CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

A. Definition of Speaking

According to Brown, speaking is a productive skill that can

be directly and empirically observed, those observation are

invariably colored by the accuracy and effectiveness of a test-takers

listening skill, which necessarily compromises the reliability and

validity of an oral production test.1It means that when we speak

something it can be directly measured by listener. While according

to Nunan, in Emma Rosana, states that:

Speaking requires that learners not only know how to produce

specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or

vocabulary (“linguistic competence”), but also that they understand

when, why, and in what ways to produce language (“sociolinguistic

competence”).2

In speaking there are process to be utterance. It consists of

linguistic element involved speaking. First is phoneme, phoneme is a

1
H. Douglas Brown, Language assessment principle and classroom practice
(New York: Pearson Education, 2004), 140-141
2
Emma Rosana F.,”Teaching Speaking of English as A Foreign Language:
Problems and Solutions”, English Education Journal Lambung Mangkurat University.

10
11

small unit of language which has not meaning. It can be consonants

like p or b. Second is morpheme, morpheme is a unit of language it

can stand alone and has a meaning like hat, already, etc. Third is

phrase and clause, phrase is consists two or more words but do not

have subject or verb marked for tense. Clauses are two or more

words do contain a verb marked for tense. Fourth is utterance,

utterance is fully formed grammatical sentence. But these element

will be difficult for the leaners who use English as foreign language.

Especially learners in Indonesia, they will feel difficult if must to

speak by linguistic elements. This is corroborated by Kang Shumin

in Richard‟s book that speaking a language is especially difficult for

foreign language learners because effective oral communication

require the ability to use the language appropriately in social

interactions.3 Than they can speak by completely but it is not

perfect.

Other opinion, Martin said that “speaking is used in, suited to,

or involving speech”4 it means that speaking is a way for speaking

information to other people or to express or make know with the

voice. The mastery of speaking skill in English is priority for many

3
Jack C. Richard and Willy A. Renandya, Methodology in Language
Teaching (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 204.
4
Martin H Manser, Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary new edition, 171.
 12

second language or foreign-language learners.

B. Assessing Speaking

The component which must be assessed in speaking are accent,

grammar, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension.5

1. Accent

a. Pronunciation frequently unintelligible.

b. Frequent gross errors and very heavy accent make

understanding difficult, require frequent repetition.

c. „Foreign accent‟ requires concentrated listening, and

mispronunciation lead to occasional misunderstanding and

apparent errors in grammar or vocabulary.

d. Marked „Foreign accent‟ and occasional mispronunciations

which do not interfere with understanding.

e. No conspicuous mispronunciations, but would not be taken

for a native speaker.

f. Native pronunciation with no trace of „Foreign Accent‟.

2. Grammar

a. Almost entirely in accurate a phrases.

5
Jack C. Richard and Willy A. Renandya, Methodology in Language
Teaching, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 222.
13

b. Constant errors showing control of very few major patterns

and frequently preventing communication.

c. Frequent errors showing some major pattern uncontrolled

and causing occasional irritation and misunderstanding.

d. Occasional errors showing imperfect control of some

patterns but no weakness that causes misunderstanding.

e. Few errors, with no patterns of failure.

f. No more than two errors during the interview.

3. Vocabulary

a. Vocabulary inadequate for even the simplest conversation.

b. Vocabulary limited to basic personal and survival areas

(time, food, transportation, family, etc).

c. Choice of words sometime inaccurate, limitations of

vocabulary prevent discussion of some common

professional and social topics.

d. Professional vocabulary adequate to discuss special interests

general vocabulary permits discussion of any non-technical

subject with some circumlocutions.

 14

e. Professional vocabulary broad and precise general

vocabulary adequate to cope with complex practical

problems and varied social situations.

f. Vocabulary apparently as accurate and extensive as that of

an educated native speaker.

4. Fluency

a. Speech is so halting and fragmentary that conversation is

virtually impossible.

b. Speech is very slow and uneven except for short or routine

sentences.

c. Speech is frequently hesitant and jerky: sentences may be

left uncompleted.

d. Speech is occasionally hesitant. With some unevenness

caused by rephrasing and groping of word.

e. Speech is effortless and smooth, but perceptibly non-native

in speech and evenness.

f. Speech on all professional and general topics as effortless

and smooth as a native speaker‟s.

15

5. Comprehension6

a. Understand too little for the simplest type of conversation.

b. Understand only slow, very simple speech on common

social and touristic topics; requires constant repetition and

rephrasing.

c. Understand careful, somewhat simplified speech when

engaged in a dialogue, but may require considerable

repetition and rephrasing.

d. Understand quite well normal educated speech when

engaged in a dialogue. But requires occasional repetition

and rephrasing.

e. Understand everything in normal educated conversation

except for very colloquial or low; frequency items,

exceptionally rapid or slurred speech.

f. Understands everything in both formal and colloquial

speech to be expected of an educated native speaker.

