[SH – PR2 / Practical Research 2]

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[The Variables, Hypothesis and Assumptions]

The Variables, Hypothesis and Assumptions

You won't be able to do very much in research unless you know how to talk
about variables. A variable is any entity that can take on different values. OK,
so what does that mean? Anything that can vary can be considered a variable.
For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different
values for different people or for the same person at different times.
Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person's country
can be assigned a value.
(https://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/variable.php)
Every true experimental design must have this statement at the core of its
structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment.
The hypothesis is generated via a number of means, but is usually the result
of a process of inductive reasoning where observations lead to the formation
of a theory. Scientists then use a large battery of deductive methods to arrive
at a hypothesis that is testable, falsifiable and realistic.
During the process of writing your thesis or dissertation, you might suddenly
realize that your research has inherent flaws. Don’t worry! Virtually all
projects contain restrictions to your research. However, being able to
recognize and accurately describe these problems is the difference between a
true researcher and a grade-school kid with a science-fair project. Concerns
with truthful responding, access to participants, and survey instruments are
just a few of examples of restrictions on your research. In the following
sections, the differences among delimitations, limitations, and assumptions
of a dissertation will be clarified. (https://www.phdstudent.com/Choosing-a-
Research-Design/stating-the-obvious-writing-assumptions-limitations-and-
delimitations)
At the end of the topic the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the independent variable;
2. Discuss the dependent variable;
3. Discuss the intervening variable;
4. Discuss the moderate variable;
5. Discuss the control variable;
6. Discuss the manipulate variable;
7. Discuss the null hypothesis and the steps on how to write a hypothesis;
and
8. Discuss the importance of assumptions.

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The Independent and Dependent Variable
General Guidelines in Writing the Variables, Their Definitions and
Importance to the Study
1. Theories, concepts and ideas that will explain the meaning of every
variable are included.
2. The section provides for the related literature and studies for each of the
variables included in the research.
3. Related studies for each variable are also presented without discussion
on its parallelism to the present study.
4. The discussion also included how the variables were used in the present
research to explain its importance.
5. The variables are arranged based on its presentation in the model.
6. A minimum of two related literature and two related studies are required
for each variable.
Another important distinction having to do with the term 'variable' is the
distinction between an independent and dependent variable. This distinction
is particularly relevant when you are investigating cause-effect relationships.
It took me the longest time to learn this distinction. (Of course, I'm someone
who gets confused about the signs for 'arrivals' and 'departures' at airports --
do I go to arrivals because I'm arriving at the airport or does the person I'm
picking up go to arrivals because they're arriving on the plane!). I originally
thought that an independent variable was one that would be free to vary or
respond to some program or treatment, and that a dependent variable must
be one that depends on my efforts (that is, it's the treatment). But this is
entirely backwards! In fact the independent variable is what you (or nature)
manipulates -- a treatment or program or cause. The dependent variable is
what is affected by the independent variable -- your effects or outcomes. For
example, if you are studying the effects of a new educational program on
student achievement, the program is the independent variable and your
measures of achievement are the dependent ones.
The dependent variable is the variable a researcher is interested in. The
changes to the dependent variable are what the researcher is trying to
measure with all their fancy techniques. In our example, your dependent
variable is the person's ability to throw a ball. We're trying to measure the
change in ball throwing as influenced by hunger.
An independent variable is a variable believed to affect the dependent
variable. This is the variable that you, the researcher, will manipulate to see if
it makes the dependent variable change. In our example of hungry people
throwing a ball, our independent variable is how long it's been since they've
eaten.
To reiterate, the independent variable is the thing over which the researcher
has control and is manipulating. In this experiment, the researcher is
controlling the food intake of the participant. The dependent variable is
believed to be dependent on the independent variable.
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[The Variables, Hypothesis and Assumptions]

Your experiment's dependent variable is the ball throwing, which will

hopefully change due to the independent variable. So now, our scientific
sentence is, 'You are going to manipulate an independent variable to see
what happens to the dependent variable.'
(http://study.com/academy/lesson/research-variables-dependent-
independent-control-extraneous-moderator.html)

The Intervening Variables

Intervening variables are hypothetical internal states that are used to explain
relationships between observed variables, such independent and dependent
variables.
Intervening variables are not real things. They are interpretations of
observed facts, not facts themselves. But they create the illusion of being
facts.
Examples:
learning, memory, motivation, attitude, personality, traits, knowledge,
understanding, thinking, expectation, intelligence, intention.

