Code

 &  Conventions  
 

 
 CONTENTS
Page 2 Contents
Page 3 From the study design
Page 4 Code & Conventions – Moving Image
Page 5 Code & Conventions - Print
Page 6 Code & Conventions - Advertising
Page 7 Code & Conventions – Narrative: Story telling
Page 8 Media Codes - List
Page 9 Media Conventions - List
Page 10 Media Codes - Heading
Page 11 & 12 Camera
Page 13 & 14 Acting
Page 15 Setting
Page 16 Mise-En-Scene
Page 17 Editing
Page 18 Lighting
Page 19 & 20 Sound
Page 21 Special Effects
Page 22 Typography
Page 23 & 24 Colour
Page 25 Visual Composition
Page 26 Text and Graphics
Page 27 Media Conventions Heading
Page 28 Story Principles
Page 29 Opening, Development, Closure
Page 30 Form and Structure
Page 31 & 32 Character – Character & Ideology
Page 33 Story Arc
Page 34 Cause & Effect
Page 35 Point Of View
Page 36 The Structuring Of Time
Page 37 Elements Of Page Layout
Page 38 Paper stock for print
Page 39 Titles & Credits Sequence
Page 40 Hyperlinking & Mounting
Page 41 Framing of images

  2  
 FROM THE STUDY DESIGN

Media Codes
Technical, written and symbolic tools used to
construct or suggest meaning in media forms
and products. Media codes include the use of
camera, acting, setting, mise en scene,
editing, lighting, sound, special effects,
typography, colour, visual composition, text
and graphics.

Media Conventions
Rules or generally accepted ways of
constructing form and informing meaning in
media products including story principles,
form and structure, generic structures,
character and story arcs, cause and effect,
point of view, the structuring of time, elements
of page layout, paper stock for print, titles and
credits sequences, hyperlinking and mounting
and framing of images.

  3  
 Code & Conventions of
Moving Image

Visual elements
Costume, camera angle and or position,
framing, lighting, location, setting, visual
composition

Audio elements
Music, sound effects, dialogue, jingles,
catch phrases

Technical elements
Acting, lighting, editing, colour grading

Written elements
Adjectives, headlines, subtitles

  4  
 Code & Conventions to
Print

• Layout – White space / Negative space

• Colour
• Images - Size & Position
• Text - Typography
• Composition & Layout
• Paper stock
• Framing
• Distribution
• Readership

  5  
 Code Conventions of
Advertising
Symbolic Codes
Mise En Scene, props, settings, costumes and
colors. These codes help symbolize the meaning of
something, for example if you see a very well
dressed man in an elite sports car in an exotic
location the audience would automatically think
that he is successful and link the product with
success.

Written Codes
Headlines, captions, speech bubbles, language
style

Technical Codes
Camera techniques, framing, depth of field,
lighting, exposure, sound and editing. These codes
include camera angles, shots, lighting, editing and
sound. Camera, position, angles and shots are can
be used to show different perspectives. The lighting
can be used to create an atmosphere and/or
mood. Sound can be used for dialogue, as a voice
over to speak about the product is or music also to
create mood

 
 

  6  
 Code Conventions of
Storytelling
 
• Opening Development & Closure
• Multiple Storylines
• Narrative Possibilities
• Character Development
• Cause & Effect
• Setting
• Structuring of Time
• Point Of View

 
 

  7  
 MEDIA  CODES  
 
Camera
Acting
Setting
Mise En Scene
Editing
Lighting
Sound
Special effects
Typography
Colour
Visual composition
Text and graphics

  8  
 MEDIA  CONVENTIONS  
 
Story principles
Form and structure
Generic structures
Character and Story Arcs
Cause and effect
Point of view
The Structuring of Time
Elements of page layout
Paper stock for print
Titles and Credits Sequences
Hyperlinking and Mounting
Framing of Images
 
 
 
  9  
  
 
MEDIA  CODES  
 

 
Media codes are the physical elements that the audience
experiences, which bring the narrative conventions to the media
form.

  10  
 CAMERA

Camera- Techniques & qualities including shot selection,

movement & focus.

The way the camera moves, pans, the angle and the framing helps tell the story. It can provide an
insight to the characters and their lives, place importance on or emphasise certain objects, events and
actions, help set the mood of a scene and/or provide a point of view.

ANGLE
The angle of the camera is the angle from which the image is viewed. The straight on angle is the most
common. The camera angle can have a major impact of how the audience will perceive a character,
object or place. The high angle positions the audience looking down and the low angle positions the
audience looking up. Low camera angles will often emphasise height or power, making a character look
large and domineering. A high angle will often make character or object appear small and vulnerable.