The components which measure in this research are grammar,

vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. The rating sheet of

speaking test as the follow :

6
Arthur Hughes, Testing For Language Teachers, (New York: Cambridge
University Press,1989), 113.
 16

Table 2.1

Conversational English Proficiency Weighting Table

Proficiency
-> 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
Description

Accent 0 1 2 2 3 4

Grammar 6 12 18 24 30 36

vocabulary 4 8 12 16 20 24

Fluency 2 4 6 8 10 12

Comprehension 4 8 12 15 19 23

Total

Adapted from the FSI Proficiency Rating (as cited in Higgs &

Clifford, 1982).

To interpret the students score, the researcher identifies the total of the

students score based on level as follow :

Table 2.2

The Level of Students’ Speaking

Total Score Level

16 – 25 0+

26 – 32 1

33 – 42 1+
17

43 – 52 2

53 – 62 2+

63 – 72 3

73 – 82 3+

83 – 92 4

93 – 99 4+

C. Type of Speaking

There are five types of speaking as follows:7

1) Imitative

Imitative is the ability to imitate a word or phrase or a

sentence. This type is like parrot which imitate the

sounds. This used to assess the oral production and the

kind of it is phone pass test.

2) Intensive.

Intensive is the type of speaking that assessment the

context of production in competences grammatical,

phrasal, lexical and phonological. And the kind test of

this types is directed response tasks, sentence or

7
H Douglas Brown, Language Assessment Principle and Classroom Practice
(New York: Pearson Education, 2004).141-142.
 18

dialogue completion tasks and oral questioner and

picture cued tasks.

3) Responsive.

The responsive types is assessing tasks interactions, it

such as question and answer, paraphrasing, giving

instructions and directions, test of spoken English

(TSE).

4) Interactive.

This type is including the tasks that involve long

stretches of interactive discourse it such as interviews,

role play, discussion, games. And this type has long

duration but less interaction such as speeches, telling

longer stories, and extended explanation

5) Extensive.

Extensive speaking tasks involve complex and relative

stretches of discourse. The variations of this type on

monologues, it such as oral presentation, picture-cued

storytelling, retelling a story, new event and translation.

All the types above can be used in the classroom. However

researcher will only use extensive type because this type suitable
19

by the technique which the researcher used in this research.

D. Definition of PowerPoint Presentation.

Computer is one of teaching media that has been familiar to

students in this era, and teachers as the students‟ facilitator should

have known it better than their students to professionally provide

the teaching learning process that will achieve the aims of

teaching.

Teachers have been familiar with one of softwares in computer

especially in microsoft office called as Microsoft Power Point. This

software is specialized to help teacher presenting the presentations

with digital slides that is possibly added by words, sentences, texts,

pictures, audio, videos, and any others. The benefit of using digital

presentation is about managing time of teaching. Teachers

sometimes have problems with the limited time in delivering

materials to students, it is commonly caused by some teaching

steps that need tools as teaching aids such as; pictures, audio,

videos, long paragraphs, and so on.

PowerPoint is an educational tool for teaching and delivering

materials in classes. PowerPoint Presentation or lecture has the

power to reveal a talk‟s organization, to illuminate a speaker‟s

 20

points, to illustrate patterns and numbers, and to capture and hold

an audience‟s attention. PowerPoint‟s potential to increase

students‟ understanding is best exploited with slides that illustrate

or explain a point visually. 8

Power Point is a program which is specialized to facilitate

people in order to do the presentations. The presenters are able to

put or insert the files they would like to show such as; texts or

paragraphs, audio files, videos, or even some web‟s addresses to

easily conduct the presentation. For the present days, Power Point

is well-known as digital presentation.

E. Teaching Spoken Language

PowerPoint Presentation is also good for teaching spoken

Language, The students can be taught the art of public speaking

through slide presentations with power point projector. This will

offer them training in public speaking and expressing themselves

in English language 9. With PowerPoint Presentation can develop

their research skills, improve their creativity, and gain confidence

8
Linda Cronwell, “what the impact of power point lectures on learning?”
accessed on October 23 2017. From http://www.hagerstowncc.edu/docs/fletcher-
faculty-development-center/what-impact-powerpoint-lectures-learning
9
Emmanuel C. Sharndama1, Application of ICTs in Teaching and Learning
English (ELT) in Large Classes, (accessed on November 09,2017).37. From
http://www.theartsjournal.org
21

speaking in front of others. Using power-point presentations in the

classroom can improve the efficiency of English language teaching

and learning.