The Moderate Variable

A mediator variable is the variable that causes mediation in the dependent
and the independent variables. In other words, it explains the relationship
between the dependent variable and the independent variable. The process
of complete mediation is defined as the complete intervention caused by the
mediator variable. This results in the initial variable no longer affecting the
outcome variable. The process of partial mediation is defined as the partial
intervention.
The mediation caused by the mediator variable is developed as a mediation
model. This model that develops due to the mediation is a causal model. In
other words, this means that the mediator variable has been assumed to
cause the affect in the outcome variable and not vice versa. In the field of
psychology, the mediator variable explains how the external physical events
affect the internal psychological significance.
The mediation caused by the variable cannot be defined statistically. On the
contrary, statistics can be utilized to assess an assumed meditational
model developed by the mediator variable.
Baron and Kenny have given steps for conducting meditational hypotheses. A
variable plays a role on the mediator variable under some specific conditions.
The conditions of being the mediator variable are as follows:

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 If the change in the level of the independent variable significantly accounts
for variation in the other variable, then the variable is considered a mediator
variable.
If the change in the other variable significantly accounts for the variation in
the dependent variable, then the other variable is considered a mediator
variable.
If the other variable strongly dominates the significant relationship between
the dependent and the independent variable, then the other variable is
termed as a mediator variable. In other words, if the relationship between
the dependent and the independent variable no longer exists and their
variations are controlled by some other variable, then that variable is termed
as the mediator variable.
In general, the mediation model examines the relationship between the
dependent variable and the independent variable, the relationship between
the independent variable and the mediator variable and the relationship
between the dependent variable and the mediator variable.
If the mediator variable is measured with less than perfect consistency, then
the effects caused are likely to be biased. In other words, the effect of the
mediator variable is likely to be underestimated and the effect of the
independent variable and the independent variable is likely to be
overestimated. This bias in the variation of the variable is generally due to
measurement error. An Instrumental variable is then used to solve this
problem of bias in the variability of the mediator variable. If this approach
does not work, then the researcher working on the mediator variable is
required to explain that since the reliability of the mediator variable is very
high, the bias caused is fairly minimal.
If the mediation caused by the mediator variable is perfect in nature, then the
independent variable and the mediator variable are correlated to each other.
This correlation between the mediator variable and the independent variable
is termed as collinearity. If the independent variable explains all the variation
caused by the mediator variable, there will not be any unique variation that
would explain the dependent variable, and this will thus result in
multicollinearity.
Multicollinearity is generally expected in the mediational analysis of the
mediator variable and the dependent and the independent variable, and
therefore it cannot be avoided by the researcher.
(http://www.statisticssolutions.com/mediator-variable/)

The Control Variable

The control variable (or scientific constant) in scientific experimentation is
the experimental element which is constant and unchanged throughout the
course of the investigation. The control variable strongly influences
experimental results, and it is held constant during the experiment in order
to test the relative relationship of the dependent and independent variables.
The control variable itself is not of primary interest to the experimenter.
A variable in an experiment which is held constant in order to assess the
relationship between two other variables, is the control variable. A control
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[The Variables, Hypothesis and Assumptions]

variable is the one element that is not changed throughout an experiment,

because its unchanging state allows the relationship between the other
variables being tested to be better understood.
Essentially, a control variable is what is kept the same throughout the
experiment, and it is not of primary concern in the experimental outcome.
Any change in a control variable in an experiment would invalidate the
correlation of dependent variables (DV) to the independent variable (IV),
thus skewing the results. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_variable)

The Manipulative Variable

It is easy to see how cause and effect work in the world around us. You've
probably noticed that if you knock a glass of water over, the water spills all
over the surrounding area. If you've forgotten to apply sunscreen and then
spent the day in the sun, you know how miserable you will feel later that
night! Scientists are always looking for new ideas to test and new ways to
explain phenomena they observe in the world around us. Often, it's easy to
see how changing something on purpose can cause an effect. For example,
you can place your fingers on your wrist to measure your heart rate and
observe that it increases as you go from relaxing to exercising.
Scientists make changes in experiments to see if those changes will cause an
effect in something they observe. The thing that is changed on purpose is
called the manipulated variable. Sometimes it is also called the independent
variable.
In an experiment, there are many variables for a scientist to keep track of.
A variable is anything that can change in an experiment. Some examples of
variables include the heart rate of a runner, how many bees visit a flower in a
day, the temperature of water in a fish tank, and how much yeast is added to
bread dough. The experimenter starts with a question to answer, such as
'Which kind of exercise is most effective at increasing heart rate?' After doing
some research, they make a prediction, called the hypothesis. In this case,
they might predict, 'If a person does jumping jacks, then their heart rate will
increase more than walking, jogging, or playing catch.' In this example the
manipulated variable is the type of exercise: jumping jacks, walking, jogging,
and playing catch.
Designing the manipulated variable is a critical part of the experiment.
Research is done in advance so that the scientist knows which values of the
manipulated variable to select and how much to change each one in the
experiment. It would not have made sense to use an activity such as fishing
or knitting in this case, because the participant would be seated and not
moving around. In other experiments, such as changing the concentration of
oxygen in a room where athletes are performing, research is critical because
oxygen is necessary for survival! The scientist would need to know what is a
safe range for oxygen to be for humans and then all values for the experiment
would need to be within that range.
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 Many times it makes sense to include a control. A control is something used
as a basis for comparison. In the exercise example, a control would be a
person just standing. The heart rate would be measured just to see if perhaps
other factors, such as extreme heat or cold, caused a heart rate change in
anyone in the area. In some experiments, the control is referred to as
a control group, such as an area in a garden where fertilizer was not applied.
This control group can be used to compare the results of changing the
manipulated variable.