Camera angles can also identify a character’s point of view (not to be confused with point of view from
which the narrative is presented) by taking a position that corresponds to that which we imagine that
the character’s sight line would occupy. We see what the character would be seeing. This can be very
effective in enhancing audience identification with character’s experiences.
MOVEMENT
How the camera moves will reveal information the audience. Panning from left to right or vice versa can
be used to follow action, an actor’s sight line or reveal something of significance to the audience. The
speed of the pan can have a dramatic effect, fast (zip pan); to indicate quick paced action while slow
can indicate the opposite. Panning the camera can also be used for point of view of a character as it
can imitate the movement of the spectator’s eye as they survey the scene around them. If the camera is
mounted on a crane the audience is able to zoom in at odd angles to gain a better look at characters,
objects or places. They will feel as if they have a bird’s eye or intimate view of the action. Also if the
camera is on tracks or dolly it is able to follow the action and further engage the audience by enabling
them to move with the characters and the action.
DISTANCE/PLACEMENT
The distance of the camera in the scene will dictate to the audience how involved they will become
with the characters or settings. In general the closer the camera is to the subject the more importance
and attention that the subject is given. For example in a romantic scene the most logical place for the
camera is close to the lovers so that the audience can experience the intimacy of the moment. If it was
presented only in a long shot the audience would be distanced and wonder why it was shot in this
manner. The height and the distance of the camera from the subject can also have an effect on the
meaning of a shot.
SHOT SELECTION
Extreme close-up – can be described as a very tight shot. It is a very dramatic shot that can be used to
draw attention to fine detail or places importance to the detail it captures.
Close-up – a close-up is not as tight as an extreme close-up but there is still very little background shown
in the shot.
Medium shot – more than one object or subject can be show in a medium shot. Actors are captured
from the waist up and this shot is commonly used when there are two actors in the shot.
Medium long shot – in this shot the subject in the foreground is equally balanced with the background.
Long shot – this allows the subject to still be prominent although the background dominates the scene.
HEIGHT
The height of the camera can give the audience a varied perspective. This is not referring to angle, for
the angle in this type of shot is usually straight on.
LENS/FOCUS
Alterations in focus can have a signifying effect. Most films use a deep depth of field in which both the
foreground and backgrounds are in sharp focus. Hard focus invokes a very real and sharp image while
soft focus provides a dreamlike or romantic effect. This could be used for close ups or big close ups to
provide a more flattering image of the actor. It will also suggest romance and mystery to the audience.

  11  
  
 
 
 

  12  
 ACTING
Acting is the most obvious production element to observe and analyse when
watching a moving image. An actor’s performance in a film consists of visual
elements (appearance, gestures, facial expression) and sound (voice and
effects). The character the actor creates is essential to the narrative of the
film.

Acting can be broken up into the following discussion points:

• Body language
• Tone of voice / Accent / Pace of speech
• Facial expression
• Any distinctive common movement by the character
• Stance / Walk / Movement

It is important to note that Character & Acting are two different

elements when looking at narrative. The actor or actress is playing a
character.

When analysing narrative for media it is crucial you write the Actor or
Actress’s real name. For example, ‘Clint Eastwood’ not Dirty Harry.

Films may contain a wide variety of acting styles. In a stylised film a realistic
performance would seem out of place in the film’s context and vice versa. If
the actor looks and behaves in a way that is expected to their character’s
function in the film then the actor has given a good performance whether or
not they have behaved as a real person.

An actor’s performance can be analysed by the manner in which they use

their voice, body and face. Other factors to consider are the reasons they
may have been cast, attributes like physical appearance, acting skill and
reputation can all play a role in this. When discussing an actor’s performance
it is important to make reference to correct acting terminology.

Casting is important in a film. The use of a star can have an influence on

audience expectation. Stars are often watched for their own sake rather than
for their representation of a scripted character. However there are actors
who are stars but their trademark is a strong ability in characterisation. Previous
roles/experience may also have an influence on why an actor is cast in a film.
The physical appearance of the actor is also a significant aspect of acting,
whether the actor is physically suitable in the role is just as essential as their
acting ability. Is their voice, face or body suitable for the role? What is their
prior work and does this have an influence on their casting? Are they
renowned for playing particular types of characters?

  13  
 Acting Terms
Style
Acting can be broken into three main styles:
Classical
Naturalistic
Stylised
 
Contemporary films employ naturalistic acting that is far more subtle and
realistic. This style appears natural and doesn’t draw attention to itself. This is
often referred to as Method acting where actors try to create in themselves
the thoughts and emotions of their characters in an effort to develop lifelike
performances.

Stylised acting is when an actor deliberately exaggerates their acting style.

They are not performing in a way that is natural.

Performance - Use of Voice

• Volume – loud/soft
Loud – Forceful, overbearing, shrill
Soft - gentle, quiet, faint, muted, low, hushed

• Speed fast/slow –
Slow - lingers on certain words, spoke in a careful/deliberate manner
Fast - spoke in a rushed/manic manner

• Tone of voice
Disturbing, chilling, intimidating, shaky, agitated, shrill, condescending, Calm,
unruffled, serene, composed, self-assured, relaxed, refined
Meek, childish, shy, whiny, emotional
Collected, self-possessed, cool, calm and collected, self-possessed, relaxed,
sympathetic

• Use of Facial expressions

Gentle, eyes, evil eyes, wide eyed, sullen mouth, aggravated expression,
grimace, wide smile, pained

• Use of Gestures/Body language/mannerisms

Casual, tense, agitated, anxious, calm, cool, fidgeted, robotic, rigid, straight,
slumped, relaxed

 
 
 
 

  14  
 SETTING

The time (time period) and place in which the film's story occurs,
including all of the other additional factors, including climate (season),
landscape, people, social structures and economic factors, customs,
moral attitudes, and codes of behaviour.

