTER- 1

JAMMU: THE REGION

Jammu is an ancient state of the Punjab Hills.1 The oldest classification of hill states divided
these into three groups, each named after the most powerful states which was the head of the
confederation. These were Kashmir, Dugar and Trigarta. The first group known as western
group consisted of Kashmir and the petty states, between the Indus and the Jehlum. The
second or central group included Dugar and the petty states between the Jehlum and the Ravi;
and the third or eastern group comprised of Trigarta (Kangra) and the various small states
between the Ravi and the Satluj. Jammu region in the central group was in fact a sort of
federation of a number of big and small principalities which were “ traditionally twenty two
in number, lying in the hills between the Ravi and the Jehlum”.2 The following states
belonged to the Dugar or central group.3
States Clan
Jammu Jamwal
Bhau Bhauwal
Riasi on Chenab River Riasial
Akhnur Akhnurian
Punch on Punach River Managral
Rajouri on Tohi River Jaral
Bhimber Chibh
Khari Khariali on upper Chenab River Chibh
Kishtwar Kishtwaria
Bhadarwah Bhadarwahia
Chanehni to west of Bhadarwah Hontial
Bandralta to south of Chanehni Bandral
Samba to South West of Bandral Sambial
Jasrota to South of Bandralta Jasrotia
Tarikot Near Jasrota Tarikotia
Mankot or Ramkot to South of Bandralta Mankotia
Badwal or Vaddi Wasa Bhadwal
Or
Bhadu
Ballawar of Bisohli Balauria
Bhoti or Bhuti Bhotial
Lakhanpur Lakhanpuria
Dalpatpur Dalpatia
Kotli Mangral

1
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, Vivek‟s publishing house, Delhi, 1974, 385.
2
Alexander Cunningham, The Ancient Geography of India, Baranasi, 1963, 110.
3
Dugar derived from Durgara was the ancient name of the state and its capital was Bahu. The name
Dugar or Dogra is applied to the whole area in the outer hills between Ravi and Chenab. Alexander
Cunningham, The Ancient Geography of India,110;See also, Hutchison and Vogel, The History of the
Punjab Hill States, Vol. I ,Director of Languages and Culture, Himachal Pradesh,Shimla,1982,45-46.

1
For the convenience, the Dugar state may be grouped around the parent or stem states
from which these were bifurcated periodically. Dugar (Jammu-Bahu), Vallapura (Balaur-
Basohli) and Parotsa (Pruntz-Punch) were the three original or stem states from which
more than a dozen offshoots were born during the course of time. These offshoots
remained primarily part of the parent states. Then, there were some individual states
Kishtwar and Bandralta which did not belong to any of these groups, neither they gave
off any satellite state.4
From such a consideration we have the following groups:
I Parent state Jammu
Offshoots Bahu Mankot
Bhoti Jasrota
Bhau Lakhanpur
Samba Akhnur
Tarikot Dalpatpur
II Parent State : Balaur (Vallapura) –Basohli
Offshoots Bhadu
Bhadarwah
III Parent state Punch (Prunts)
Offshoots Rajapuri (Rajouri)
Bhimber
Khari-Khariali
Kotli
IV Individual State Kishtwar
Bandralta
Chanehni
Riasi

Of the last group Bandralta, Chanehni and Riasi more or less have been subject to
Jammu from the date of their foundation, hence these may also be considered to belong to
the Jammu group under which their historical account will be given leaving only
Kishtwar in the fourth group and until its subversion by Ranjit Singh in 1820 and given to
Gulab Singh later on as a jagir, it uniformally maintained its status as a strong individual
state since its conception.5

4
Ganesh Das Badehra, Rajdarshani, A Persian History of North Western India from earliest times
to A.D.1847, (tr.Charak),Jay Kay Book House,Jammu,1991.Charak,History and Culture of
Himalayan States, Vol. VI, Jammu Kingdom Part 3:Constituent States, Ajaya
Publication,Pathankot,1988,4.
5
Ganesh Das Badehra, Rajdarshani, 184;See also Charak, History and Culture of Himalayan
States,Vol.VI,6.

