PAVER

ASPHALT
DISTRESS
MANUAL

19980410 046
PAVEMENT DISTRESS
IDENTIFICATION GUIDE
FOR ASPHALT-SURFACED
ROADS AND PARKING LOTS

&m QÜA1Ä fife?EÖEEB £

US Army Corps
of Engineers
Construction Engineering
Research Laboratories

TR 97/104
June 1997
Foreword
This document is a revision and technical update of the original PAVER
Asphalt Distress Manual by M.Y. Shahin and S.D. Kohn (USACERL, June
1989). This update was prepared for the Directorate of Engineering, U.S.
Army Center for Public Works (USACPW) under Military Interdepartmental
Purchase Request (MIPR) E87950430, "Technical Support for Army
Transportation Infrastructure (PAVER)," dated September 1995. The
Technical Monitor was Ali A. Achmar, CECPW-ER.

The work was conducted by the Maintenance Management and Preservation

Division (FL-P) of the Facilities Technology Laboratory (FL), U.S. Army
Construction Engineering Research Laboratories (USACERL). The Princi-
pal Investigator was M.Y. Shahin, CECER-FL-P. Jeffrey A. Burkhalter is
acknowledged for his assistance in collecting new data, revising technical
content, and preparing the revised distress manual. Gordon L. Cohen,
Technical Information Team (CECER-TR-I), was publication designer and
technical editor. Dr. Simon S. Kim is Chief, CECER-FL-P, and Donald F.
Fournier is Acting Operations Chief, CECER-FL.

Dr. Michael J. O'Connor is the Director of USACERL.

This updated manual supersedes "PAVER Field Manual, Jointed Concrete/

Asphalt Surfaced Roads and Parking Lots," REV 6/89 (USACERL, June 1989).
 1— ■ r

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June 1997 Final
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS
PAVER Asphalt Distress Manual MIPR
E87950430

6. AUTHOR(S)
M. Y. Shahin

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION

REPORT NUMBER
U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories (USACERL)
P.O. Box 9005 TR 97/104
Champaign, IL 61826-9005

9. SPONSORING / MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORING / MONITORING

AGENCY REPORT NUMBER
Directorate of Engineering, U.S. Army Center for Public Works
ATTN: CECPW-ER
7701 Telegraph.Rd.
Alexandria, VA 22310-3862
11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Copies are available from the National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.

12a. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

This document is a revision and technical update of the original PAVER Asphalt Distress Manual published by the U.S.
Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories (USACERL) in June 1989. It comprises an illustrated asphalt
pavement distress manual suitable for use by pavement inspection personnel in the field or in pavement inspection training
courses. The manual defines distresses and measurement methods for inspecting the condition of asphalt-surfaced roads
and parking lots, and is intended for use in conjunction with the PAVER Engineered Management System (EMS). The
definitions and methods are keyed for use in determining a Pavement Condition Index (PCI), which is a central component
of the PAVER EMS.
A companion document addressing concrete-surfaced roads and parking lots, USACERL Technical Report 97/105, is also
available.

14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAGES

PAVER 48
asphalt 16. PRICE CODE
roads - maintenance and repair
17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 20. LIMITATION OF
OF REPORT OF THIS PAGE OF ABSTRACT ABSTRACT
Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified SAR
NSN 7540-01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89)
Prescribed by ANSI Std 239-18
298-102
Table of Contents

Foreword 4

Introduction 7

Objective and Scope of This Manual 7

Identifying and Counting Asphalt Pavement Distresses 7
Ride Quality Assessment 8

The Asphalt Pavement Distresses 9

Alligator Cracking (Fatigue) 10

Bleeding 12
Block Cracking 14
Bumps and Sags 16
Corrugation 18
Depression 20
Edge Cracking 22
Joint Reflection Cracking 24
Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off 26
Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking 28
Patching and Utility Cut Patching 30
Polished Aggregate 32
Potholes 34
Railroad Crossing 36
Rutting 38
Shoving 40
Slippage Cracking 42
Swell 44
Weathering and Raveling 46

References 48
Introduction
Objective and Scope of This Manual
This pavement distress manual is intended for use in conjunction with the
PAVER Engineered Management System (EMS). The manual defines
distresses and measurement methods for inspecting the condition of
asphalt-surfaced roads and parking lots. The definitions and methods are
keyed for use in determining a Pavement Condition Index (PCI), which is a
central component of the PAVER EMS.