Setting is a vital part of the story telling within the narrative. It provides
answers and understanding to the audience. How a Director reveals
the setting is crucial when discussing this story element. For example; Is
there a train station on screen revealing the name of the city. Or does
the Director choose to shoot the opening scene in a bustling, cold,
windy, Manhattan city street in peak hour. Providing evidence to the
audience that this film text will be set in New York in Winter.

The media language to include when discussing setting are as follows:

• Time period
• Location
• Climate / Season
• Landscape / City / Country / Sea / Land / Desert
• Culture / People
• Social and Economical status
• Moral attitudes or codes of behaviour
 

  15  
 MISE-EN-SCENE
Mise En Scene refers to the composition of everything visually within the
physical boundaries of the shot / frame. The way in which figures and
elements are moved around within a frame can provide many effects.
Mise-en-scène also includes the positioning and movement of actors on the
set, which is called blocking. Mise En scene can also be described as a look or
style of a film (for example gothic), a mood or atmosphere in a whole film or
an individual scene (for example a threatening feeling).

Mise en scene refers to the visual elements in a frame including:

Set design
The look and the feel of the set can help establish audience expectations
about the film. Set design is the setting of a scene, the objects (props) and the
decor. Props are often to use to provide clues to the audience about
characters and storylines. Sometimes props reappear from scene to scene
reminding the audience of it significance. Sometimes these props can
become motifs in the narrative.
Set design can be used to amplify character emotion or the dominant
mood of a film, or to establish aspects of the character.

Lighting
The intensity, direction, and quality of lighting have a major effect on the
way an image is perceived, including mood, time of day or night, season
or atmosphere.

Space & Shot Selection

The representation of space affects the reading of a film. When a
character fills a frame the audience can usually be assured that they are
a major character central or important to the narrative. Equal space
given to two actors within a frame would indicate equal importance in
the scene to these characters. Cramming the frame can have a
claustrophobic effect

Costume & Make-Up

Costume simply refers to the clothes that characters wear. Using certain colors
or designs, costumes in narrative cinema is used to signify characters or to
make clear distinctions between characters. Costume often gives important
information about characters, including their background, profession,
attitudes, personalities, their state of mind or their role in the narrative. For
example black or dark clothing often suggest evil (antagonist) while white or
light clothing suggests goodness (protagonist). Change in costume can
represent an evolution of a character.
 
 

  16  
 EDITING

Editing creates the illusion that a film is unfolding naturally, without the
intervention of the film-maker. Good editing is invisible with seamless
connecting shots that create the illusion of continuity of time and space.
There are numerous editing techniques:

Cut – where one shot is cut to the next. Sudden cuts can produce surprise,
horror, and disruption.
Fade - where the image disappears into black and generally represents a brief
lapse of time
Dissolve - where a fade coincides with the gradual superimposition of a new
image and generally represents a longer lapse of time
Wipe - where one image replaces another proceeded by a divisional line
moving across the screen
The fade, dissolve and wipe can be used to indicate the passing or expansion
of time. The longer the edit techniques are can indicate more or less time
passed.
Shot-reverse shot – is used to represent a conversation. The characters speak
to each other appearing on opposite sides of successive frames, each looking
in the direction of the other. This is shot over a continuous sound track and
edited together.
Graphic match – shots are edited together in relation to how they visually
correspond with each other. Visual relationships are significant but
visual/aural relationships in editing are also very important this includes the
overlapping sound from one shot to the next with an image depicting the
dialogue spoken.
Crosscutting – is cutting back and forth between scenes linking stories or
events together or indicating events happening simultaneously.
Timing - can be used to enhance the energy of the action, or to slow it down.
Action sequences can take on greater drama if cuts occur within moments of
high action. For example if a car is about to crash, the viewer may see several
successive and separate views of the same moment. A cut in a moment of
relative steadiness can slow down action. A character deep in thought may
be shot from several positions in order to expand the moment and instill
significance into it.
Rhythm of editing is important. Many films have a rhythm throughout their
duration. The pacing and rhythm of the editing can dramatically affect single
scenes. Editing can increase or decrease the pace of the film. Quick edits is
editing brief shots together before cutting to the next shot while slow edits
allow shots to continue for a long time before the cut to the next shot.
The filmmaker may choose to construct a steady rhythm by making all the
shots approximately the same length. An accelerating rhythm may arise from
successively shorter shots; a spasmodic, irregular rhythm may be produced by
a combination of shots of widely different lengths.
 

  17  
 LIGHTING
Lighting can define the space within a frame, separate foreground from
background, create textures, mold and shape, reveal or conceal. Lighting
can be expressive – setting a mood or a look in a film. An entire film can be
lit in an expressive way. Thrillers or Film Noir is often dark and gloomy with low
key lighting.
Features of lighting:
• Intensity
• Source
• Direction
• Colour

The colour of lighting can determine the mood of a scene. Red light can
emphasise danger or warmth; blue light can emphasise mystery or coolness.

