WELCOME TO CS256 31427

Please begin to read your syllabus for this class when

you receive it.
Find answers to the following questions:
1. How many points will be deducted if my assignment is
not in a pocket folder?
2. Can I make up homework, quizzes, or tests?

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 Monday, January 28
• TODAY
• Speaking Mathematically -- Sections 1.1 & 1.2 in your text
• Be sure you have a copy of the syllabus for the course
• NEXT CLASS
• Read your syllabus
• Study Sections 1.1 & 1.2 in your text
• Quiz 1 covers the homework assignment
• Complete the homework assignment #1:
– Exercise Set 1.1 #3, 5, 8, 10, 12 page 6
– Exercise Set 1.2 #1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 11 page 13
• AND: List the elements in #2c & #2d
– Obtain two pocket folders (they need not be new ones)
– Put your name and class on the outside in the upper right-hand corner
– Place your homework assignment in one pocket
– Place the signed last page of your syllabus in the other pocket.
Variables
There are two uses of a variable. To illustrate the first use, consider
asking

Is there a number with the following property: doubling it and

adding 3 gives the same result as squaring it?

In this sentence you can introduce a variable to replace the potentially

ambiguous word “it”:

Is there a number x with the property that 2x + 3 = x2?

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The advantage of using a variable is that it allows you to give a
temporary name to what you are seeking so that you can perform
concrete computations with it to help discover its possible
values.

To illustrate the second use of variables, consider the statement:

No matter what number might be chosen, if it is greater than 2,

then its square is greater than 4.
In this case introducing a variable to give a temporary name to
the (arbitrary) number you might choose enables you to
maintain the generality of the statement, and replacing all
instances of the word “it” by the name of the variable ensures
that possible ambiguity is avoided:

No matter what number n might be chosen, if n is greater than

2, then n2 is greater than 4.
 Example 1 – Writing Sentences Using Variables

Use variables to rewrite the following sentences more formally.

a. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their
squares equals the square of their sum?

b. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative.

Solution:
a. Are there numbers a and b with the property that
a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?

Or: Are there numbers a and b such that a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?

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 Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Or : Do there exist any numbers a and b such that

a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?

b. Given any real number r, r2 is nonnegative.

Or: For any real number r, r2  0.

Or: For all real numbers r, r2  0.

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Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Three of the most important kinds of sentences in

mathematics are universal statements, conditional
statements, and existential statements:

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Universal Condition Statements

Universal statements contain some variation of the words “for

all” and conditional statements contain versions of the words
“if-then.”
A universal conditional statement is a statement that is
both universal and conditional. Here is an example:

For all animals a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.

One of the most important facts about universal conditional

statements is that they can be rewritten in ways that make them
appear to be purely universal or purely conditional.
 Example 2 – Rewriting an Universal Conditional Statement

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then x2 is positive.

a. If a real number is nonzero, then its square _ _.

b. For all nonzero real numbers x, .

c. If x , then _ .

d. The square of any nonzero real number is _ _.

e. All nonzero real numbers have .

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 Example 2 – Solution

a. is positive

b. x2 is positive

c. is a nonzero real number; x2 is positive

d. Positive

e. positive squares (or: squares that are positive)

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Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Universal Existential Statements

A universal existential statement is a statement that is

universal because its first part says that a certain property is true
for all objects of a given type, and it is existential because its
second part asserts the existence of something. For example:

Every real number has an additive inverse.

In this statement the property “has an additive inverse” applies

universally to all real numbers.

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“Has an additive inverse” asserts the existence of something—an
additive inverse—for each real number.

However, the nature of the additive inverse depends on the real

number; different real numbers have different additive inverses.
 Example 3 – Rewriting an Universal Existential Statement

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement: Every

pot has a lid.
a. All pots .

b. For all pots P, there is .

c. For all pots P, there is a lid L such that .

Solution:
a. have lids

b. a lid for P

c. L is a lid for P 15
Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Existential Universal Statements

An existential universal statement is a statement that is

existential because its first part asserts that a certain object exists
and is universal because its second part says that the object
satisfies a certain property for all things of a certain kind.

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For example:

There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every

positive integer:

This statement is true because the number one is a positive

integer, and it satisfies the property of being less than or equal to
every positive integer.
 Example 4 – Rewriting an Existential Universal Statement

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different

ways:

There is a person in my class who is at least as old as every

person in my class.

a. Some _ is at least as old as __ .

b. There is a person p in my class such that p is .

c. There is a person p in my class with the property that for

every person q in my class, p is _ .
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 Example 4 – Solution

a. person in my class; every person in my class

b. at least as old as every person in my class

c. at least as old as q

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Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Some of the most important mathematical concepts, such as the

definition of limit of a sequence, can only be defined using
phrases that are universal, existential, and conditional, and they
require the use of all three phrases “for all,” “there is,” and “if-
then.”

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For example, if a1, a2, a3, . . . is a sequence of real numbers,
saying that

the limit of an as n approaches infinity is L

means that

for all positive real numbers ε, there is an integer N such that

for all integers n, if n > N then –ε < an – L < ε.
 Exercise Set 1.1 #1
• Is there a real number whose square is -1?
• Is there a real number x such that x2 = -1? Or,
• Is there a real number x such that the square of x is
-1?
• Does there exist a real number x such that x2 = -1?

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The Language of Sets
Use of the word set as a formal mathematical term was introduced in
1879 by Georg Cantor (1845–1918). For most mathematical purposes
we can think of a set intuitively, as Cantor did, simply as a collection
of elements.