This manual is specially designed for use in the field during pavement
inspections, but is also appropriate for use in pavement inspection training
courses. A reference list is provided on page 48 for readers who want more
detailed information about PAVER, determining the PCI for roads and
parking lots, and how to use it in pavement management.

Identifying and Counting Asphalt Pavement Distresses

New PAVER users often ask about identification and counting methods for
various distresses. Detailed answers to these questions are included for
each distress under the heading "How to Count." For the reader's conve-
nience, however, the most frequently raised issues are addressed below:

1. Alligator cracking. If alligator cracking and rutting occur in

the same area, each is recorded separately at its respective
severity level.

2. Bleeding with polished aggregate. If bleeding is counted,

polished aggregate is not counted in the same area.

3. Spalling. In PAVER, spalling is defined as the further break-

ing of asphalt or loss of materials around cracks or joints.

4. Crack severity. If a crack varies in severity along its entire

length, each portion showing an identifiable level should be
recorded individually. If the different severity levels cannot
easily be divided into distinct portions, the crack should be
rated at the highest severity level present.

5. Distresses within patches. Distresses (including cracking and

potholes) found in a patched area are not recorded separately.
The effect of the distress on the patch, however, is taken into
consideration when determining the severity level of the patch.
7
 6. Polished aggregate. A significant amount of polished aggre-
gate should be present before it is counted.

7. Raveling. A distress is said to be raveled if the area surround-

ing the distress is broken (sometimes to the extent that pieces
are missing).

The reader should note that the items above are general issues, and do not
stand alone as inspection criteria. To measure each distress type properly,
the inspector must be familiar with the individual distress criteria, which
are described and illustrated on the pages that follow.

Ride Quality Assessment

Ride quality must be assessed in order to establish a severity level for the
following distress types:

• Bumps • Shoving
• Corrugation • Swells
• Railroad crossings

To assess ride quality for these distresses, the inspector should use the
following severity-level definitions:

L Low. Vehicle vibrations (e.g., from corrugation) are noticeable, but

no reduction in speed is necessary for comfort or safety; and/or
individual bumps or settlements cause the vehicle to bounce
slightly, but create little discomfort.

M Medium. Vehicle vibrations are significant and some reduction in

speed is necessary for safety and comfort; and/or individual
bumps or settlements cause the vehicle to bounce significantly,
creating some discomfort.

H High. Vehicle vibrations are so excessive that speed must be

reduced considerably for safety and comfort; and/or individual
bumps or settlements cause the vehicle to bounce excessively,
creating substantial discomfort, safety hazard, or high potential
vehicle damage.

The inspector should drive at the posted speed in a sedan that is representa-
tive of cars typically seen in local traffic. Pavement sections near stop signs
should be rated at a deceleration speed appropriate for the intersection.
The Asphalt Pavement

The following pages describe and illustrate the 19 distresses defined in the
PAVER Engineered Management System (EMS) for asphalt-surfaced roads
and parking lots.

Each two-page spread is dedicated to a single type of asphalt distress. The

distresses are presented alphabetically and numbered. The pages of the
manual are tab-indexed for the user's convenience during inspections in the
field.
Alligator Cracking (Fatigue)

Description
Alligator or fatigue cracking is a series of interconnecting cracks caused by
fatigue failure of the asphalt concrete surface under repeated traffic
loading. Cracking begins at the bottom of the asphalt surface (or stabilized
base) where tensile stress and strain are highest under a wheel load. The
cracks propagate to the surface initially as a series of parallel longitudinal
cracks. After repeated traffic loading, the cracks connect, forming many
sided, sharp-angled pieces that develop a pattern resembling chicken wire
or the skin of an alligator. The pieces are generally less than 0.5m (1.5 ft)
on the longest side. Alligator cracking occurs only in areas subjected to
repeated traffic loading, such as wheel paths. (Pattern-type cracking that
occurs over an entire area not subjected to loading is called "block crack-
ing," which is not a load-associated distress.)