The intensity is how bright the light and how much of it is directed on a specific
area, character or object. Low key lighting exploits shadows creating a sense
of threat or suggests romance, mystery or danger. For example if a face is
only partly lit with a shaft of light reflecting from the eye the effect is sinister.
High key is lighting that is bright and can suggest happiness or be reassuring to
audiences that all is well. Low key lighting is usually expressive while high key
lighting is realistic.

Lighting can be used to emphasise particular elements, objects characters or

actions within a frame. Framing with light can draw the audience’s attention
to one feature while obscuring others.

The texture of light refers to how hard or soft the light is. Hard light creates
clearly defined shadows and crisp textures and edges. Soft light creates
diffused illumination, blurs contours and gentler contrasts between light and
shade.

The direction of light can have an impact on a scene. For example back
lighting from behind an object or character creates a silhouette so the
audience can only see the outline of an object or character or under lighting
where the light is positioned below the object or character both these can
produce an ominous effect.

Three-point lighting
In standard three-point lighting there are three main positions for the lights:
• Key light – the hardest and brightest, focused to one side of subject
• Fill light – softer, more diffuse light that is placed to the other side
• Backlight – placed behind the subject
Day for night
A lighting technique that involves shooting in the daytime to make it look
like moon light night.

  18  
 SOUND

Sound falls into three categories:

Dialogue
Music
Sound effects

Sound is important in a film’s narrative; it can provide powerful emotional

accompaniment to a film’s high points; it enhances realism by reproducing
the sounds one would associate with the actions and events depicted visually,
draw attention to a particular aspect of a shot, enhances audience
expectations of what might occur and sound can be used as a transitional
device in editing with dialogue, music or sound effects carrying over from one
scene to the next.

In the moving image sound can come from only on of two sources. Either it
comes from inside the story or it is happening outside the story:
Diegetic sound – Sound from within the story is called diegetic sound because
it happens within the diegesis (the world of the story). This means that the
characters and the audience must be able to hear the sound. Usually the
audience can see the source of the sound. Diegetic sound comes from the
on-screen action that we observe and that the characters participate in.

Nondiegetic sound – does not emanate from the story space. This is sound that
is imported to the on-screen action. Non-diegetic sound may contribute to the
story or it may build atmosphere or enhance the emotional power of the
scene, but its source isn’t seen on screen. If the characters can’t hear it, it is
non-diegetic. Voice-overs and narration are non-diegetic sound.

MUSIC
Music in films is usually non-realistic and the audience rarely sees its source in
the frame. It is used to amplify the mood or atmosphere and conveys the
emotional significance of a scene. Reference can be made to its:
tempo/beat - how fast or slow the music is
style – classical, rock, jazz
volume – how loud or soft the music is or whether the volume changes. For
example when dramatic events occurs the volume of the music may increase.

Adjectives to describe music:

Gripping
Riveting
Thrilling
Suspenseful
Mesmerizing
Spellbinding
Enchanting

  19  
DIALOGUE
Through dialogue important information can be revealed about the storylines and/or
characters. Often a significant line of dialogue in the text can convey important
information about the narrative. It can provide a prediction of what may occur, help
identify themes and assist in establishing or explaining a characters motivations or
actions.

Narration
Conventionally the narrator of a film is usually the protagonist also audiences have
the tendency to believe that if a character narrates a film then the narrative is from
that character’s point of view.

SOUND EFFECTS
Sounds are added to improve the realism or impact of a scene or event.

FOLEY
Any kind of natural sound caused by movement or nature, which can be recorded in
a studio. Any other sounds of this nature EG; the sound of engine of a car, which can
not be recorded in a studio are called sound effects. These are also added to the
soundtrack.

SCORE
The musical component of a movie's soundtrack, usually composed specifically for
the film by a film composer; the background music in a film, usually specially
composed for the film; may be orchestral, synthesized, or performed by a small group
of musicians; also refers to the act of writing music for a film

Also particular soundtrack has the ability to convey the emotional significance of a
scene by helping the audience to identify with the character’s emotions. Music can
‘feel’ for the audience by indicating when a powerful moment is occurring.

Music can be used ironically by deliberately accompanying an image

inappropriately. For example a happy, upbeat song contrasted with a violent event
to make the violence seem more perverse.