If PowerPoint is used in lectures, the best practice is to limit

the amount of information contained on each slide, and to consider

developing slides that use the assertion-evidence (A-E) approach to

the presentation of information10.

Presentation of PowerPoint: no more than 10 slides, no more

than 20 minutes, no less than 30-point font. For educational

purposes, the number of slides does not seem to matter, but amount

of content per slide does matter. found that the number of slides

used in college lectures did not affect teaching effectiveness.

However, slides containing no more than three bullet points and 20

or fewer words were more effective than slides with higher density.

F. The Benefits of using PowerPoint presentation.

Microsoft Power-Point is a presentation program developed by

Microsoft. It is a part of the Microsoft Office system which is

widely used by business people, educators, students, and trainers.

As a part of the Microsoft Office suite, Power-Point has become

10
Linda Cornwell, Best practices for using PowerPoint to teach, Fletcher
Faculty Development Center Hagerstown Community College 2014
 22

the world's most widely used presentation program. It is a complete

presentation program that allows teachers to produce professional-

looking presentations in EFL classroom.11 PowerPoint

presentations made the content more appealing, therefore, they

helped them to take students' attention. And so many benefit of

using PowerPoint Presentation are :

a. The PowerPoint captures the students attention and helps

keep them interested.

b. To help teacher get an easier way to deliver the materials to

their learners.

c. To managing time of teaching12.

d. The presentation is interesting because there are games of

color, letters and animation, either text animation or

animated images or photographs13.

e. To improve your presentation skills.

f. Create high-quality presentations with stunning graphics.

g. More stimulate children to know more information about

11
Fateme Samiei Lari / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 98
(2014), 1673
12
Ramdan Nugraha. USING DIGITIAL PRESENTATION IN TEACHING
SPEAKING. From https://scholar.google.com/citationszom%3D-420, (accessed on
April 09 2018)
13
University of Minnesota, Center for Teaching and Learning (2006). Active
Learning with PowerPoint. http://www1.umn.edu/ohr/teachlearn/tutorials
/powerpoint /index.html (accessed on April 09 2018)
23

the presented teaching materials.

h. It enables students to construct creative presentation for

their project and assignments.

i. The presentation itself can be enhanced by using graphics,

animation, sound, and interactivity.

j. Can be stored in optical or magnetic data. (CD / Disk /

Flashdisk), so it is practical to carry it everywhere.

G. The Disadvantages of Using PowerPoint.

There are several risky factors associated with the using of

PowerPoint, among others are:

a. Equipment failure

The component system sometimes does not work as

expected. The main failure in projector is rare but possible. The

solution here is to have alternative activities, for example good

preparation.

b. File Corruption14

This damage caused by magnetic or physical damage so

that the presentation will not run. To overcome this problem,

14
Peladinos. THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
TEACHING BY USING MICROSOFT POWERPOINT from :
https://penalido.wordpress.com/the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-teaching-by-
using-microsoft-powerpoint/
 24

CD (compact disk) which is unaffected by magnetic field can be

used.

c. Incompatible Media

Incompatible media means the incompatible the system

available. The best solution is to be aware of the systems to use

our own laptop.

d. The most common abuses

The most common abuses in PowerPoint use for

teaching and learning include visually poor or boring slide. Too

many texts on the slide do not support good reading text, other

abuses for example, inappropriate use of multimedia options,

for example too much animation or over use of slide transitions.

Further, many teachers do not have enough basic knowledge in

applying PowerPoint in teaching learning. In addition,

PowerPoint can‟t handle unexpected situations because

PowerPoint is unable to handle the students‟ questions

immediately as the teachers do.

e. Reinforce traditional teacher centred approaches (lecture)

f. Learners inactivity (slide SHOW)

g. Distracting (poorly designed slides)

25

h. Danger: Limit learners‟ understanding as they may only look

at the „key points‟ (reductive)15

i. Needs „compatible‟ hardware

j. Danger Too much information and too fast in presenting (no

learners‟ engagement with content)

k. Equipment failure

l. ess understands with the teaching process, only some students

could understand well. In the first cycle, the average score of

students‟ comprehension is (12.45). In the second cycle, the

average score of students‟ comprehension is (14.36). And the

third cycle, the average score of students‟ comprehension is

(18.63). It means students‟ comprehension was improved, the

students understand with the teaching process and the

materials they could do better their learning activities than

before.

15
Burnaby Kingsway, Facilitating using PowerPoint, Pedagogical criteria for
PowerPoint slides. From https://tell.colvee.org/mod/book/view.php?id=175&
chapterid =256 (accessed on 28 june 2018)