The Null Hypothesis and the Steps How to Write a Hypothesis

General Guidelines in Writing the Hypothesis
1. The section should have an introductory statement
2. It should enlist the hypotheses in the research. Hypotheses are stated in
the null hypothesis.
There are five steps in hypothesis testing:
1. Making assumptions
2. Stating the research and null hypotheses and selecting (setting) alpha
3. Selecting the sampling distribution and specifying the test statistic
4. Computing the test statistic
5. Making a decision and interpreting the results
If you learn these five basic steps, it will help you greatly in hypothesis
testing. It gives you a procedure to follow, regardless of the particular
problem you are working with. (https://learn.bu.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-
826908-dt-content-rid-
2073693_1/courses/13sprgmetcj702_ol/week04/metcj702_W04S01T05_fiv
esteps.html)
Tips for Writing Hypotheses
When you state your hypotheses, be sure that the content of the hypothesis
matches the experimental procedure. What you write should be the best
estimation of the outcome of the lab procedure. Along with the hypothesis,
you should write several sentences which explain the scientific reasoning
that led you to that hypothesis.
(https://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/researchcourse/develop_write_introducti
on_hypothesis.html)

The Importance of Assumptions

Assumptions are things that are accepted as true, or at least plausible, by
researchers and peers who will read your dissertation or thesis. In other
words, any scholar reading your paper will assume that certain aspects of
your study is true given your population, statistical test, research design, or
other delimitations. For example, if you tell your friend that your favorite
restaurant is an Italian place, your friend will assume that you don’t go there
for the sushi. It’s assumed that you go there to eat Italian food. Because most
assumptions are not discussed in-text, assumptions that are discussed in-text
are discussed in the context of the limitations of your study, which is
typically in the discussion section. This is important, because both
assumptions and limitations affect the inferences you can draw from your
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[The Variables, Hypothesis and Assumptions]

study. One of the more common assumptions made in survey research is the
assumption of honesty and truthful responses.
However, for certain sensitive questions this assumption may be more
difficult to accept, in which case it would be described as a limitation of the
study. For example, asking people to report their criminal behavior in a
survey may not be as reliable as asking people to report their eating habits. It
is important to remember that your limitations and assumptions should not
contradict one another. For instance, if you state that generalizability is a
limitation of your study given that your sample was limited to one city in the
United States, then you should not claim generalizability to the United States
population as an assumption of your study. Statistical models in quantitative
research designs are accompanied with assumptions as well, some more
strict than others. These assumptions generally refer to the characteristics of
the data, such as distributions, correlational trends, and variable type, just to
name a few. Violating these assumptions can lead to drastically invalid
results, though this often depends on sample size and other considerations.

Course Module
Activities and Exercises
Activity Sheet 017
Directions: Explain briefly the following questions:
1. Discuss the following and give each at least two examples
1.1 Dependent Variable and Independent Variable
1.2 Intervening and moderate variable
1.3 Control and manipulative variable
2. Discuss on how to write the null hypothesis.

Rubric

Criteria 5points 3points 1point

Content The explanation is The explanation is The explanation is

correct and with seems lacking or inconsistent and
justification or the justification not based form the
example. and example has given definition
lacking. and the example is
not congruent.

Organization The organization The organization The organization

of thoughts and of thoughts and of thoughts and
ideas are excellent ideas are missing ideas are
inconsistent and
erratic
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[The Variables, Hypothesis and Assumptions]

Activity Sheet 018

Directions: Cite example for the following:
1. Null Hypothesis
2. Assumptions
Rubric

Criteria 5points 3points 1point

Content The explanation is The explanation is The explanation is

correct and with seems lacking or inconsistent and
justification or the justification not based form the
example. and example has given definition
lacking. and the example is
not congruent.

Organization The organization The organization The organization

of thoughts and of thoughts and of thoughts and
ideas are excellent ideas are missing ideas are
inconsistent and
erratic

Glossary
Dependent variable – a variable that can stand alone.
Hypothesis - an educated guess.
Independent variable – the opposite of dependent variable.

References
Baraceros, Esther L. (2017), Practical Research 2, Rex Book Store, Inc., First
Edition
Baraceros, Esther L. (2017), Practical Research 1, Rex Book Store, Inc., First
Edition
Sarno, Emerlita G. (2010), Tips and Techniques in Writing Research, Rex
Book Store, Inc.

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