  20  
 SPECIAL EFFECTS

Special effects (often abbreviated as SFX, SPFX, or simply FX) are illusions
or visual tricks used in the film, television, theatre, video
game and simulator industries to simulate the imagined events in
a story or virtual world.
Special effects are traditionally divided into the categories of optical
effects and mechanical effects. With the emergence of digital film-making
a distinction between special effects and visual effects has grown, with
the latter referring to digital post-production while "special effects"
referring to mechanical and optical effects.
Mechanical effects (also called practical or physical effects) are usually
accomplished during the live-action shooting. This includes the use of
mechanized props, scenery, scalemodels, animatronics, pyrotechnics and
atmospheric effects: creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds,
making a car appear to drive by itself and blowing up a building, etc.
Mechanical effects are also often incorporated into set design and
makeup. For example, a set may be built with break-away doors or walls
to enhance a fight scene, or prosthetic makeup can be used to make an
actor look like a non-human creature.
Optical effects (also called photographic effects) are techniques in which
images or film frames are created photographically, either "in-camera"
using multiple exposure, mattes or the Schüfftan process or in post-
production using an optical printer. An optical effect might be used to
place actors or sets against a different background.
Since the 1990s, computer-generated imagery (CGI) has come to the
forefront of special effects technologies. It gives filmmakers greater
control, and allows many effects to be accomplished more safely and
convincingly and—as technology improves—at lower costs. As a result,
many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been superseded
by CGI.

  21  
 TYPOGRAPHY

An important design convention of print is typographical style.

Typefaces communicate a variety of meaning for the audience.
Typography organises text and creates meaning. It does this through
hierarchy, the use of fonts to emphasise some content over others.
Hierarchy helps readers scan a document and understand the
relationship between different sections.

The best typography is aesthetically pleasing, invites readers into a

publication and encourages them to continue reading while not
drawing attention to it-self. (Nelson Media, Jo Flack)

It is important when exploring your concepts and ideas for your media
products that you investigate the typography selected by the creator
and understand what meaning you are receiving by the choice of
typeface.

Print production terms:

Serif: a slight projection or decorative flourish finishing of a
letter in certain typefaces.
Sans Serif: Typefaces without serifs.
Copy: The written material that will appear on your print
product.
Typesetting: The process of arranging and laying out copy.

  22  
 COLOUR

Colour has a huge impact psychologically on audience both in print

and the moving image. This media code is often referred to as the
explicit convention when reading any media publication or watching
a media text. Colour is often an element that a creator will rely on to
convey ideological meaning for the audience.

Colour grading as an editing technique has a psychological effect on

an audience’s reading of a narrative. By manipulating colour, the
creator suggests a preferred reading of the text. For example; Golden
tones of Westerns and Grey wash tones for colder environments and
large cities.

In film colour is used to set the tone of the scene before any of the
actors have even muttered a word of dialogue. Red denotes passion,
power, love and danger. Pink signifies femininity, innocence, and
beauty. Yellow is associated with joy, naivety, and insanity. Blue
symbolises isolation and calmness.

  23  
   24  
 VISUAL COMPOSITION

Visual composition specifically refers to the placement and

relationship of all the elements within the shot. For instance,
two characters within the same shot can be shown as being
distant in their relationship with each other if there is a large
space or object between them.

Alternatively two characters who are in close proximity can

be shown to the audience as being in a relationship. Likewise
a character can be represented as being powerful or
authoritarian if they are sitting at an office desk.

Hierarchy between characters and objects is used to

suggest various things. Some artists rely heavily on visual
composition to please the audience and ensure they
receive the hidden messages they intended.

The term composition means 'putting together' and can

apply to any work of art from music to writing to
photography that is arranged using conscious thought. In the
visual arts, composition is often used interchangeably with
various terms such as design, form, visual ordering, or formal
structure, depending on the context. In graphic design for
press and desktop publishing, composition is commonly
referred to as page layout.

  25  
 TEXT & GRAPHICS

Text and Graphics are essential for representation and

narrative understanding. Typefaces are selected to ensure
their typography is clean, consistent and easy to read.

We all know that an image is worth a thousand words.

Graphics make impact instantly. It is the creators job to
ensure that the appropriate images reinforce the
appropriate message to the audience.

The masthead, or title of your publication, is probably the

most distinctive and important element of your print
publications cover. Magazines and Print publications will
often experiment with font type, size and weight and space
between the letters until they end up with something that is
pleasing on the eye.

Things to discuss when referring to text and graphics:

• Styles
• Fonts
• Body Text
• Masthead
• Space
• Visual composition
• Colour
• Hierarchy

  26  
 MEDIA  
CONVENTIONS  
 

 
Narrative conventions are usually implied – that is, they
exist in the minds of the audience rather than being
explicitly seen in the narrative. They are how audience
both constructs and makes sense of the narrative.

  27  
 STORY PRINCIPLES

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STORY & PLOT

While the terms ‘story’ and ‘plot’ are often used interchangeably, it is
important to consider the differences between them.
• The story includes all the events of the narrative – those made
known to the audience, and those inferred but not
necessarily revealed.
• The plot comprises only those events in a narrative text that
are revealed to the audience, including any added non-
diegetic material such as special effects.
Nelson Media

MULTIPLE STORYLINES

Most narratives comprise multiple storylines or story arcs. These storylines

may run parallel to, comment on, or intersect with the main storyline.
They are designed to add depth and colour to the narrative by
complicating the lives of characters, adding to the range of narrative
possibilities, illustrating a moral dilemma, providing a false lead,
contrasting characters, situations or ideas or to provide relief to a
distressing point.

Concurrent storylines - where storylines run parallel to each other

Interrelated or interconnected storylines – where story lines intersect or impact
on each other

Events and conflicts in the story also motivate the storyline such as character
actions and motivations.