For instance, if C is the set of all countries that are currently in

the United Nations, then the United States is an element of C, and
if I is the set of all integers from 1 to 100, then the number 57 is
an element of I.

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The axiom of extension says that a set is completely
determined by what its elements are—not the order in which
they might be listed or the fact that some elements might be
listed more than once.
 Example 1 – Using the Set-Roster Notation

a. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 1, 2}, and C = {1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}.

What are the elements of A, B, and C? How are A, B, and
C related?
b. Is {0} = 0?
c. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}?
d. For each nonnegative integer n, let Un = {n, –n}. Find U1, U2,
and U0.

Solution:
a. A, B, and C have exactly the same three elements: 1, 2, and 3.
Therefore, A, B, and C are simply different ways to
represent the same set.
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 Example 1 – Solution cont’d

b. {0}  0 because {0} is a set with one element, namely 0,

whereas 0 is just the symbol that represents the number zero.

c. The set {1, {1}} has two elements: 1 and the set whose only
element is 1.

d. U1 = {1, –1}, U2 = {2, –2}, U0 = {0, –0} = {0, 0} = {0}.

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The Language of Sets
Certain sets of numbers are so frequently referred to that they are
given special symbolic names. These are summarized in the
following table:

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The set of real numbers is usually pictured as the set of all points on a
line, as shown below.

The number 0 corresponds to a middle point, called the

origin.

A unit of distance is marked off, and each point to the right of the
origin corresponds to a positive real number found by computing
its distance from the origin.
Each point to the left of the origin corresponds to a negative real
number, which is denoted by computing its distance from the
origin and putting a minus sign in front of the resulting number.

The set of real numbers is therefore divided into three parts: the
set of positive real numbers, the set of negative real numbers,
and the number 0.

Note that 0 is neither positive nor negative.

Labels are given for a few real numbers corresponding to points
on the line shown below.

The real number line is called continuous because it is imagined

to have no holes.

The set of integers corresponds to a collection of points located

at fixed intervals along the real number line.
Thus every integer is a real number, and because the integers are
all separated from each other, the set of integers is called
discrete. The name discrete mathematics comes from the
distinction between continuous and discrete mathematical
objects.

Another way to specify a set uses what is called the

set-builder notation.
 Example 2 – Using the Set-Builder Notation

Given that R denotes the set of all real numbers, Z the set of all
integers, and Z+ the set of all positive integers, describe each of
the following sets.
a.

b.

c.

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Example 2 – Solution
a. is the open interval of real numbers
(strictly) between –2 and 5. It is pictured as follows:

b. is the set of all integers (strictly)

between –2 and 5. It is equal to the set
{–1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.

c. Since all the integers in Z+ are positive,

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Subsets
A basic relation between sets is that of subset.

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It follows from the definition of subset that for a set A not to be
a subset of a set B means that there is at least one element of A
that is not an element of B.

Symbolically:
 Example 4 – Distinction between ∈ and
⊆
Which of the following are true statements?

a. 2 ∈ {1, 2, 3} b. ∈ {1, 2, c. 2 ⊆ {1, 2, 3}

{2} 3}
d. ⊆ {1, 2, e. ⊆ {{1}, f. ∈ {{1}, {2}}
{2} {2} {2}
3} {2}}

Solution:
Only (a), (d), and (f) are true.

For (b) to be true, the set {1, 2, 3} would have to contain the
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element {2}. But the only elements of {1, 2, 3} are 1, 2, and 3,
and 2 is not equal to {2}. Hence (b) is false.

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 Example 4 – Solution cont’d

For (c) to be true, the number 2 would have to be a set and every
element in the set 2 would have to be an element of
{1, 2, 3}. This is not the case, so (c) is false.

For (e) to be true, every element in the set containing only the
number 2 would have to be an element of the set whose elements
are {1} and {2}. But 2 is not equal to either
{1} or {2}, and so (e) is false.

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Cartesian Products

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Example 5 – Ordered Pairs
a. Is (1, 2) = (2, 1)?

b. Is ?

c. What is the first element of (1, 1)?

Solution:
a. No. By definition of equality of ordered pairs,
(1, 2) = (2,1) if, and only if, 1 = 2 and 2 = 1.
But 1  2, and so the ordered pairs are not equal.

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 Example 5 – Solution cont’d

b. Yes. By definition of equality of ordered pairs,

if, and only if, and

Because these equations are both true, the ordered pairs are
equal.

c. In the ordered pair (1, 1), the first and the second
elements are both 1.

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Cartesian Products

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Example 6 – Cartesian Products
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v}.
a. Find A × B

b. Find B × A

c. Find B × B

d. How many elements are in A × B, B × A, and B × B?

e. Let R denote the set of all real numbers. Describe R × R.

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 Example 6 – Solution

a. A × B = {(1, u), (2, u), (3, u), (1, v), (2, v), (3, v)}

b. B × A = {(u, 1), (u, 2), (u, 3), (v, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3)}

c. B × B = {(u, u), (u, v), (v, u), (v, v)}

d. A × B has six elements. Note that this is the number of elements in

A times the number of elements in B.

B × A has six elements, the number of elements in B times the

number of elements in A. B × B has four elements, the number
of elements in B times the number

of elements in B.
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Example 6 – Solution cont’d

e. R × R is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) where both x

and y are real numbers.

If horizontal and vertical axes are drawn on a plane and a unit

length is marked off, then each ordered pair in

R × R corresponds to a unique point in the plane, with the
first and second elements of the pair indicating, respectively,
the horizontal and vertical positions of the point.

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The term Cartesian plane is often used to refer to a plane with
this coordinate system, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.1.

A Cartesian Plane
Figure 1.2.1