Severity Levels
L Fine, longitudinal hairline cracks running parallel to each other
with no, or only a few interconnecting cracks. The cracks are not
spalled (Figure 1a).

M Further development of light alligator cracks into a pattern or

network of cracks that may be lightly spalled (Figure 1b).

H Network or pattern cracking has progressed so that the pieces are

well defined and spalled at the edges. Some of the pieces may
rock under traffic (Figure 1c).

How to Measure
Alligator cracking is measured in square meters (feet) of surface area. The
major difficulty in measuring this type of distress is that two or three levels
of severity often exist within one distressed area. If these portions can be
easily distinguished from each other, they should be measured and re-
corded separately. However, if the different levels of severity cannot be
divided easily, the entire area should be rated at the highest severity
present. If alligator cracking and rutting occur in the same area, each is
recorded separately as its respective severity level.

10
 u.\

¥?>>■
[• ff- '''
Figure 1a. Low-Severity Alligator Cracking.

<^n
H'l

H msmMäSKß,

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F/gure 76. Medium-Severity Alligator Cracking.

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'i>iS

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F/gure 7c. High-Severity Alligator Cracking.

11
Bleeding

Description
Bleeding is a film of bituminous material on the pavement surface that
creates a shiny, glasslike, reflecting surface that usually becomes quite
sticky. Bleeding is caused by excessive amounts of asphaltic cement or tars
in the mix, excess application of a bituminous sealant, and/or low air void
content. It occurs when asphalt fills the voids of the mix during hot weather
and then expands onto the pavement surface. Since the bleeding process in
not reversible during cold weather, asphalt or tar will accumulate on the
surface.

Severity Levels
L Bleeding has only occurred to a very slight degree and is notice-
able only during a few days of the year. Asphalt does not stick to
shoes or vehicles (Figure 2a).

M Bleeding has occurred to the extent that asphalt sticks to shoes

and vehicles during only a few weeks of the year (Figure 2b).

H Bleeding has occurred extensively and considerable asphalt sticks

to shoes and vehicles during at least several weeks of the year
(Figure 2c).

How to Measure
Bleeding is measured in square meters (feet) of surface area. If bleeding is
counted, polished aggregate should not be counted.

12
 | Figure 2a. Low-
>Si||^^^^^Äf|f| 1 Severity Bleeding.
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*. *°-'^**<^^^^*M§MMS$£>
"i' -; v-^i^Mi^Sp

Figure 2b. Medium-

Severity Bleeding.

Figure 2c. High-Severity Bleeding.

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H
13
Block Cracking

Description
Block cracks are interconnected cracks that divide the pavement into
approximately rectangular pieces. The blocks may range in size from
approximately 0.3 by 0.3 m (1 by 1 ft) to 3 by 3 m (10 by 10 ft). Block
cracking is caused mainly by shrinkage of the asphalt concrete and daily
temperature cycling (which results in daily stress/strain cycling). It is not
load-associated. Block cracking usually indicates that the asphalt has
hardened significantly. Block cracking normally occurs over a large portion
of the pavement area, but sometimes will occur only in non-traffic areas.
This type of distress differs from alligator cracking in that alligator cracks
form smaller, many-sided pieces with sharp angles. Also, unlike block,
alligator cracks are caused by repeated traffic loadings, and are therefore
found only in traffic areas (i.e., wheel paths).

Severity Levels
L Blocks are defined by low-severity* cracks (Figure 3a).

M Blocks are defined by medium-severity* cracks (Figure 3b).

H Blocks are defined by high-severity* cracks (Figure 3c).

How to Measure
Block cracking is measured in square meters (feet) of surface area. It
usually occurs at one severity level in a given pavement section. However,
if areas of different severity levels can be easily distinguished from one
another, they should be measured and recorded separately.

*See definitions of longitudinal transverse cracking.

14
ß.-'- ', ; :
:V
|h!V
*S*'-V**ii'*
l'.-kiifc5° 'Ä^fcif®"^
i~Lj*
pf|ä| 8HS

^ '
mi
F/gure 3a. Low-Severity Block Cracking.