2
 The Jammu royal family established many branches in past , which founded and
ruled over separate feudatory states.These were about nine in number, all of them
grouped around the present stem viz., Jasrota, Mankot, Lakhanpur, Tarikot, Samba,
Akhnur and Dalpatpur. Bhoti and Bahu were also probably offshoots of Jammu at an
early period. Some of these states such as Akhnur, Riasi, Dalpatpur and Bhoti, seem
always to have been fiefs, whose chiefs were only Mians, that were of royal descent in
the second degree, and never assumed the title of „Raja‟. These subordinate states were
all more or less dependent on Jammu and were under obligation for tribute and military
service. The chiefs were also bound to present themselves at the court of their lord when
they were called.6
The generally accepted nature or geographical divisions of Jammu region were as:
- The sub montanious and semi mountainous tract or under plains in front of
the hills or outer plains.
- The outer hills consisting of the comparatively low hills to the south of the
mountain ranges or North Shivalik hills or Jammu hills.
- The lofty middle mountains separating the valley of Kashmir and Ladakh
from Jammu in the North.7
The plain in front of hills or outer plain is also known as sub-mountainous and
semi-mountainous tract. This narrow strip of plain is a continuation of the Punjab plains.
This tract run all along the line of the parganas of Punjab like Gurdaspur, Sialkot,
Gujarat and Jhelum. This strip varied in width from 4800 meters to 32,000 meters and
level of this plain may be counted from 340 to 370 meters above the sea. The lower
portion of this tract bore similarity of the adjoining plains of the Punjab and the same
crops such as wheat, barley, maize etc are cultivated here.8 The general slope of the plain
is toward south-west. Denundation and erosion have played a great role in the change of
physical features in the region. It is in this region that we find an area called kandi which

6
Hutchison and Vogel, History of the Punjab Hills, Vol. II,564.
7
Kashmir was separated from the Jammu province by the Pir Panjal range. Jammu may be called a
buffer area between the enchanting valley of Kashmir and the hot plains of the Punjab. M.L.
Kapur, History of Jammu and Kashmir State, The Making of the State, Jammu : Kashmir History
Publications, Jiwan Shah Street, Jammu, 1980, 2-3; See also; S.D.S. Charak, History and Culture
of Himalayan Hill States, Vol. IV, 33;Manju Sharma, Agrarian System, 1812-1925,Aay-Emm
Publications, Jammu, 1993, 2; Jyoteeshwar Pathik, Cultural Heritage of the Dogras, Light and
Life Publishers,New Delhi,Jammu,52-53.

3
varies in width from 6400 to 42000 meters. Besides two streams the Ujh and the Tawi
which carry off flood water, the rivers the Ravi, the Chinab and the Jehlum flows in the
area. These rivers are perennial but the volume of the water varies greatly from season to
season. Although they rise at an elevation of 3936 and 4263 meters respectively above
sea level.9
Being in the south of Shiwaliks the outer plain is traversed by the numerous hill
torrents locally called khads. These torrents remain dry over the greater parts of the
winter and summer season and attained large size during rains. At the occurrence of rains,
the ravines take the shape of fast torrents and it becomes difficult to ford them. The
channels of these torrents have chumps of seed growth known as khar. The outer plains
of Jammu are highly fertile, possess a rich alluvial soil and the temperature is optimum
for the cultivation of crops throughout the year.10
The outer hills or Shiwaliks also known as the Himalayan foothills or Jammu hills
bear a regular and gentle slope till they reach a height of 600 metres. These hills were
formed of young tertiary rocks. They never reach a height of more than 1200 metres. The
width ranges form 22000 meters to 58000 meters with greater extension on the north and
north west. These hills more or less like a kind of wall separating middle Himalayas from
the outer plains. In this region many small longitudinal valleys known as „dun’ are found.
The land here is not uniform due to erosive action of running water. 11 The southern
boundary of this region, formerly called daman-i-koh i.e. spirit of the mountain. Basohli,
Udhampur, Akhnur, Kotli and parts of Mirpur, Rajouri, Jammu and Riasi are all included
within this belt. The slopes of Shiwaliks facing the outer plains are gently covered with
deciduous forests, evergreen bushes and numerous shrubs. The northern slopes had steep
slopes with thin cover of vegetation in this region dependent upon rain.12 This tract was

8
F.H. Hassnain, History of Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh and Kishtawar, Vol. I, Rima Publishing
House, New Delhi, 1998, 5; Manju Sharma, Agrarian System of Jammu Region, 1812-1925,
AayEmm Publication, Jammu, 1993, 2.
9
M.L. Kapoor, History of Jammu and Kashmir State,2.
10
Frederic Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir Territories, Oriental Publishers,Delhi,1971,25-29;See
also, F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu, 5.
11
F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu, Vol.I,6; The Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 397,See also,
Manju Sharma, Agrarian System, 2.
12
Frederic Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir, 31;The Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh,386-
388;Jyoteeshwar Pathik, Cultural Heritage,52.