THEMES

A theme is a values statement that motivates or shapes a narrative. Themes

will often point to the ideology behind the text.

Creators will often use technical codes to convey the themes throughout the
narrative. These codes are employed to reinforce themes within the narrative
and help propel the plot. They also help the audience understand and
connect with the genre of the text.

MOTIFS: These reoccurring events, sayings, objects, sounds are connected to

themes and will be a good discussion point for all media students.

  28  
 OPENING, DEVELOPMENT, CLOSURE

The opening provides the audience with a basis of things to come; it

integrates them into the film. Causes of subsequent events, significant motifs,
and important features of the initial plot are all laid out in the opening. The
opening sets up a range of possibilities, raising the audience’s expectations
about what is to come.

Narrative possibilities and expectations are set up in the opening of a film and
throughout the narrative; information is revealed and expanded upon. The
audience expects a resolution usually at the end of a film so narrative
possibilities need to be established in the opening and developed during the
duration so that a conclusion can come to fruition at the end. Expectations
need to be established so as the story unfolds and events occur the audience
has an acceptance of what is occurring on screen and can make sense of
them.

Characters, situations and settings are often introduced so the audience

understands where, what and whom the narrative is about.

As the film progresses most narrative possibilities are developed and played
out and by the time a film reaches its conclusion, very few narrative
possibilities remain unresolved. The audience expects that the narrative
possibilities and expectations that were established in the opening sequence
and expanded on throughout the narrative will be resolved to some extent at
the end of the film.

The ending will resolve the influence of cause and effect – the hero wins, the
lovers are reunited, the bad guy is punished and everyone lives happily ever
after.

Not all films have this sense of finality. Some endings may be ambiguous or
open and the audience is left uncertain as to the nature of the final
consequences. This is a tactic played out by particular Directors. It could also
open up the idea of a sequel.
 
It is your job as the media student to ensure you discuss all three components
of this story element. Where students let themselves down is only analyzing
one or two parts to this element. Be mindful that each component has
important narrative structures to play out for the audience.

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 FORM AND STRUCTURE

The structure of the Hollwood three-act narrative structure (Opening,

Development & Resolution) is not always fixed. Regardless of how the narrative
is teased out, there are some essential elements that ensure the audience can
recognize and follow the action.

• STEP 1: Establish normal

• STEP 2: Disrupt normal
• STEP 3: Create turning points
• STEP 4: Develop the characters
• STEP 5: Restore normal

Audiences decode tests both logically and emotionally; both interact with
each other. One person may laugh, while the other may cry to a particular
scene. So regardless of the form and structure of the narrative, the
audience can decode the messages vastly different and is sometimes out
of the creator’s hands.

The most common narrative form is the linear narrative in which the
narrative runs chronologically. All the events occur in the order in which they
happen. For example: Orientation – Complication & Conflict – Resolution.

Another popular structure if the circular narrative, where the action begins
and ends at the same point or where plot points are repeated.

The structure of flashback or flash-forward is another structured technique

employed by creators to reveal the narrative to the audience. This is often
where the audience are presented with the resolution at the beginning of
the text and then have to join the dots as to what unfolds through a
sequence of flashbacks or flash-forwards.

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 CHARACTER

In narrative, a central character, known as the protagonist, will often drive

the action forward. This will create engagement for the audience and help
them understand the attitudes and behaviors of the leading characters. The
creator will often place the antagonist in the way of the protagonist and
prevent them from achieving their goals.

However, how these characters appear and how they are constructed and
reveal themselves is essential to keeping the audience engaged in the plot.
There are four aspects to the study of character:
• Establishment
• Development
• Motivation
• Relationships

Creators are well aware that audiences can make their mind up about
characters in an instant. Directors select from a rich palette of techniques to
establish each character. The opening of any narrative is critical in
audiences forming opinions about each character.

Code and conventions such as setting, costume and props provide clues to
the establishment of character. Dialogue, music and sound effects may also
build understanding. Occasionally we hear a character before we see
them. This narration or voice-over can help the audience frame an opinion
about the character via tone of voice and what the dialogue says.
Nelson Media, Flack

Directors position audiences to relate to characters. The creators will expect

the audience to have a pre-existing idea or feeling about each of their
characters. This could be a reason as to why the actor/actress is cast for the
role.
• How do they behave?
• What do they say?
• How do they appear?
• Why have they been included?
• How do they help propel the story?
• How does their relationship with other characters affect the narrative?
• What type of character are they how do they compare to or
compliment the others?

Character development involves the interrelationship between location,

story and characters. Character development and resolution are usually
based around motivation and or portrayal of relationships between
characters. This will often follow how audiences will like, dislike and then like
a character as the narrative progresses.

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Character & Ideology:

Character motivation is a good indicator of ideology. In mainstream texts,

the protagonist is often motivated by the need to restore order and set the
social values right, according to the society and its beliefs at the time the
text was produced and distributed. Their motivation will often reflect the
dominant ideology of the time and society.