F/gure 3b. Medium-Severity Block Cracking.

Figure 3c. High-Severity Block Cracking.

15
 Bumps and Sags

Description
Bumps are small, localized, upward displacements of the pavement surface.
They are different from shoves in that shoves are caused by unstable
pavement. Bumps, on the other hand, can be caused by several factors,
including:

1. Buckling or bulging of underlying PCC slabs in AC overlay

over PCC pavement.

2. Frost heave (ice, lens growth).

3. Infiltration and buildup of material in a crack in combination

with traffic loading (sometimes called "tenting").

Sags are small, abrupt, downward displacements of the pavement surface.

If bumps appear in a pattern perpendicular to traffic flow and are spaced at
less than 3m (10 ft), the distress is called corrugation. Distortion and
displacement that occur over large areas of the pavement surface, causing
large and/or long dips in the pavement should be recorded as "swelling."

Severity Levels
L Bump or sag causes low-severity ride quality (Figure 4a).

M Bump or sag causes medium-severity ride quality (Figure 4b).

H Bump or sag causes high-severity ride quality (Figure 4c).

How to Measure
Bumps or sags are measured in linear meters (feet). If the bump occurs in
combination with a crack, the crack is also recorded.

16
 Figure 4a. Low-Severity Bumps and Sags.

j&A^ fcffe Ara^**» %.#

• ■*-'■' "■> *'■ ■'•■■ •■ ;* «lppkl™P#

y. ::r'j:r^;;;r' ■ . . ,.., _ ....... x'^*m>XMt
Figure 4b. Medium-Severity Bumps and Sags.

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Figure 4c. High-Severity Bumps and Sags,

17
Corrugation

Description
Corrugation (also known as "washboarding") is a series of closely spaced
ridges and valleys (ripples) occurring at fairly regular intervals, usually less
than 3m (10 ft) along the pavement. The ridges are perpendicular to the
traffic direction. This type of distress is usually caused by traffic action
combined with an unstable pavement surface or base.

Severity Levels
L Corrugation produces low-severity ride quality (Figure 5a).

M Corrugation produces medium-severity ride quality (Figure 5b).

H Corrugation produces high-severity ride quality (Figure 5c).

How to Measure
Corrugation is measured in square meters (feet) of surface area.

18
 Figure 5a. Low-Severity Corrugation.

1
F/gure 50. Medium-Severity Corrugation.

■ ^^v:«\B5?ffii£:.■,'.■;■'.■ 4'■■ '■ :-

F/gure 5c. High-Severity Corrugation.

19
Depression

Description
Depressions are localized pavement surface areas with elevations slightly
lower than those of the surrounding pavement. In many instances, light
depressions are not noticeable until after a rain, when ponding water
creates a "birdbath" area; on dry pavement, depressions can be spotted by
looking for stains caused by ponding water. Depressions are created by
settlement of the foundation soil or are a result of improper construction.
Depressions cause some roughness, and when deep enough or filled with
water, can cause hydroplaning.

Severity Levels
Maximum Depth of Depression

L 13 to 25 mm (1/2 to 1 in.) (Figure 6a).

M 25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 in.) (Figure 6b).

H more than 50 mm (2 in.) (Figure 6c).

How to Measure
Depressions are measured in square meters (feet) of surface area.

20
 Figure 6a. Low-Severity Depression.

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Figure 6b. Medium-Severity Depression.

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m

. _ -* _ - .■ _<._... *

Figure 6c. High-Severity Depression.

21
Edge Cracking

Description
Edge cracks are parallel to and usually within 0.3 to 0.5 m (1 to 1.5 ft) of
the outer edge of the pavement. This distress is accelerated by traffic
loading and can be caused by frost-weakened base or subgrade near the
edge of the pavement. The area between the crack and pavement edge is
classified as raveled if it is broken up (sometimes to the extent that pieces
are removed).

Severity Levels
L Low or medium cracking with no breakup or raveling (Figure 7a).

M Medium cracks with some breakup and raveling (Figure 7b).

H Considerable breakup or raveling along the edge (Figure 7c).

How to Measure
Edge cracking is measure in linear meters (feet).