4
occupied by the Gujjar community, who lived a very hard life.13 The major portion of the
mineral resources of the region was found here.14
The tract between the outer hills and high ranges may be called the region of the
middle mountains. It starts from 10,000 meters of Basohli and runs along Ramnagar,
Riasi and Rajouri. In the north it is bound by two lofty ranges, i.e. Pir Panjal range
beyond which lies the valley of Kashmir and a range which comes from the south east
direction and ends off at Kishtwar. The middle Himalayas, locally known as pahar
,sprawl between Ravi in the east and the Punch in the west, though they continue towards
north west. Its elevation is generally, between 1200 meters and 3600 meters. The width
of this tract is 60000 meters in the eastern parts which decreases to only about 10,000
meters near Rajouri.15 In the east the region is 64000 meters wide but it gradually
narrows down as we move towards the west. Deep ravines have been developed in this
tract due to erosion.16 The southern slopes of middle Himalayas are covered by forests. In
the high altitudinal zones deodar, blue Pine and silver fir are main forest products, while
in the area of low heights i.e., below 1800 metres, the monsoon deciduous forests are
dominating. The three important passes from the region with Kashmir valley are Pir
Panjal Pass, Bundil Pass and Banihal Pass.17
In structure these mountains are not similar to the outer hills. The ranges are
composed of highly compressed rocks of different geological periods. The middle
mountains are ridges of varying and irregular direction which branch off again and again
and are intersected by deep gorges carved out by rivers those flowing through them.There
are many deep cut ravines. Upper course of river Chenab and its tributaries in this region
along with many more other streams with their own local names. These rivers are
perennial and are fed by snow that falls on these high mountains. The river Chenab is the

13
A.R. Khan, Geography of Jammu and Kashmir, Gulshan Books, Residency Road, Srinagar,
Kashmir, 2007, 5.
14
M.L.Kapoor, History of Jammu and Kashmir State,3.
15
Frederic Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir, 96;Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 395; Charak,
History and Culture, Vol. IV, 10; Manju Sharma, Agrarian System, 34; Jyoteeshwar Pathik,
Cultural Heritage,52;.
16
F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu, 7.
17
Majid Hussain, Geography of Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, 1987, 6;See also, A.R.Khan,
Geography of Jammu and Kashmir,18.

5
biggest river of this region.18 Looking at the height to which the middle mountains reach,
it is not difficult to conclude that this region belongs to a temperate type of climate on
the slopes of the mountains, the terraced fields vegetation are cultivated to raise crops
like maize and pulses, on the one hand and rice on the other. Some times wheat, barley
and even mustard seeds are also sown here. The temperate climate is also favourable for
vegetative cover of the middle mountains.19
In the Jammu region some small but beautiful valleys are located which deserve
special mention. Important along these are the „Bhadarwah, Kishtwar, Ramban, Padar
and Riasi valley‟. Bhadarwah is the most important of these valleys. Bhadarwah is known
a „ chhota Kashmir‟ as climate is same as that of Kashmir valley. 20 It is about 16000
meters wide and about 6000 meters long. It is situated at the height of about 164 meters
above sea level. The Neru, a tributary of Chenab river, flows through it. This is a little
fertile valley surrounded by meadows on the ridges with exceptional splendeur to this
valley. There are numerous smaller tributary valleys to the main Bhadarwah valley.
Chirals valley running almost parallel to the Bhadarwah valley is an example. Besides
valleys, there are numerous streams (nallas) flowing approximately from South East to
North West and join the Chenab dividing the Bhadarwah. They are eight in number and
are separated from one another by well defined ridges. All this may however, be treated
as an extension of Bhadarwah valley. The eight drains referred to are the Neru, Chirala,
21
Jungalwar, Jai, Bhalash, Bunjawa, Gunter and Padri Kishtwar valley more or less an
indulating plain surrounded by lofty mountains.From north to south it extends to about
6500m and is 3000m in width from east to west.The valley is situated almost at the same
height at which the Bhadarwah valley is. River Chenab flows through this valley which is
the most beautiful feature of this valley. There is hardly any difference between the
climate of Bhararwah and Kishtwar.22 Ramban another beautiful town located on the
banks of river Chinab in the middle mountains is situated at a height of nearly 730 metres
above the sea level. It is a terraced sort of valley with the mountains boldly rising on the

18
F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu, 8.
19
Ibid,8.
20
A.R.Khan,Geography of Jammu and Kashmir,19.
21
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 379-398.
22
F.M.Hassnain,History of Jammu ,Vol.I,8-9.

6
either side of the river Chenab. The whole area of middle mountains is full of small but
beautiful valleys of varying dimensions.23
The Climate of Jammu region can be expected to be a type of some unusual kind
for it depends upon its latitudinal situation and altitudinal variation from about 300
meters to more than 800 meters above mean sea level. This altitudinal variations in an
area situated above 10° North of the tropic of Cancer can be expected to generate a
climate ranging from tropical to temperate and even to alpine type with sufficient degree
change in weather conditions during the course of earth‟s revolution round the Sun.
Jammu, where the average altitude is 30 meters, experiences tropical heat and the climate
conditions are just like those of the plains of Punjab. Himalayas play an important role in
shaping the climate of Jammu region.24
Hot season begins in March and mercury rises above 25 degree celcius. The
hottest month in Jammu is June which is hottest in the entire Jammu region. Hot wind
called loo blows in the after noon.25 Nevertheless, the variation in the mean monthly
temperature is wide. Temperature of city of Jammu may be taken as representative of the
entire outer plain and outer hill regions and the temperature at Banihal can conveniently
represent the middle mountains of the Jammu regions for the purpose. A comparison of
the temperatures of these two stations not only reveals the influence of the altitude over
the distribution of temperature in the region but also indicates as how they are spread
over the year.26
Cold season commences from December and lasts till the end of February.
January is the coldest month in the region, i.e. outer plain, outer hills and middle
mountains though the difference between the actual temperature is significantly
dissimilar.27 Mean daily maximum temperatures in Jammu for the month of January is
18.4°C. The corresponding temperature of Banihal in January is 10.4°C and –0.7°C. The
comparatively, low temperature at Banihal is due to the high altitudinal location. Hot
season begins in March and mercury rises above 25C.The hottest month in Jammu is