Antagonist will often reflect the opposite belief and as a result the audience
will seek revenge against the character and want them to be punished for
their actions or have the character feel a sense of reflection for their
attitudes and behaviors. Unless in the resolution the character has a change
of heart and their evil turns to good.

Audiences can often predict character motivation, development and

resolution. Creators will do this in family orientated texts. Audiences of this
genre want happy endings and feel at peace with the conclusion of the
narrative.

Relationships between characters are constructed to develop the narrative,

building its sense of realism through dialogue and actions that represent
how audiences expect characters to react to the narrative triggers
introduced into the text.
Nelson Media, Flack

  32  
 STORY ARC

The difference between STORY and PLOT:

While the terms story and plot are often used interchangeably, it is
important to know the difference.
• The story includes all the events of the narrative – those made known
to the audience, and those inferred but not necessarily revealed.
• The plot comprises only those events in a narrative text that are
revealed to the audience, including any added non-diegetic
material such as special effects.

Parts of a story arc are;

• Exposition
• Conflict
• Rising action
• Climax
• Falling action
• Resolution

Story arc is the term used to describe the introduction, development and
resolution of a storyline that spans time throughout a text. The story arc will
vary depending on the genre or style of the narrative. For example most
romantic narratives will follow the story arc of – Success to Failure to
overcome Triumph to Victory.

Try and consider the story arc of your media production and the narrative
being conveyed to the audience. Consider how the arc helps the audience
engage with the narrative.

  33  
 CAUSE & EFFECT

Cause and effect equal change. For every action there is a reaction. Events
are motivated because there is a clear reason for the actions of the
characters and the events in the film.

The cause effect relationship assists in engaging audiences as they will

consider what happened previously in the narrative and then anticipate what
effect that moment or event will have later on in the narrative.

Sometimes there are twists in a narrative where events occur without the
audience expecting. At times a twist can be used to resolve a narrative or
make the audience rethink what has occurred in the film.

CAUSE & EFFECT STORYLINES:

• Human mishap
• Illness and disability
• The search for love
• The achievement of a sporting goal or entertainment goal
• The impact of crime
• Good verses evil
• Coming of age
• The popular verses the misfits

Usually the characters are instrumental in cause and effect. If the characters
didn’t desire something to be different from the way it is at the start of the film,
change wouldn’t occur. The narrative is centered around and driven by
character choices, decisions and traits. For example if one character had a
goal then they need to act in a way to achieve that goal and as a result of
this their actions affect other characters in the narrative. Characters can be
motivated by, love, greed, revenge, power, wealth, self preservation

In most narratives a counterforce is provided to create conflict so that the

protagonist can come up against a character whose goals are opposed to his
or hers. As a result the protagonist is usually the one who must seek to change
the situation so that they can achieve their ultimate goal, causing the plot to
alter.

At the end of most films the causes are resolved with a final effect/s and
equilibrium is restored. For example goals are achieved, the fates of the
characters are determined, romances are consummated, the mystery is
solved, conflicts are resolved the protagonist overcomes any obstacles facing
them.

  34  
 POINT OF VIEW
The term ‘point of view’ has two meanings; one applies to all narrative, the
other is specific to film, TV and photographic narratives:

• The first relates to story and refers to the point of view from which the
narrative is presented.
• The second is the production code and refers to a shot that is taken
from a character’s point of view. The shot is abbreviated to POV.

In most narratives, one character’s point of view is privileged over others.

More if often revealed to the audience through code and conventions such
as narration, flashbacks, POV shots and acting. This character will usually
have more on-screen time than the others.

Filmmakers can sometimes, manipulate point of view to add depth to the

narrative.

Creators of media product can use point of view to express their opinions
and values, constructing the narrative to reflect the ideology. Narratives
may demonstrate political or social commentary on the dominant ideology
of the time and place in which the media product was made and
distributed.

  35  
 THE STRUCTURING OF TIME
The order, duration and frequency of events are important in the narrative. It
can be examined for its expansion and contraction of time. Narratives are
often in linear (chronological) order as it makes the story easier to follow for
the audience. This however is not always the case. Some narratives are
nonlinear (non-chronological). They may begin at the end, as a flashback or
jump around in time. These may also present later events first; only towards
the end of the film does the audience discover that certain events came
earlier and caused the ones they have already seen.

The structuring of narrative time is made up of a combination of three events:

• Temporal order: The order in which the story is screened, which may
include chronological order, flashbacks and or flash forwards.
• Temporal duration: The manipulation of time from real time, the
foreshortening or expansion of time through editing the duration of
events on screen.
• Temporal frequency: The number of times an event or part of an event is
shown to an audience.