22
 w
*

m
WmM.

Figure 7a. Low-Severity Edge Cracking.

Figure 7b. Medium-Severity Edge Cracking.

J****;'*
eiliü" ' '

* t

Figure 7c. High-Severity Edge Cracking.

23
 Joint Reflection Cracking
(From Longitudinal and Transverse PCC Slabs)

Description
This distress occurs only on asphalt-surfaced pavements that have been laid
over a PCC slab. It does not include reflection cracks from any other type
of base (i.e., cement- or lime-stabilized); these cracks are caused mainly by
thermal- or moisture-induced movement of the PCC slab beneath the AC
surface. This distress is not load-related; however, traffic loading may
cause a breakdown of the AC surface near the crack. If the pavement is
fragmented along a crack, the crack is said to be spalled. A knowledge of
slab dimension beneath the AC surface will help to identify these dis-
tresses.

Severity Levels
L One of the following conditions exists (Figure 8a): (1) Non-filled
crack width is less than 10mm (3/8 in.), or (2) filled crack of any
width (filler in satisfactory condition).

M One of the following conditions exists (Figure 8b): (1) Non-filled

crack width is greater than or equal to 10 mm (3/8 in.) and less
than 75 mm (3 in.); (2) non-filled crack less than or equal to 75
mm (3 in.) surrounded by light secondary cracking, or (3) filled
crack of any width surrounded by light secondary cracking.

H One of the following conditions exists (Figure 8c): (1) Any crack
filled or non-filled surrounded by medium or high severity second-
ary cracking; (2) non-filled cracks greater than 75 mm (3 in.), or (3)
A crack of any width where approximately 100 mm (4 in.) of
pavement around the crack are severely raveled or broken.

How to Measure
Joint reflection cracking is measured in linear meters (feet). The length and
severity level of each crack should be identified and recorded separately.
For example, a crack that is 15 m (50ft) long may have 3 m (10 ft) of high
severity cracks; these are all recorded separately. If a bump occurs at the
reflection crack, it is also recorded.

24
 !"-; "

Figure 8a. Low-Severity

Joint Reflection Cracking.
r

Figure 8b. Medium-Severity Joint

Reflection Cracking.

:.T#. ,'••>;

M^,

*-■ "'

Figure 8c. High-Severity Joint

Reflection Cracking.

25
Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off

Description
Lane/shoulder drop-off is a difference in elevation between the pavement
edge and the shoulder. This distress is caused by shoulder erosion, shoulder
settlement, or by building up the roadway without adjusting the shoulder
level.

Severity Levels
L The difference in elevation between the pavement edge and
shoulder is > 25 mm (1 in.) and < 50 mm (2 in.). (Figure 9a).

M The difference in elevation is > 50 mm (2 in.) and < 100 mm (4

in.). (Figure 9b).

H The difference in elevation is > 100 mm (4 in.). (Figure 9c).

How to Measure
Lane/shoulder drop-off is measured in linear meters (feet).

26
!E?~*4Äf fCi*5*^' • 'SvSSS HcB
m^iM ^.*>:>-»«Wif

f8"* *;V:,-''*V'•>■■•.
KBÜ
Figure 9a. Low-Severity Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off.

"SatSSs*5**-- ■*—"*—*—
,11?

F/gure 9b. Med/um-Sever/fy Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off.

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F/gure 9c. High-Severity Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off.

27
 Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking
(Non-PCC Slab Joint Reflective)
Description

Longitudinal cracks are parallel to the pavement's centerline or laydown

direction. They may be caused by:

1. A poorly constructed paving lane joint.

2. Shrinkage of the AC surface due to low temperatures or

hardening of the asphalt and/or daily temperature cycling.

3. A reflective crack caused by cracking beneath the surface

course, including cracks in PCC slabs (but not PCC joints).

Transverse cracks extend across the pavement at approximately right

angles to the pavement centerline or direction of laydown. These types of
cracks are not usually load-associated.

Severity Levels
L One of the following conditions exists (Figure 10a): (1) non-filled
crack width is less than 10 mm (3/8 in.), or (2) filled crack of any
width (filler in satisfactory condition).