23
Ibid,9.
24
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 9.
25
Mohammad Mir Ali, Geography of Jammu,22.
26
F.M. Hassnain, History of the Jammu, 13.
27
Mohammad Mir Ali, Geography of Jammu,21.

7
June which is hottest in the entire Jammu region. Hot wind called loo blows in the after
noon.28 In summer temperature reaches above 40°C in the outer plains (Jammu) but
lowered by altitudinal factor in the Middle Himalayas where it is represented by 28.8°C
at Banihal.29 The mean daily range of maximum temperature at Jammu is 22.0°C while it
is 18.4°C in Banihal thereby registering a difference of only 3.6°C between these two
stations and hence the two signs they represent. Similarly mean daily range of minimum
temperature at Jammu stands at 19.4°C and at Banihal this range is 15.5°C thereby
causing a difference of 3.9°C only. There seems a parallel consistency in the daily range
of temperatures at both these stations and thus in the regions as well. The daily average
temperature in the different months over the year ought to support the conclusions just
arrived and 21.8°C as the maximum daily average for the month of June and 4.85°C as
the minimum daily average for the month of January.30 The general weather conditions
during this season are also determined atmospheric disturbances called the westerly
depressions which are known to originate over the Mediterranean sea. Due to this western
depressions, snow falls in Kishtwar, Banihal, Rajouri and Punch.31
There is a gradual decrease in the mean monthly relative humidity of Jammu from
January to May where it touches its lowest point and position itself at 27.6 percent. In
July due to the arrival of monsoon, the rain bearing winds, relative humidity of Jammu
suddenly jumps to 61.5 percent from 33.0 percent in June which further rises to 74
percent in August, its zenith. But from August onwards it starts decreasing but due to the
arrival of cyclonic winds from across the Mediterranean sea it remains between almost 50
percent to 61 percent till March from where it falls below 50 percent due to the increase
in the temperature. The lowest humidity at Jammu is recorded in the month of May.32
The monsoon mostly reaches the region by first week of July with the outburst of
the south west monsoon.33 The region enjoys two rainy seasons one from July to
September, the other from December to March with intervening two drought seasons

28
Mohammad Mir Ali, Geography of Jammu,,22.
29
F.M. Hassnain, History of the Jammu, 13.
30
Ibid,14.
31
Mohammad Mir Ali, Geography of Jammu,22.
32
F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu, 14.
33
Mohammad Mir Ali, Geography of Jammu,23.

8
from October to December and from April to June.34 In summer, the westerly jet stream
moves to the north of the Himalayas giving way to the easterly jet stream causing the
westerly winds in the Indian ocean south of equater to move at a greater velocity towards
the Indian sub-continent. These winds are the monsoon winds which cause rainfall
throughout the subcontinent and reach the out-skirts of Jammu hills by almost the first
week of July. These winds bring rainfall to the entire outer plains, outer hills and even the
middle mountain regions lying south of Pir Panjal range. The height of the range forces
the winds to rise and shed whatever, the little moisture they are left with.35 Rainfall
conditions during the winters are influenced only by the cyclonic disturbances from the
Mediterranean or even beyond from Atlantic ocean. If the monsoon gives less rainfall
during the summer months, the deficiency is compensated by these cyclonic winds in the
normal year during winter months.36 Thus, the winter precipitations are fairly widespread
throughout the Jammu region.
The Jammu region has a network of streams and rivers. It was flanked by the two
great rivers of the Punjab i.e. on the east the Ravi and on the west the Jhelum. But the
third, the magnificent Chenab traverses extend across in the middle. These three along
with a number of their tributaries, drain the entire region, cut across the various
mountains and hills and form deep gorges and valleys e.g., the Chenab plough its courses
through the lofty snow clad mountains and carries almost 80 percent of drainage of the
region and fed by many big and small streams on both of the flanks. The Ravi shares only
a small quantity of drainage during its courses i.e. from Alwans to Madhopur. Streams of
water like the Ujh, the Bein and the Basantar fall into it.37 Similarly, Jhelum has only one
considerable tributary, the Punch Tohi and a few minor streamlets which drain the
extreme western region of Jammu region.