There are quite a number of techniques used for representing the

passing or manipulation of time.
Compression – the audience sees on the screen the seasons rapidly changing;
the calendar may be flicked over to show the passing of days, there may be a
fade, dissolve or wipe between scenes. All these things can indicate that time
has passed. The film may eliminate days or years of narrative action yet the
audience accepts condensation of the time into the length of the film.
Ellipsis – a long series of events is cut down to a few significant shots. For
example a character may have to train for an event over a month rather than
show every training session a few examples are show to represent the month’s
training.
Freeze frame – a still image appears on screen and a voice-over tells us
significant time has passed
Slow motion - time can be stretched (lengthened) giving emphasis to a scene
or event.
Fast motion – the pace can be increased to pick up the speed of a scene or
event
Flashbacks and flash-forwards – the film-maker can make the audience travel
in time, either to the past or future. This doesn’t confuse the audience because
they mentally rearrange the events into order to which they would have
logically occurred. Flashbacks are often shown in black and white footage.
Repeats – some shots are repeatedly shown to create coherence. The
audience can experience several times exciting bits again shown from
different camera viewpoints.
Parallel actions – the audience is able to experience what is going on in
different places at different times.

  36  
 ELEMENTS OF PAGE LAYOUT

Page layout is a design element of print that is highly considered before any
media print production is created and distributed. It is part of the pre-
production phase.

You wouldn’t consider any page layout decisions without understanding

what your audience expects to see on the page. Thinking about the
conventions that will make the layout easy to interpret and to ensure your
message is decoded the way you intended.

Page Layout Considerations:

• Space
• Hierarchy
• Images & Size
• Colour
• The use of White space / Negative space
• How much text and where the text resides
• Headlines and size of font
• Audience expectations
• Where the eye tracks across the page

HIERARCHY
When consideration is given to page layout the crucial elements that media
producers consider is hierarchy. The size of the elements on a printed page
often indicates their importance to readers. The heading and photographs
associated with the newspaper article are often the largest and most
dominant feature of the design, followed by subheadings, body text and
captions. Increasing the size or limiting the size of the image or text will
reveal the greater prominence to the audience. This all seems obvious to
the reader / audience but there are people in the Media industry who’s job
it is to consider this important page layout convention.

  37  
 PAPER STOCK FOR PRINT

Paper stock is often something the reader takes for granted when
purchasing or flicking through a printed media product. Paper stock can be
used as an effective tool to ensure the magazine is exclusive and a
marketing tool to increase the price of the product.

When looking at paper stock for print productions often these things will be
considered:

• Weight
• Thickness
• Colour
• Pattern
• Feel
• Matt / Glossy

Research into what readers anticipate and want when reading and
purchasing the print production is a factor into the paper stock selection.
For example, if low cost is a factor for the audience then selecting paper
stock that is cheaper in cost and easier to run through the print machine
then the producer will select that variety.

Magazines like, ‘Frankie’ take pride in the paper stock selection they use for
the print production. The magazine feels different and more exclusive than
its competitors. The paper stock was a huge factor when considering who
their audience is and what they want. The magazine itself feels different. The
paper is weighted, thicker, matt finish and has a rough patterned surface. A
reason for this would be so they reader does not throw this magazine out.
They often use this a coffee table book. This in turn will give the brand more
recognition. Doing this however, increasing the price of production, which
results in a more expensive final product.

Magazines such as, ‘New Idea, Women’s Day, People’ use very cheap,
glossy, thin paper. These magazines are distributed weekly and therefore
the producer knows that they are tossed out the moment the reader flicks
through them. Low cost is what their audience is expecting, therefore the
producer must use cheaper paper stock to ensure the final purchase price
for their reader is minimal.

  38  
 TITLES & CREDIT SEQUENCE

Most people that when it comes to Titles & Credits that this is an add on to
any moving image. They would be very wrong. When you consider the fact
that the first thing an audience is presented with is the Titles and Opening
sequence then the Producer and Director will know this is their moment to
capture their attention.

The title sequence is an important part of film and TV narratives. At the

conclusion of a title sequence, even a very short one, the audience knows
a great deal about the narrative. Some title sequences are extensive and
others can pack a punch by only keeping the sequence short.

The timing and duration of a title sequence can be as important as its

content.
Nelson Media – Jo Flack

Things to consider when thinking and discussing Title & Credit Sequence:

• Font choice
• Background selection (Colour or location – moving or still)
• Duration – Length of Opening sequence
• How much information you wish to give away to your audience
• Narrative possibilities
• Closure of the narrative or sequel possibilities

You want to analyse these elements and why they were considered for their
audience and the impact they had on them.

From the opening of the film text, ‘Catch me if you can’

  39  
 HYPERLINKING & MOUNTING

HYPERLINK = Embedded links within online text or images that allow the user
to branch away from the main narrative.

MOUNTING = Placing the media product on its final destination. Creating a

platform for the media product to be viewed by the audience.

Both these conventions are considered in the post-production phase of

production. They are a critical design and marketing element to any media
product. Different audiences will have expectations on what they want to
see and access when it comes to mounting and hyper-linking.

  40  
 FRAMING OF IMAGES

Framing is the process of which the final print production will be framed.
There are many effective techniques to framing a still image.

This section is where you need to visualise and plan how you will
present your images and where they would be exhibited. Some things
to consider:

• Location of exhibition (eg. inner city gallery, café etc.)

• Size of paper (A4, A5, A3, A1*)
• Border colour or borderless
• Mounting (mount card, foam core etc)
• Order of images
• Presentation style (all in a row, a grid, 3 by 3 square etc.)

  41