M One of the following conditions exists (Figure 10b): (1) non-filled

crack width is greater than or equal to 10 mm and less than 75
mm (3/8 to 3 in.); (2) non-filled crack is less than or equal to 75
mm (3 in.) surrounded by light and random cracking, or (3) filled
crack is of any width surrounded by light random cracking.

H One of the following conditions exists (Figure 10c): (1) any crack
filled or non-filled surrounded by medium- or high-severity
random cracking, (2) non-filled crack greater than 75 mm
(3 in.), or (3) a crack of any width where approximately 100 mm
(4 in.) of pavement around the crack is severely broken.

How to Measure
Longitudinal and transverse cracks are measured in linear meters (feet)
The length and severity of each crack should be recorded If the crack
does not have the same severity level along its entire length, each portion of
the crack having a different severity level should be recorded separately

28 (
(
 IlllllilililllllliÄ

WSsmM

Low-Severity Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking.

Figure 10a.

10b. Medium-Severity Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking.

Figure

■.«pp.*

Sfi
'^JÜÄfc.

Figure 10c. High-Severity Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking.

29
 Patching and Utility Cut Patching

Description

A patch is an area of pavement that has been replaced with new material to
repair the existing pavement. A patch is considered a defect no matter how
well it is performing (a patched area or adjacent area usually does not
perform as well as an original pavement section). Generally, some rough-
ness is associated with this distress.

Severity Levels
L Patch is in good condition and satisfactory. Ride quality is rated as
low severity or better (Figure 11a).

M Patch is moderately deteriorated and/or ride quality is rated as

medium severity (Figure 11b).

H Patch is badly deteriorated and/or ride quality is rated as high

severity. Needs replacement soon (Figure 11c).

How to Measure

Patching ,s rated in square feet of surface area. However, if a single patch

has areas of differing severity, these areas should be measured and recorded
separately. For example, a 2.5 m2 (27.0 sq. ft) patch may have 1 m2 (11 0
sq. ft) of medium severity and 1.5 m2 (16.0 sq. ft) of low severity. These
areas would be recorded separately. Any distress found in a patched area
will not be recorded; however, its effect on the patch will be considered
when determining the patch's severity level. No other distresses (e g
shoving and cracking) are recorded within a patch; even if the patch"
material is shoving or cracking, the area is rated only as a patch. If a large
amount of pavement has been replaced, it should not be recorded as a
patch, but considered as new pavement (e.g., replacement of a completeF
intersection).

30
 Figure 11a. Low-Severity Patching and Utility Cut Patching.

Figure 11b. Medium-Severity Patching and Utility Cut Patching.

i-yfv" &.-j

Figure 11c. High-Severity Patching and Utility Cut Patching.

31
Polished Aggregate

Description
This distress is caused by repeated traffic applications. Polished aggregate
is present when close examination of a pavement reveals that the portion of
aggregate extending above the asphalt is either very small, or there are no
rough or angular aggregate particles to provide good skid resistance. When
the aggregate in the surface becomes smooth to the touch, adhesion with
vehicle tires is considerably reduced. When the portion of aggregate
extending above the surface is small, the pavement texture does not
significantly contribute to reducing vehicle speed. Polished aggregate
should be counted when close examination reveals that the aggregate
extending above the asphalt is negligible, and the surface aggregate is
smooth to the touch. This type of distress is indicated when the number on
a skid resistance test is low or has dropped significantly from a previous
rating.

Severity Levels
No degrees of severity are defined. However, the degree of polishing
should be clearly evident in the sample unit in that the aggregate surface
should be smooth to the touch. (Figure 12).

How to Measure
Polished aggregate is measured in square meters (feet) of surface area. If
bleeding is counted, polished aggregate should not be counted.

32
Figure 12. Polished Aggregate.

33
 Potholes

Description
Potholes are small—usually less than 750 mm (30 in.) in diameter—
bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface. They generally have
sharp edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole. When holes are
created by high-severity alligator cracking, they should be identified as
potholes, not as weathering.

Severity Levels
The levels of severity for potholes less than 750 mm (30 in.) in diameter
are based on both the diameter and the depth of the pothole, according to
Table 1.

Table 1. Levels of Severity for Potholes.