34
F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu, 15;See also, R.L. Singh(ed), India: A Regional Geography,
359; Jyoteeshwar Pathik, Cultural Heritage of Dogras,54.
35
F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu, 17.
36
Ibid., 13.
37
S.D.S. Charak, History and Culture, Vol. IV 22;
Gazetters of Kashmir and Ladakh, 1890, 263;
Frederic Drew, Jummoo and Kashmir, 34.

9
 Ravi is the smallest river of the region. It is a source of number of small canals
and kuhls of the area. It is used in transportation of timber from hills to plains.38 Ravi
with latitude 75°33' longitude 76°31' is formed of three principal branches, the Ravi
proper which, rises in Bara Bangahl range of Dhaula Dhar range in Kulu. The holy
Budhil, and the Nai, which forms a triple junction below wulas in the Chamba district of
modern Himachal Pradesh. After leaving its source it immediately flows into Chamba. It
follows through Trehta and Chanota to Ullans, where it is joined by two large tributaries,
the Budhil and the Tundah. It receives the Sahoor Sal stream from the Saho range.39 It
touches the Jammu region at the point where the Siowa stream, forming the boundary,
falls into it from the north. It flows then south west and separates Jammu from Chamba
and finally leaves Chamba boundary at Kheri to debunch on the plains at Shahpur and
Madhopur in Gurdaspur district of the Punjab.40
The river Chenab is formed of two main streams the Chandra and the bhaga
which derives the Sanskrit name i.e. Chandrabhaga. The Chenab or Chanderbhaga
ploughs its course through the lofty snow covered mountains and draines a large tract
(almost 80 percent of drainage) of the Jammu mountains from the borders of Chamba in
the east of Rajouri and Bhimber in the west.41 River Chenab is of large volume and
debouches on the plains near the town of Akhnur up to this point the stream is almost
unnavigable because of many rapids. But from Akhnur onwards down to the sea it
becomes navigable, the country of the west of Chenab is no different from the country to
the east of it. The same plain occurs with small depression making way for many streams
which mostly remain dry except in rainy season. Plains are cut by ravines. 42 During the
course of Chenab it receives many affluents, the principal of which between the Chamba
boundary and Kishtwar are the Coniar and Shendi streams and the Bhutna and Maru-
Wardwan streams. Between the Kishtwar and Akhnur its chief tributaries on the right
bank are Golan Nar and Lidar Khal streams and the Bichlori and Ans rivers. From left

38
C.E.Bates, A Gazetter of Kashmir, Light and Life Publishers, New Delhi and Jammu,1875,212.
39
Manju Sharma, Agrarian System, 4; Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 1890, 698;see also, S.D.S.
Charak, History and Culture, Vol. IV, 248;
40
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh 1, S.D.S. Charak, History and Culture, Vol. IV, 248.
41
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 1890, 263; Frederic Drew, Jummoo and Kashmir, 6.
42
F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu, 6.

10
side it receives the united waters of the Karney, Gad, Neru Baggi and Pinkta rivers
between Kishtwar and Riasi and between Riasi and the western boundary of Jammu, the
Tawi.43
The meaning of Tawi is a torrent.The Tawi takes its rise in the Seojdhar range
north east of Ramnagar hills.44 It can be crossed, throughout the year except for a few
months during heavy rains. Several water channels and kuhls had been drawn from it
which irrigated large tracts of land below Jammu and around its lower reaches. 45 In
Jammu division many rivers bear the name Tawi. These are distinguished by putting the
name of the town they flow through as prefix. For example Punch Tawi, Minawar Tawi
and Jammu Tawi etc. The width of the river at Jammu is about 300 metres at the bridge
site and meets Chenab river at Akhnur.46 The Jammu Tawi river rises in the Ramnagar
hills in about 32°53‟, Longitudes 75°34‟. It‟s course in first North-West towards
Chanehni is about 25 miles. From the Chanehni it bends to the south west for a distance
of about 24000 meters, the valley still bound by higher hills reached at the town of the
Jammu 26800 meters which it joins the Chenab. At Jammu the Tawi finally quits the hills
which overhang it terminating in a live of cliffs facing the river. Then it flows through an
open plain . From the economical point of view the Tawi had a great value for the people.
In addition to the supply of pebbles and sand for construction work, several water
channels and kuhls have been drawn from it which were used to irrigate large tracts of
land below Jammu and around its lower reaches. 47
Punch Toi or Paksta passes below the town of Tohi or Tawi. The Tohi or Toi
word has been derived from the spoken forms of the Sanskrit word Taushi, meaning a
torrent, which had been used for a number of hill streams in the Puranic literature.48 The
main source of Punch Tawi is the Suran river. It rises on the western slopes of Pir-Panjal
range. The Minawar Tawi also called the Naoshera river takes its rise in the Rattan
Panjal mountains. It flows by Naoshera and then turning off to the south and south east