Average Diameter (mm)

(in.)

Maximum Depth of 100 to 200 mm 200 to 450 mm 450 to 750 mm

Pothole (4 to 8 in.) (8 to 18 in.) (18 to 30 in.)

13 to < 25 mm
L L M
(1/2 to 1 in.)

>25 and < 50 mm

L M H
(1 to 2 in.)

>50 mm
M M H
(2 in.)

If the pothole is more than 750 mm (30 in.) in diameter, the area should be
determined in square feet and divided by 0.5 m2 (5.5 sq ft) to find the
equivalent number of holes. If the depth is 25 mm (1 in.) or less, the holes
are considered medium severity. If the depth is more than 25 mm (1 in.),
they are considered high severity (Figures 13a through 13c).

How to Measure
Potholes are measured by counting the number that are low, medium, and
high severity and recording them separately.

34
 s£W

Figure 13a. Low-Severity Pothole.

Figure 13b. Medium-Severity Pothole.

Figure 13c. High-Severity Pothole.

35
Railroad Crossing

Description
Railroad crossing defects are depressions or bumps around and/or between
tracks.

Severity Levels
L Railroad crossing causes low-severity ride quality (Figure 14a).

M Railroad crossing causes medium-severity ride quality (Figure

14b).

H Railroad crossing causes high-severity ride quality (Figure 14c).

How to Measure
The area of the crossing is measured in square meters (feet) of surface area.
If the crossing does not affect ride quality, it should not be counted. Any
large bump created by the tracks should be counted as part of the crossing.

36
 Figure 14a. Low-Severity Railroad Crossing.

F/gure f 4/J. Medium-Severity Railroad Crossing.

Figure 14c. High-Severity Railroad Crossing.

37
Rutting

Description
A rut is a surface depression in the wheel paths. Pavement uplift may occur
along the sides of the rut, but, in many instances, ruts are noticeable only
after a rainfall when the paths are filled with water. Rutting stems from a
permanent deformation in any of the pavement layers or subgrades, usually
caused by consolidated or lateral movement of the materials due to traffic
load.

Severity Levels
Mean Rut Depth

L 6 to 13 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in.) (Figure 15a).

M >13 to 25 mm ( >1/2 to 1 in.) (Figure 15b).

H >25 mm (>1 in.) (Figure 15c).

How to Measure
Rutting is measured in square meters (feet) of surface area and its severity
is determined by the mean depth of the rut (see above). The mean rut depth
is calculated by laying a straight edge across the rut, measuring its depth,
then using measurements taken along the length of the rut to compute its
mean depth in millimeters.

38
r-.-':

B
&&1
F/gure 15a. Low-Severity Rutting.

amm
mm

*Ä
m !***

l-i?*1.-:

Figure 15b. Medium-Severity Rutting.

;4||f4|||

^SflMf
sill
F/gure 15c. High-Severity Rutting.

39
 Shoving

Description
Shoving is a permanent, longitudinal displacement of a localized area of
the pavement surface caused by traffic loading. When traffic pushes against
the pavement, it produces a short, abrupt wave in the pavement surface.
This distress normally occurs only in unstable liquid asphalt mix (cutback
or emulsion) pavements.

Shoves also occur where asphalt pavements abut PCC pavements; the PCC
pavements increase in length and push the asphalt pavement, causing the
shoving.

Severity Levels
L Shove causes low-severity ride quality (Figure 16a).

M Shove causes medium-severity ride quality (Figure 16b).

H Shove causes high-severity ride quality (Figure 16c).

How to Measure
Shoves are measured in square meters (feet) of surface area. Shoves
occurring in patches are considered in rating the patch, not as a separate
distress.

40
 Figure 16a. Low-Severity Shoving.

Figure 16b. Medium-Severity Shoving.

Figure 16c. High-Severity Shoving.

41
Slippage Cracking

Description
Slippage cracks are crescent or half-moon shaped cracks, usually transverse
to the direction of travel. They are produced when braking or turning
wheels cause the pavement surface to slide or deform. This distress usually
occurs in overlaps when there is a poor bond between the surface and the
next layer of the pavement structure.