43
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 1890, 263; Frederic Drew, Jummoo and Kashmir, 134.
44
C.E. Bates, A Gazetter of Kashmir,321;Mir Mohammad Ali, Geography of Jammu,16.
45
Manju Sharma, Agrarian System, 4.
46
C.E. Bates, A Gazetter of Kashmir,213.
47
Gazetter of Jammu and Kashmir, 813.
48
Frederic Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir, 38-39

11
pass within a kilometer of the fortified town of Minawar.49 Natives call this river the
Malkani Tawi to distinguish it from the Jammu Tawi.50
Wardwani river which intersected a long and narrow valley called Maru Wardwan
lying to the north east of Kashmir takes its rise at the north extremity of valley, on the
borders of Suru and flowed south until it joins the Chandrabhaga above Kishtwar. 51”The
river swells to mighty torrent during the melting of snow.52 The Neru was an important
river of the Bhadarwah Valley. It originates from the range of mountains forming the
boundary between Chamba and Bhadarwah. Bichlari was found by the junction of the
Banihat and Mohu streams. The river drains the Banihal region. Ans river took its rise on
the southern slopes of the Panjal range and flows for some distance in the south western
direction.53
The Jehlum is the river of Kashmir but at the same time it forms the boundary of
Jammu province on the west and formerly it separated Hazara and north-western part of
the Punjab from this region. In Kashmir, it is called Behat, a contraction of the Sanskrit
Vitasta. The Jhelum drains the whole valley of Kashmir. In the Minawar town of Jammu
the Jhelum flows between the steep and rocky banks, some hundred metres high when it
reaches a spot where a ravine coming down makes its margin accessible, again for a time
more gradual slopes or smaller cliffs that edge some plateau, forms its bank, still again
comes between high cliffs and in deep curves find its way around loafter promontories”.54
It receives the drainage of a large mountainous area through its tributary, the Punch river
and drains a large area of mountainous region to the north and west of the region lying
between Chenab and Jhelum. The total discharge of the Jhelum as it leaves the Jammu
territory has been estimated at 4,000 cubic feet. In the plains it is bounded by low banks
and finds room to spread and divides to form islands.55

49
Manju Sharma, Agrarian System, 4
50
Mohammad Mir Ali,Geography of Jammu,17.
51
Manju Sharma, Agrarian System, 4.
52
Mohammad Mir Ali,Geography of Jammu,17.
53
Manju Sharma, Agrarian System, 4
54
Frederic Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir, 36;Gazetteer of Kashmir and Ladakh, 407.
55
Manju Sharma, Agrarian System ,4.

12
 At Muzaffarabad, the Kishan Ganga a large river from the snowy mountains to
the north falls into Jhelum. The Jhelum river drains a large area of mountain country
collecting a number of streams that rise in the lofty range.56 In ancient literature Ujh was
called Utsa river. It rises in the mountains north of the Belaur district of the outer
Himalayan range at about 4000 meters above sea level at latitude 32°42‟ and longitude
75°35‟. It debunches in the plains at Jasrota which stands its range bank, finally river
empties itself into Ravi. It supplies water to numerous irrigation canals. Mostly it is fed
by floods, by periodical rains of the both summer and winter”.57 Floods come down with
great force, small irrigation canals are fed from this river so that a large tract of
Andarwah in Kathua is irrigated and cultivation there is of a more productive character.58
Basantar and Bein are two hill torrents that drain the area between Tawi and Ujh, and
join Ravi near Gurdaspur. Poonch Toi drains a large area of mountain contrary to the
north west or region lying between the Chenab and the Jhelum.
The much of the population in Jammu region was agriculturists. On the basis of
nature of cultivation, the region had three divisions: the plains, Kandi and higher upland.
As the crops in most of these areas depended entirely upon rain, their yield varied much
with years. From Ujh and Ravi, some kuhls were led so that in certain spaces the
cultivation was of more productive character.59 Below Akhnur, Chenab fertilized a tract
called Bijwat. This tract was exceptionally fertile where the kandi hills end there was a
narrow belt of cool land lying in the valley traversed by clear streams which carry the
drainage of the middle hills of the lower side.60 Where the depth of the soil was
sufficient, excellent crops were raised. But on the slopes where the depth of the soil was
small and limestone cropped up to the surface and cultivation was uncertain. The
territories including Basohli, Ramnagar, Riasi, Naoshera had a more temperate climate.
The perennial streams contained much water but the beds being deep, so irrigation was
not an easy task. However due to the nearness of Himalayas rainfall was very heavy and
regular so there was little need of artificial irrigation. The crops were much the same as in

56
S.D.S. Charak, History of Culture, Vol. IV, 31.
57
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 854
58
Ibid, 854; Manju Sharma, Agrarian System, 4-5.
59
Manju Sharma, Agrarian System, 5.
60
Ibid, 5

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plains except Bajra and turmeric. The higher upland comprised Bhadarwah, Kishtwar,
Ramban, Rajouri etc. had cold climate and received snowfall.61
Man depends upon forests for fuel, timber, honey, herbs and even some fruits. All
that is needed for the survival is available from forests.62 In Jammu region 45.96 per cent
of 26395 square kilometers geographical area was covered by forests. The details of the
area maintaining forests in the Jammu regions show that except for Kathua no region had
been less than 45 percent of its area under the cover of forests. The Udhampur region
with more than 50 percent areas under forests stands at the top of the ladder followed by
Punch 49.79 percent and Rajouri with 48.66 percent. Jammu and Doda respectively had
46.9 and 18.2 per cent area containing forests while Kathua with 30.39 per cent areas
under forest cover completes the tally.63 There was very heavy concentration of deodor
species (cedrus deodara) in the Bhaderwah, Doda and the Kishtwar forest divisions”.64
In Jammu region Quercus Dilatata (Moru oak) forests were not very well
developed, but still occurred along with deodar which constituted one of the most
important and most extensive of the moist temperate forest. The Moru Oak was
developed over unexposed sites, infact it was mesophytic in character. In the Udhampur
forest division Quercus dilatata was generally found in and around “Chaks” which
existed in a dotted fashion throughout the natural habitat of the species. Quircus dilatata
was spread over large area from Chir zone to the Fir zone in the Riasi forest division.
These forests too were heavily looped for fodder. The other important plants growing in
its associations were Cedrus deodar, Abies Pindrow and Pinus Wallichiana. Besides
these conifer species some broad learned species were Quercus, Ulmus wallichiana,
Fraxinus excelsior and Cedrela senata etc.65
The Vegetation of the outer hills was for the most part of the dry, tropical
character.66 Mostly the outermost ridge was covered with more or less dense forest of
small learned acacias (a arebica and a modesta called by the people kikar and phulai)

61
Ibid, 5.
62
Frederic Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir, 41.
63
F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu, 6.
64
Ibid, 27.
65
Frederic Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir;See also,F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu,
37;Jyoteeshwar Pathik,Cultural Heritage,55.
66
Frederic Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir, 41.

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with some of the ber trees (Zysphus, Jiyuba) and an undergrowth of the shrub brenkar,
Saintha. Other trees Amaltas, Amla, the Bahera, the Bannana, Pipal, Banyan, Bamboo
and Palm (Phoenix Sytvestries) were also found there. The long leafed pine whose native
names were Chil and Chir, were found in this hilly regions of Jammu, Jasrota, Bandralta
and Udhampur. This forest, which on the hills occupied a dry pebbly soil, sometimes
spreads down on to the loamy ground of plains had since been gradually cleared.
Further, within the hills, there was no such a growth as to make a forest, it was rather a
struggling bushy scrub, partly the same trees in a shrubby form with Euphrobia (E.
doyleana or Pentagoue), which grows to a large size.67 The people of these regions used
these woods for making cog wheels and gun stocks. The elevation of the middle
mountains was sufficient to give a completely temperate character to the vegetation.
Forests of Himalayan oak of pine spruce, silver fir and of deodar occupied a great part of
the mountain slopes. The rest the more sunny parts where forests trees did not flourish
except where rocks just out well covered with herbage, with plants and flowers that
resemble those of central or southern Europe.68
As the variation of climate in Jammu region was great and the crops cultivated
naturally vary to some extent with the climate. The lower tracts yield all the usual crops
of the Punjab, while the higher tracts saffron, buck wheat and mountain barley were
grown. In the warmer parts the mango and shisham were found in large numbers, but
these give place to apple, pear, deodar and Chinar in the colder parts.
In the outer hilly states the tillage did not depend on irrigation, but on the
monsoon or rains, it was rare that they suffered from an excess of rainfall. Still the
rainfall was not enough for the growth of rice. For this irrigation was required, but only in
a few places could it be obtained.69 Due to the limited means of irrigation and soil
erosion, this region produced maize, millets and barley. The til, mustard and paddy were
also cultivated by the agriculturists of this hilly region. Wheat did not ripen till it was too
late to sow maize and millet. There were two harvests, the winter crops, chiefly wheat
and barely were sown in December, and reaped in April. The summer crops of maize,

67
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 396. Frederic Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir, 41.
68
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 396.
69
S.D.S. Charak, History and Culture, Vol. IV, 37-38;
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 396.