Severity Level
L Average crack width is < 10 mm (3/8 in.) (Figure 17a).

M One of the following conditions exists (Figure 17b): (1) average

crack width is > 10 and < 40 mm (> 3/8 and < 1-1/2 in.); (2) the
area around the crack is moderately spalled and/or surrounded
with secondary cracks..

H One of the following conditions exists (Figure 17c): (1) the average
crack width is > 40 mm (1-1/2 in.), or (2) the area around the crack
is broken into easily removed pieces.

How to Measure
The area associated with a given slippage crack is measured in square
meters (feet) and rated according to the highest level of severity in the area.

42
m
1fr
Figure 17a. Low-Severity Slippage Cracking.

Figure 17b. Medium-Severity Slippage Cracking.

:-»i*i«i-j*»iÄps%

F/gure 77c. High-Severity Slippage Cracking.

43
Swell

Description
Swell is characterized by an upward bulge in the pavement's surface—a
long, gradual wave more than 3 m (10 ft) long (Figure 18). Swelling can be
accompanied by surface cracking. This distress is usually caused by frost
action in the subgrade or by swelling soil.

Severity Level
L Swell causes low-severity ride quality. Low-severity swells are not
always easy to see, but can be detected by driving at the speed
limit over the pavement section. An upward motion will occur at
the swell if it is present.

M Swell causes medium-severity ride quality.

H Swell causes high-severity ride quality.

How to Measure
The surface area of the swell is measured in square meters (feet).

44
Figure 18. Example Swell. Severity level
is based on ride quality criteria.

45
Weathering and Raveling

Description
Weathering and raveling are the wearing away of the pavement surface due
to a loss of asphalt or tar binder and dislodged aggregate particles. These
distresses indicate that either the asphalt binder has hardened appreciably
or that a poor-quality mixture is present. In addition, raveling may be
caused by certain types of traffic, e.g., tracked vehicles. Softening of the
surface and dislodging of the aggregates due to oil spillage are also in-
cluded under raveling.

Severity Levels
L Aggregate or binder has started to wear away. In some areas, the
surface is starting to pit (Figure 19a). In the case of oil spillage,
the oil stain can be seen, but the surface is hard and cannot be
penetrated with a coin.

M Aggregate or binder has worn away. The surface texture is

moderately rough and pitted (Figure 19b). In the case of oil
spillage, the surface is soft and can be penetrated with a coin.

H Aggregate or binder has been worn away considerably. The

surface texture is very rough and severely pitted. The pitted areas
are less than 10 mm (4 in.) in diameter and less than 13 mm (1/2
in.) deep (Figure 19c); pitted areas larger than this are counted as
potholes. In the case of oil spillage, the asphalt binder has lost its
binding effect and the aggregate has become loose.

How to Measure
Weathering and raveling are measured in square meters (feet) of surface
area.

46
 ■HI
m

if-/''*-L--'1' ■-«.;-f- :''•.';'■'■"■■■■'■ *-?'.', ;

&iK~>. .-if -fev-Vi.-- •.' '* ■'■:■-»•■ :

ÜV*'*' ■>-!-' '■; '•,'■ >: "'*v •: "" y.\

PS .-■■■■: i.: ''*5' «?-■■•*« "X '■ /
J
-•'::.t. .. ■

F/gure 19a. Low-Severity Weathering and Raveling.

ft
rj*
■'v'JW

STsr ■»■•■•* ..5; ,-fV

*! J-i
Is
fA X-:*Ä
3^^
F/gure f 9b. Medium-Severity Weathering and Raveling.

Figure 19c. High-Severity Weathering and Raveling.

47
References
Shahin, M.Y., and J.A. Walther, Pavement Maintenance Management
for Roads and Streets Using the PAVER System, Technical Report
(TR) M-90/05ADA227464 (U.S. Army Construction Engineering
Research Laboratory [USACERL], July 1990).

Shahin, M.Y., and S.D. Kohn, Pavement Maintenance Management

for Roads and Parking Lots. TR-M-294/ADA110296 (USACERL,
October 1981).

Technical Manual (TM) 5-623, Pavement Maintenance Management

(Headquarters, Department of the Army, 1982).

48