15
millet and rice were sown in June and reaped in September or October. 70 As regards the
plantation of fruit trees, it was closely depended on with the availability of water and
suitability of land. The mangoes grew here in abundance but the bulk was not of good
quality. The other fruit trees which could be planted were lemon, papaya, grapes, etc. The
vegetation of the outer hill, governed by the texture of soil and circumstances of climate
was for the most part of the dry tropical character, the heat being enough to sustain many
plants which flourish within the tropic while the moisture is insufficient to enable them to
grow with great luxuriance and the cold weather of winter also tends to hinders their
growth.71Besides agriculture, a large number of cattle were reared by Gujjars and
Bakkarwals.
Thus we come to conclusion that the outer hills rise from the Punjab plains with a
gentle slope, attaining an altitude of about 600 metres. They end abruptly inwards in
steep encampments. There flows a succession of narrow parallel ridges. The outer are
formed of younger tertiary rocks and their elevation rarely exceeds 1200 metres.72
The use of minerals had been most significant factor for the economic
development of any region. The minerals are so important for the mankind that certain
origin of civilization has been identified with different metals derived from minerals such
as the bronze age, the iron age. There was no industry worth the name either. But the
region was rich in mineral like coal, iron, Bauxite, copper, zinc and lead and precious
stones.73 The Jammu bauxite were lying over the gentle slopes of Sirban limestone but
were themselves overlain by the Nummulities. These bauxite series were 3 to 7 m in
thickness having an earlier estimated reserves of 1340 million tones.74It was found to be
very pure and of the diaspore variety.75 It was an important mineral ore from which
aluminium was extracted. In this region diasporic type of bauxite was extensively found.
This type of bauxite deposits existed along the cold belt of Jammu region extending from
west to east in the vicinity of Chakkar, Sangar Marg, Panhasa and Sukhwalgolil,

70
Gazetter of Kashmir and Ladakh, 396.
71
S.D.S. Charak, History and Culture, Vol. IV, 41.
72
F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu, 7.
73
M.L. Kapur, History of Jammu, 5.
74
F.M. Hassnain, History of Jammu,15.
75
M.L. Kapur, History of Jammu,19.

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Jungalgoli. Coal was another important mineral found at the distance of 30 to 40 miles to
the east and the West of Riasi,35 miles from Jammu city. 76 This coal belt extended in
almost northern southern direction for about 60 kms. As stated the entire coal field of
Jammu region could be divided into Jigni-kaura, Kala Kat, Metka, Mahogala, Chinkah
and Jangalgoli coalfields.77
The gypsum was of considerable economic significance because of its grade and
the quantity in which it occured. In the Jammu region it occurred in Ramban, Batote,
Assar belt of the Doda region. Iron ore in the region was unevenly distributed and was
occurring only in Gagret area of Punch and in Mator and Kotla Snagar area of Udhampur.
Limestone was another commercially important mineral occurred in the Udhampur, Doda
and Kathua regions. The Kathua was perhaps better place than Udhampur as far as
limestone reserves were concerned. 78
Copper had been located in the Doab and Udhampur, although the important
copper deposits occurred outside the Jammu region.79An ore from red nala in Riasi
yielded 5 percent near the surface.80
Magnesite occured in Ladakh and Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir. In the
Jammu region Magnesite deposits had been reported from Katra area of Udhampur.
Sapphire deposits assumed greater significance for being famous the world over. The
mines were located towards the north west of Sumyam in the paddar area of Doda.
Sumyam was situated at a height of 44.18 m above mean sea level and hence was snow
bound for the major portion of the year thereby creating a difficulty in mining.81 Zinc
blends occurred in the great lime stone near Darabi in the Riasi.82
The region possessed a large animal kingdom. Among mammals may be
mentioned the Himalayan Langur, the Bengal monkey, Leopard, snow Leapord, Indian
Mongoose, wolf, jackal, fox, black and brown bears, flying fox, flying squirrel, musk

76
Ibid,19.
77
FM. Hassnain, History of Jammu, 15.
78
Ibid., 17.
79
Ibid., 20.
80
M.L. Kapur, History of Jammu,19.
81
Ibid, 21.
82
M.L. Kapur, History of Jammu,19.

17
deer, wild boar, wild pig, Barasingha. Among the list of feathered kingdom domestic
sparrow, crow, pigeon parrots, eagles, owles ,vulture and all other birds of Punjab are
found here. The farmers‟s livestock consisted of cattle-plough bullocks, cows, buffaloes,
sheep, goats, ponies and domestic fowls, ducks and geese etc.83

At the end we can say that geography of Jammu was favourable for economic activities.
It was also an important market of exchange for the plain and hill commodities on
account of its location. However, the wealth of Jammu region became a source of
temptation for others. The Sikh misldars rose to the power in the Punjab plains. The
Bhangis, Kanhiyas and Sukharchakias all were integrated to conquer Jammu but it was
Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Shukharchakia misl who was successful in conquering Jammu
and establishing his rule over it.

83
Ibid,16-17.

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